| glutathione-s-transferase activity of fucus spp. as a biomarker of environmental contamination. | coastal zones are important areas from both ecological and economical points of view. however, in the last decades, in several regions of the globe, they have been increasingly impacted by complex discharges of contaminants and by marine traffic accidents. the portuguese atlantic coast is particularly exposed to these contaminants due to the proximity of important navigation routes. several rocky shore organisms have been tested and used as bioindicators of environmental contamination. however, ... | 2004 | 15588640 |
| genetic entities and mating system in hermaphroditic fucus spiralis and its close dioecious relative f. vesiculosus (fucaceae, phaeophyceae). | to date, molecular markers have not settled the question of the specific status of the closely related, but phylogenetically unresolved, brown seaweeds, hermaphroditic fucus spiralis and dioecious fucus vesiculosus, nor their propensity for natural hybridization. to test the degree of species integrity and to assess effect of the mating system on the population genetic structure, 288 individuals coming from parapatric (discontinuous) and sympatric (contiguous) spatial configurations at two sites ... | 2005 | 15910325 |
| assessing a quick monitoring method using rocky intertidal communities as a bioindicator: a multivariate approach in algeciras bay. | a multivariate approach was used to test the value of intertidal communities as a bioindicator of environmental conditions at algeciras bay, southern spain. the study area is located in the strait of gibraltar and it is subjected to a variety of anthropic impacts. eight localities (5 inside and 3 outside the bay) were selected, and four transects were undertaken in each locality to characterise the fauna and flora. the spatial distribution of the intertidal species reflected the physico-chemical ... | 2006 | 16779601 |
| use of macroalgae stored in an environmental specimen bank for application of some european framework directives. | different european framework directives have established a series of objectives for conservation of the coast, and monitoring tools must be made available to test compliance with these aims. in the present study the use of macroalgae deposited in an environmental specimen bank was evaluated as a possible environmental tool for monitoring the coastal ecosystem. the concentrations of al, cd, co, cr, cu, fe, hg, mn, ni, pb, v and zn in three species of the genus fucus (fucus spiralis, fucus vesicul ... | 2010 | 19963235 |
| antifungal activity of phlorotannins against dermatophytes and yeasts: approaches to the mechanism of action and influence on candida albicans virulence factor. | in the last few decades, fungal infections, particularly nosocomial, increased all around the world. this increment stimulated the search for new antifungal agents, especially those derived from nature. among natural products, those from marine sources have gained prominence in the last years. purified phlorotannins extracts from three brown seaweeds (cystoseira nodicaulis (withering) m. roberts, cystoseira usneoides (linnaeus) m. roberts and fucus spiralis linnaeus) were screened for their anti ... | 2013 | 23951297 |
| seaweeds and plastic debris can influence the survival of faecal indicator organisms in beach environments. | the revised bathing water directive (rbwd) introduces more stringent standards for microbial water quality and promotes more pro-active management of the beach environment through the production of a bathing water profile (bwp). the aim of this study was to determine whether living seaweeds in the littoral zone are colonised by faecal indicator organisms (fios), and to quantify the survival dynamics of waterborne escherichia coli in microcosms containing senescing seaweeds. living seaweed (fucus ... | 2014 | 24878304 |
| antimicrobials from the marine algal endophyte penicillium sp. | an endophytic fungus identified as penicillium sp. was isolated from the brown alga fucus spiralis collected from the shetland islands, united kingdom. bioassay-guided fractionation of an extract of the fungus led to the isolation of cladosporin, epiepoformin, phyllostine, and patulin, all of which showed antimicrobial activity against either staphylococcus aureus or pseudomonas aeruginosa. cladosporin has not previously been identified from a fungus of the genus penicillium, and, despite being ... | 2013 | 23678814 |
| mariniblastus fucicola gen. nov., sp. nov. a novel planctomycete associated with macroalgae. | one strain of a novel genus of the planctomycetes, designated fc18t, was isolated from the epiphytic community of fucus spiralis. this strain was non-pigmented in medium m13 but was slightly pink pigmented on medium m14, containg four-fold levels of glucose, peptone and yeast extract than m13. the organism was primarily spherical, with unicellular non-motile forms and rosettes. the optimal temperature for growth was about 25 ºc and the optimal ph was 7.5. strain fc18t was chemoorganotrophic and ... | 2016 | 28036240 |
| can phlorotannins purified extracts constitute a novel pharmacological alternative for microbial infections with associated inflammatory conditions? | bacterial and fungal infections and the emerging multidrug resistance are driving interest in fighting these microorganisms with natural products, which have generally been considered complementary to pharmacological therapies. phlorotannins are polyphenols restricted to brown seaweeds, recognized for their biological capacity. this study represents the first research on the antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity of phlorotannins purified extracts, which were obtai ... | 2012 | 22319609 |
| evolution and diversification within the intertidal brown macroalgae fucus spiralis/f. vesiculosus species complex in the north atlantic. | we examined 733 individuals of fucusspiralis from 21 locations and 1093 fucusvesiculosus individuals from 37 locations throughout their northern hemisphere ranges using nuclear and mitochondrial markers. three genetic entities of f. spiralis were recovered. in northern and sympatric populations, the presence of "f. spiralis low" in the mid-intertidal and "f. spiralis high" in the high-intertidal was confirmed and both co-occurred with the sister species f. vesiculosus. the third and newly-discov ... | 2011 | 21111835 |
| epiphytic planctomycetes communities associated with three main groups of macroalgae. | planctomycetes, a unique group of widespread and understudied bacteria, are known to be associated with macroalgae. the temporal dynamics and the host-specific association of planctomycetal communities on fucus spiralis, ulva sp. and chondrus crispus from two locations in the north coast of portugal were assessed both by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis with group-specific primers and 16s rdna amplicon libraries. the epiphytic planctomycetal communities showed a significant association wi ... | 2017 | 28087803 |
| community composition of the planctomycetes associated with different macroalgae. | insights into the diversity of marine natural microbial biofilms, as for example those developing at the surface of marine macroalgae, can be obtained by using molecular techniques based on 16s rrna genes. we applied denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (dgge) with 16s rrna genes-specific primers for planctomycetes to compare the communities of these organisms developing on six different macroalgae (chondrus crispus, fucus spiralis, mastocarpus stellatus, porphyra dioica, sargassum muticum, a ... | 2014 | 24266389 |
| zinc concentrations in marine macroalgae and a lichen from western ireland in relation to phylogenetic grouping, habitat and morphology. | zinc concentrations in 19 species of marine macroalgae and a lichen from western ireland (spiddal, co. galway) were analysed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. algae were collected from a single site but occupied different shore levels and belonged to distinct phylogenetic groupings and to different (previously recognised) morphological groups. concentrations ranged from 15-115 microg g(-1) dry weight. the greatest variation in concentration occurred amongst the red algal species, containin ... | 2004 | 15111037 |
| antioxidant and cytoprotective activities of fucus spiralis seaweed on a human cell in vitro model. | antioxidants play an important role as reactive oxygen species (ros) chelating agents and, therefore, the screening for potent antioxidants from natural sources as potential protective agents is of great relevance. the main aim of this study was to obtain antioxidant-enriched fractions from the common seaweed fucus spiralis and evaluate their activity and efficiency in protecting human cells (mcf-7 cells) on an oxidative stress condition induced by h₂o₂. five fractions, f1-f5, were obtained by r ... | 2017 | 28146076 |
| angiotensin i-converting enzyme (ace) inhibitory activity of fucus spiralis macroalgae and influence of the extracts storage temperature-a short report. | recently, increasing attention has been paid to the marine algae as a natural source of novel angiotensin-i converting enzyme (ace) inhibitors, such as the phlorotannins that are the predominant polyphenols in brown algae. this study reports, for the first time, the ace inhibition of methanol extract/fractions from azorean brown algae fucus spiralis (fs) determined by hplc-uv method, their total phenolic content (tpc) quantified as phloroglucinol equivalents (pe) and the effect of the fs dry pow ... | 2016 | 27595387 |
| temporal windows of reproductive opportunity reinforce species barriers in a marine broadcast spawning assemblage. | prezygotic isolating mechanisms act to limit hybridization and maintain the genetic identity of closely-related species. while synchronous intraspecific spawning is a common phenomenon amongst marine organisms and plays an important role in reproductive success, asynchronous spawning between potentially hybridizing lineages may also be important in maintaining species boundaries. we tested this hypothesis by comparing reproductive synchrony over daily to hourly timescales in a sympatric assembla ... | 2016 | 27373816 |
| polymorphic microsatellite markers in the brown seaweed fucus vesiculosus. | fucus vesiculosus is a brown seaweed dominant on temperate rocky shores of the northern hemisphere and, is typically distributed in the mid-upper intertidal zone. it is an external fertilizer that reproduces sexually, providing an excellent model to address conflicting theories related to mating systems and sexual selection. microsatellite markers have been reported for several fucus species, however the genomic libraries from where these markers have been isolated, have originated from two or m ... | 2015 | 25890108 |
| a macroalgal germling bioassay to assess biocide concentrations in marine waters. | a bioassay method using the early life stages (germlings) of macroalgae was developed to detect toxicity of anti-fouling paint biocides. a laboratory based bioassay using ulva intestinalis and fucus spiralis germlings was performed with 4 common anti-fouling biocides (tributyltin (tbt), irgarol 1051, diuron and zinc sulphate), over a range of environmentally relevant concentrations (0.0033-10 μg l(-1)). comparison between the two species showed that germlings of u. intestinalis were better adapt ... | 2015 | 25558019 |
| edible azorean macroalgae as source of rich nutrients with impact on human health. | fucus spiralis, porphyra sp. and osmundea pinnatifida are macroalgae consumed as food in some of the azorean islands, but little information is available on their nutritional value. this paper presents information on the nutritional aspects in terms of proteins (9.71-24.82%), lipids (5.23-8.88%), soluble carbohydrates (17.59-25.37%), ash (22.31-38.55%), minerals (0.96-1.82 for na/k ratios) and fat soluble vitamins a (1.20-1.41%) and e (4.86-51.14%) contents on dry weight basis. fatty acid (sfa, ... | 2014 | 24996315 |
| fucus spiralis as monitoring tool of metal contamination in the northwest coast of portugal under the european water framework directives. | metals (cd, cr, cu, fe, mn and zn) in coastal seawaters and soft tissues of macroalga fucus spiralis from the northwest coast of portugal were determined to assess spatial variations of metal bioavailabilities and bioaccumulation factors to compare different ecological quality classifications. both coastal seawaters and soft tissues of f. spiralis showed significant spatial variations in their metal concentrations along the coast. the macroalgae f. spiralis accumulated more efficiently cd, mn an ... | 2014 | 24816592 |
| anti-inflammatory potential of monogalactosyl diacylglycerols and a monoacylglycerol from the edible brown seaweed fucus spiralis linnaeus. | a monoacylglycerol (1) and a 1:1 mixture of two monogalactosyl diacylglycerols (mgdgs) (2 and 3) were isolated from the brown seaweed fucus spiralis linnaeus. the structures were elucidated by spectroscopic means (nmr and ms) and by comparison with the literature. compound 1 was composed of a glycerol moiety linked to oleic acid (c18:1 ω9). compounds 2 and 3 contained a glycerol moiety linked to a galactose unit and eicosapentaenoic acid (c20:5 ω3) combined with octadecatetraenoic acid (c18:4 ω3 ... | 2014 | 24619274 |
| physiological response of fucoid algae to environmental stress: comparing range centre and southern populations. | climate change has led to alterations in assemblage composition. species of temperate macroalgae at their southern limits in the iberian peninsula have shown shifts in geographical range and a decline in abundance ultimately related to climate, but with the proximate factors largely unknown. we performed manipulative experiments to compare physiological responses of fucus vesiculosus and fucus spiralis from portugal and wales (uk), representing, respectively, southern and central areas of their ... | 2014 | 24580117 |
| enrichment of polyphenol contents and antioxidant activities of irish brown macroalgae using food-friendly techniques based on polarity and molecular size. | an efficient, food-friendly process for the enrichment of macroalgal phlorotannins from solid-liquid extracts (sle) of three brown macroalgae, namely fucus spiralis linnaeus, pelvetia canaliculata (linnaeus) decaisne & thuret and ascophyllum nodosum (linnaeus) le jolis, has been demonstrated. the initial utilisation of molecular weight cut-off (mwco) dialysis generated fractions of low molecular weight (lmw) (<3.5 kda) and of high molecular weight (hmw) (3.5-100 kda and >100 kda) from cold water ... | 2013 | 23561170 |
| valuable compounds in macroalgae extracts. | bioactive compounds present in ethanolic extracts from 18 macroalgae of the portuguese coast were analysed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (gc-ms), leading to the characterization of 14 compounds: proline, phloroglucinol, mannitol, 8 fatty acids and 3 sterols. a dose-dependent response against enzymes with biological significance (α-glucosidase, acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase) and free radicals (dpph, nitric oxide, superoxide and hydroxyl) was found, phaeophyta being the ... | 2013 | 23411314 |
| phlorotannin extracts from fucales characterized by hplc-dad-esi-msn: approaches to hyaluronidase inhibitory capacity and antioxidant properties. | purified phlorotannin extracts from four brown seaweeds (cystoseira nodicaulis (withering) m. roberts, cystoseira tamariscifolia (hudson) papenfuss, cystoseira usneoides (linnaeus) m. roberts and fucus spiralis linnaeus), were characterized by hplc-dad-esi-msn. fucophloroethol, fucodiphloroethol, fucotriphloroethol, 7-phloroeckol, phlorofucofuroeckol and bieckol/dieckol were identified. the antioxidant activity and the hyaluronidase (haase) inhibitory capacity exhibited by the extracts were also ... | 2012 | 23222802 |
| water-borne cues of a non-indigenous seaweed mediate grazer-deterrent responses in native seaweeds, but not vice versa. | plants optimise their resistance to herbivores by regulating deterrent responses on demand. induction of anti-herbivory defences can occur directly in grazed plants or from emission of risk cues to the environment, which modifies interactions of adjacent plants with, for instance, their consumers. this study confirmed the induction of anti-herbivory responses by water-borne risk cues between adjoining con-specific seaweeds and firstly examined whether plant-plant signalling also exists among adj ... | 2012 | 22701715 |
| fatty acid composition of selected macrophytes. | the content of total lipids and the fatty acid (fa) profile were determined for eight macroalgae (cystoseira abies-marina, fucus spiralis, chaetomorpha pachynema, codium elisabethae, porphyra sp., osmundea pinnatifida, pterocladiella capillacea and sphaeroccoccus coronopifolius). total lipids were extracted using a solvent mixture of methanol/chloroform (2/1, v/v) and further derivatised to fa methyl esters (fame). the analyses of fame samples were performed by gas chromatography coupled to a fl ... | 2013 | 22591127 |
| prezygotic barriers to hybridization in marine broadcast spawners: reproductive timing and mating system variation. | sympatric assemblages of congeners with incomplete reproductive barriers offer the opportunity to study the roles that ecological and non-ecological factors play in reproductive isolation. while interspecific asynchrony in gamete release and gametic incompatibility are known prezygotic barriers to hybridization, the role of mating system variation has been emphasized in plants. reproductive isolation between the sibling brown algal species fucus spiralis, fucus guiryi (selfing hermaphrodite) and ... | 2012 | 22563429 |
| profiling phlorotannins in brown macroalgae by liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry. | phlorotannins, phenolic compounds produced exclusively by phaeophyceae (brown algae), have recently been associated with a wide variety of beneficial bioactivities. several studies have measured the total phenolic content in extracts from various species, but little characterisation of individual phlorotannin components has been demonstrated. | 2013 | 22383068 |
| adaptive traits are maintained on steep selective gradients despite gene flow and hybridization in the intertidal zone. | gene flow among hybridizing species with incomplete reproductive barriers blurs species boundaries, while selection under heterogeneous local ecological conditions or along strong gradients may counteract this tendency. congeneric, externally-fertilizing fucoid brown algae occur as distinct morphotypes along intertidal exposure gradients despite gene flow. combining analyses of genetic and phenotypic traits, we investigate the potential for physiological resilience to emersion stressors to act a ... | 2011 | 21695117 |
| trace metals and radionuclides in macroalgae from moroccan coastal waters. | macroalgae species codium sp, bangia atropurpurea, membranoptera alata, plocamium cartilagineum, dictyota dichotoma, fucus spiralis and stypocaulon scoparia were collected from seven stations along the north coast of morocco. samples were analysed to determine activities of naturally occurring radionuclides ((210)pb, u isotopes and (40)k) and concentrations of metals (zn, fe, co, cu, ni, mn, pb, cd, as and cr) using radiometric and icp-oes techniques, respectively. metal concentrations were with ... | 2011 | 21298402 |
| travelling in time with networks: revealing present day hybridization versus ancestral polymorphism between two species of brown algae, fucus vesiculosus and f. spiralis. | hybridization or divergence between sympatric sister species provides a natural laboratory to study speciation processes. the shared polymorphism in sister species may either be ancestral or derive from hybridization, and the accuracy of analytic methods used thus far to derive convincing evidence for the occurrence of present day hybridization is largely debated. | 2011 | 21281515 |
| biosorption of heavy metals by fucus spiralis. | the sorption uptake of cadmium, nickel, zinc, copper and lead by marine brown alga fucus spiralis was investigated in bimetallic, trimetallic and multimetallic solutions. the experimental data fitted very well to langmuir model. in bimetallic systems, the affinity of biomass for lead and copper increased and the sorption uptake of these metals was not affected by increasing concentrations of cadmium, nickel or zinc. however, in solutions with both metals there was a significant mutual decrease o ... | 2008 | 17986392 |
| removal of cd(ii), zn(ii) and pb(ii) from aqueous solutions by brown marine macro algae: kinetic modelling. | specific marine macro algae species abundant at the portuguese coast (laminaria hyperborea, bifurcaria bifurcata, sargassum muticum and fucus spiralis) were shown to be effective for removing toxic metals (cd(ii), zn(ii) and pb(ii)) from aqueous solutions. the initial metal concentrations in solution were about 75-100 mg l(-1). the observed biosorption capacities for cadmium, zinc and lead ions were in the ranges of 23.9-39.5, 18.6-32.0 and 32.3-50.4 mg g(-1), respectively. kinetic studies revea ... | 2008 | 17935878 |
| comparative study of chromium biosorption by red, green and brown seaweed biomass. | dried biomass of the macroalgae fucus vesiculosus and fucus spiralis (brown), ulva spp. (comprising ulva linza, ulva compressa and ulva intestinalis) and ulva lactuca (green), palmaria palmata and polysiphonia lanosa (red) were studied in terms of their chromium biosorption performance. metal sorption was highly ph dependent with maximum cr(iii) and cr(vi) sorption occurring at ph 4.5 and ph 2, respectively. extended equilibrium times were required for cr(vi) binding over cr(iii) binding (180 an ... | 2008 | 17884133 |
| comparative study of biosorption of heavy metals using different types of algae. | sorption capacity of six different algae (green, red and brown) was evaluated in the recovery of cadmium, nickel, zinc, copper and lead from aqueous solutions. the optimum sorption conditions were studied for each monometallic system. the optimum ph was 6 for the recovery of cd, ni and zn, and less than 5 for cu and pb. the best results were obtained with the lowest biomass concentration used (0.5 g/l). experimental data fitted a langmuir model very well according to the following sequence of th ... | 2007 | 17624771 |
| seasonal variations in nitrate reductase activity and internal n pools in intertidal brown algae are correlated with ambient nitrate concentrations. | nitrogen metabolism was examined in the intertidal seaweeds fucus vesiculosus, fucus serratus, fucus spiralis and laminaria digitata in a temperate irish sea lough. internal no(3) (-) storage, total n content and nitrate reductase activity (nra) were most affected by ambient no(3) (-), with highest values in winter, when ambient no(3) (-) was maximum, and declined with no(3) (-) during summer. in all species, nra was six times higher in winter than in summer, and was markedly higher in fucus spe ... | 2007 | 17470152 |
| cu(ii) binding by dried biomass of red, green and brown macroalgae. | dried biomass of the marine macroalgae fucus spiralis and fucus vesiculosus (brown), ulva spp. (comprising ulva linza, ulva compressa and ulva intestinalis) and ulva lactuca (green), palmaria palmata and polysiphonia lanosa (red) were studied in terms of their cu(ii) biosorption performance. this is the first study of its kind to compare cu(ii) uptake by these seaweeds in the south-east of ireland. potentiometric and conductimetric titrations revealed a variety of functionalities on the seaweed ... | 2007 | 17234234 |
| convergent adaptation to a marginal habitat by homoploid hybrids and polyploid ecads in the seaweed genus fucus. | hybridization and polyploidy are two major sources of genetic variability that can lead to adaptation in new habitats. most species of the brown algal genus fucus are found along wave-swept rocky shores of the northern hemisphere, but some species have adapted to brackish and salt marsh habitats. using five microsatellite loci and mtdna rflp, we characterize two populations of morphologically similar, muscoides-like fucus inhabiting salt marshes in iceland and ireland. the icelandic genotypes we ... | 2006 | 17148415 |
| 5-hydroxyramulosin, a new natural product produced by phoma tropica, a marine-derived fungus isolated from the alga fucus spiralis. | the fungus phoma tropica was isolated from the inner tissue of the marine brown alga fucus spiralis. after large-scale cultivation the fungus was investigated for its secondary metabolite content and found to contain the new natural product 5-hydroxyramulosin ( 1) together with 7-methoxycoumarin. both structures were elucidated using spectroscopic methods, mainly 1d and 2d nmr, and in the case of 1, a single crystal x-ray diffraction analysis. | 2002 | 12451504 |
| determination of 'arsenosugars' in algae with anion-exchange chromatography and an inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer as element-specific detector. | the retention behavior of four naturally occurring dimethylarsinoylribosides with -ch2-choh-ch2x (x = oh, ho3poch2chohch2oh, so3h, oso3h) as aglycones, of arsenous acid, arsenic acid, methylarsonic acid, and dimethylarsinic acid was investigated on a hamilton prp-x100 anion-exchange column with aqueous solutions of ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (20 mmol/l) in the ph range of 3.8-9.0 as mobile phase. a hp 4500 inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (icp-ms) served as arsenic-specific detect ... | 2000 | 11225880 |
| cell fate determination by the cell wall in early fucus development. | in multicellular plants, development starts with an asymmetric division of the zygote into two differentiated cells. the nature and distribution of fate-determining factors operating during embryogenesis remain largely obscure. laser microsurgery was used here to dissect two-celled embryos of the alga fucus spiralis. removal of protoplasts from the cell wall induced dedifferentiation. however, isolated cells within the walls followed their restricted fate. moreover, contact of one cell type with ... | 1994 | 17776514 |
| localized patch clamping of plasma membrane of a polarized plant cell : laser microsurgery of the fucus spiralis rhizoid cell wall. | we used an ultraviolet laser to rupture a small region of cell wall of a polarized fucus spiralis rhizoid cell and gained localized access to the plasma membrane at the growing apex. careful control of cell turgor enabled a small portion of plasma membrane-bound cytoplasm to be exposed. gigaohm seals allowing single-channel recordings were obtained with a high success rate using this method with conventional patch clamp techniques. | 1992 | 16669092 |
| sexual reproduction and the role of sperm attractants in monoecious species of the brown algae order fucales (fucus, hesperophycus, pelvetia, and pelvetiopsis). | details of sexual reproduction in fucus spiralis are reported. slimy oogonial packets form on the outside of the receptacles held in position by hairs extending from the ostiole. spermatozoids enter the oogonium, and fertilization takes place before zygotes are disseminated by disintegration of oogonium walls. during these events the sperm attractant fucoserratene can be detected. fertilization in the monoecious fucus spiralis is therefore based on the same mechanism as in dioecious members of t ... | 1985 | 23196173 |
| longitudinal profiles of carbon dioxide fixation capacities in marine macroalgae. | fucus serratus l., fucus spiralis l., and fucus vesiculosus l. (fucales, phaeophyceae) as well as laminaria digitata (huds.) lamour., laminaria hyperborea (gunn.) fosl., and laminaria saccharina (l.) lamour. (laminariales, phaeophyceae) have been investigated for the distribution of enzymic co(2) fixation capacities via phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (ec 4.1.1.32) (pep-ck) and via ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase (ec 4.1.1.39) (rubp-c) in different regions of the thalli. the maximum of p ... | 1978 | 16660467 |
| studies in phytosterol biosynthesis: observations on the biosynthesis of fucosterol in the marine brown alga fucus spiralis. | | 1969 | 5780485 |