| a new species of loma (microsporea) in shiner perch (cymatogaster aggregata). | loma embiotocia n. sp. is described from the gills of shiner perch (cymatogaster aggregata) from waters off vancouver island, british columbia, canada. highest prevalence at a site was 15% and greatest intensity was 583 xenomas per fish. xenomas averaged 0.13 mm in diameter (0.06-0.16 mm) and contained ovoid spores 4.8 x 2.6 (4.0-5.0 x 2.0-3.0) microns. sporogonic stages were dispersed throughout the xenomas. the xenoma wall was smooth lacking invaginations into the cyto plasm: sporoblasts were ... | 1997 | 9105314 |
| quinine hydrochloride treatment delays xenoma formation and dissolution in rainbow trout challenged with loma salmonae. | an experiment was designed to study the effect of dietary quinine hydrochloride (61 mg/kg of fish/day), on the rate of xenoma formation in the gills of loma salmonae-infected juvenile rainbow trout maintained at a water temperature of 15 degrees c. almost all (90.9%) control fish had developed xenomas by week 6 post-exposure (pe), but significantly fewer (18.2%) of the medicated fish were similarly affected (p < 0.0001). by week 8 pe, 100% of control fish had xenomas, but only 57.5% of quinine-t ... | 1998 | 9839206 |
| resistance to reinfection in chinook salmon oncorhynchus tshawytscha to loma salmonae (microsporidia). | chinook salmon oncorhynchus tshawytscha were experimentally infected per os with loma salmonae and held in flow-through seawater tanks at 12 to 14 degrees c. the fish exhibited 100% infection when first examined at 7 wk post initial exposure (p.e.), and by 20 wk p.e. they had completely recovered from gill infections. the recovered fish were then re-exposed the following week. all of these fish showed strong protection to new l. salmonae infections, while naïve fish exposed to the same inoculum ... | 1999 | 10546050 |
| marine netpen farming leads to infections with some unusual parasites. | marine netpen farming of salmonid fishes is a rapidly growing industry in several countries. with this relatively recent industry, new or unusual infections by parasitic pathogens have been observed. this is due to different hosts being reared in new geographic areas, or by indigenous species being reared in a different environmental condition, i.e. the marine netpen. examples of the former include kudoa thyrsites (myxozoa) and hemobaphes disphaerocephalus (copepoda) infections in atlantic salmo ... | 2000 | 10719125 |
| localization of the initial developmental stages of loma salmonae in rainbow trout (oncorhynchus mykiss). | the intracellular microsporidian parasite loma salmonae affects salmonids of the genus oncorhynchus and is a significant cause of economic losses in pen-reared chinook salmon (o. tshawytscha) in british columbia. loma salmonae infection is easily recognized by the xenomas that form in the gills, but early stages of infection are difficult to detect in histologic sections. in situ hybridization (ish), using an l. salmonae-specific digoxigenin-labeled single-stranded dna probe, was used to detect ... | 2001 | 11572561 |
| ultrastructural study of the early development and localization of loma salmonae in the gills of experimentally infected rainbow trout. | the early ultrastructural stages of loma salmonae were studied in the gills of experimentally infected rainbow trout. no parasitic stages were identified during the first 2 wk of the infection. by week 3 postexposure (pe), uninucleate and binucleate meronts were recognized within host cells (no xenomas) associated with the capillary channels of secondary lamellae and lamellar arteries. an inflammatory reaction was absent. in secondary lamellae, infected cells were isolated from the capillary lum ... | 2002 | 12053993 |
| evaluation of rainbow trout as a model for use in studies on pathogenesis of the branchial microsporidian loma salmonae. | loma salmonae is an economically important gill microsporidian pathogen of pen-reared chinook and coho salmon. chinook and coho salmon are generally poorly suited for use in laboratory studies because of their high mortality rates when infected with l. salmonae and their high-level of susceptibility to other infectious diseases. using gill tissue from chinook salmon that contained mature xenomas laden with l. salmonae spores, we successfully transmitted the infection to rainbow trout. the infect ... | 1998 | 12456170 |
| ultraviolet light control of horizontal transmission of loma salmonae. | | 2004 | 15009244 |
| timing of changes in growth rate, feed intake and feed conversion in rainbow trout, oncorhynchus mykiss (walbaum), experimentally infected with loma salmonae (microspora). | | 2004 | 15228612 |
| morphological characterization and notes on the life cycle of a newly discovered variant of loma salmonae (putz, hoffman & dunbar) from a natural infection of chinook salmon, oncorhynchus tshawytscha (walbaum). | two variants of loma salmonae occur in net-pen reared chinook salmon, oncorhynchus tshawytscha. the typical variant (oa) has a host specificity for salmonids of the genus oncorhynchus whereas the atypical variant (sv) has a host specificity for brook trout, salvelinus fontinalis, and in this study, the ultrastructure of the two are compared. in fish at 8 weeks post-exposure xenomas of the sv variant have a very high proportion of mature spores compared with other developmental stages, while in x ... | 2004 | 15482426 |
| predictive modelling of post-onset xenoma growth during microsporidial gill disease (loma salmonae) of salmonids. | loma salmonae, an obligate intracellular microsporidian parasite, is the causal agent of microsporidial gill disease of salmon (mgds), characterized by the production, growth and eventual rupture of spore-filled xenomas. mgds in farmed chinook salmon remains occult until xenoma rupture, at which time the infected fish respond with intense branchitis and high rates of mortality. the present study showed that in experimentally infected fish the rate of change of xenoma diameter could be modelled t ... | 2004 | 15511541 |
| influence of feeding ratio and size on susceptibility to microsporidial gill disease caused by loma salmonae in rainbow trout, oncorhynchus mykiss (walbaum). | two trials were designed to quantify the effect of feeding ratio and fish size on the cohabitation transmission of loma salmonae, the causative agent of microsporidial gill disease (mgd) in salmonids, oncorhynchus spp. to evaluate the effect of feeding ratio on disease onset, groups of 45 rainbow trout, o. mykiss (walbaum) (rbt), were fed daily at 1% (low), 2% (medium) or 4% (high) of the fish biomass in the tank. there were three tanks at each feeding level: two tanks were exposed to the pathog ... | 2005 | 15752278 |
| morphological presentation of a dendritic-like cell within the gills of chinook salmon infected with loma salmonae. | | 2006 | 16139356 |
| intraperitoneal administration of beta-1,3/1,6-glucan to rainbow trout, oncorhynchus mykiss (walbaum), protects against loma salmonae. | | 2006 | 16768719 |
| timing of intraperitoneal administration of beta-1,3/1,6 glucan to rainbow trout, oncorhynchus mykiss (walbaum), affects protection against the microsporidian loma salmonae. | | 2007 | 17298566 |
| transmission of the microsporidian gill parasite, loma salmonae. | since it was first reported in 1987 at a hatchery in british columbia, loma salmonae has become increasingly important as an emerging parasite affecting the canadian salmonid aquaculture industry. l. salmonae causes microsporidial gill disease of salmon (mgds) in farmed pacific salmonids, oncorhynchus spp., resulting in respiratory distress, secondary infections and high mortality rates. in the last decade, laboratory studies have identified key transmission factors for this disease and describe ... | 2007 | 17692143 |
| development of an effective whole-spore vaccine to protect against microsporidial gill disease in rainbow trout (oncorhynchus mykiss) by using a low-virulence strain of loma salmonae. | in determining the effective vaccine spore dose of a low-virulence strain of loma salmonae to limit microsporidial gill disease in trout, we found that fish receiving 10(3) to 10(5) killed spores had the best protection against experimental infection, with 85% fewer xenomas in their gills than in the controls. intraperitoneal delivery of the vaccine was effective, and the addition of adjuvant did not improve vaccine performance against this disease-causing microsporidian. | 2007 | 17942613 |
| innate susceptibility differences in chinook salmon oncorhynchus tshawytscha to loma salmonae (microsporidia). | loma salmonae (putz, hoffman and dunbar, 1965) morrison & sprague, 1981 (microsporidia) is an important gill pathogen of pacific salmon oncorhynchus spp. in the pacific northwest. three strains of chinook salmon o. tshawytscha were infected in 2 trials with l. salmonae by feeding of macerated infected gill tissue or per os as a gill tissue slurry. intensity of infection was significantly higher in the northern stream (ns) strain as compared to the southern coastal (sc) and a hybrid (h) strain de ... | 2000 | 11129380 |
| efficacy of the fumagillin analog tnp-470 for nucleospora salmonis and loma salmonae infections in chinook salmon oncorhynchus tshawytscha. | oral treatment with fumagillin is effective for controlling various microsporean and myxosporean infections in fish. we tested a synthetic analog of fumagillin, tnp-470 (takeda chemical industries), for its efficacy against 2 microsporean pathogens of salmon: loma salmonae and nucleospora salmonis. chinook salmon oncorhynchus tshawytscha were experimentally infected with either l. salmonae (per os) or n. salmonis (intraperitoneal, i.p., injection) and held in fresh water at 15 degrees c. fish we ... | 1998 | 9789978 |
| modes of transmission of loma salmonae (microsporidia). | loma salmonae (putz, hoffman and dunbar, 1965) morrison and sprague, 1981 (microsporidia) causes prominent gill disease in pen-reared chinook salmon oncorhynchus tshawytscha in the pacific northwest. transmission of the parasite was examined by exposing pacific salmon oncorhynchus spp. to infectious spores by various routes: per os, intraperitoneal, intramuscular, and intravascular injection, by cohabitation with infected fish, and by placement of spores directly on the gill. all exposure method ... | 1998 | 9722404 |
| transmission of loma salmonae (microsporea) to chinook salmon in sea water. | transmission studies were conducted to determine if loma salmonae was transmissible in sea water. transmission of l. salmonae to chinook salmon (oncorhynchus tshawytscha) held in sea water was achieved by exposing fish to macerated, infected gill tissue. fish were exposed in seawater in a flow-through aquarium, and the infection was detected as soon as 5 wk after exposure. heavily infected fish exhibited numerous xenomas in the branchial arteries, central venous sinusoids, and within the blood c ... | 1995 | 7728735 |
| cellular immunity in salmonids infected with the microsporidial parasite loma salmonae or exposed to non-viable spores. | following a per os challenge of naive rainbow trout with live spores of loma salmonae, head kidney mononuclear cells (mnc) in culture were able to proliferate in response to crude soluble parasite extract or intact dead spores. a significant response was seen by week 2 post-exposure and a maximum response developed by week 6 or 8, respectively. during this initial challenge, spore filled cysts developed on the gills of challenged fish, and the cysts ruptured by week 12 as is typical for microspo ... | 2006 | 16934335 |
| interaction of water temperature and challenge model on xenoma development rates for loma salmonae (microspora) in rainbow trout, oncorhynchus mykiss (walbaum). | this study evaluated the regulatory effects of water temperature on the development of branchial xenomas caused by loma salmonae using a high-dose per os-challenge model compared with a low-dose cohabitation-challenge model. approximately 275 juvenile rainbow trout (rbt), oncorhynchus mykiss, were randomly distributed to six tanks with two tanks each maintained at 11, 15 and 19 degrees c. fish in one tank from each temperature setting were exposed per os to macerated l. salmonae-infected gill ma ... | 2006 | 16533299 |
| review of the sequential development of loma salmonae (microsporidia) based on experimental infections of rainbow trout (oncorhynchus mykiss) and chinook salmon (o. tshawytscha). | loma salmonae is a common gill parasite of salmonids, and essentially all species in the genus oncorhynchus are susceptible. infections occur in both fresh and salt water. loma salmonae is directly transmissible by ingestion of spores or infected tissue. the parasite infects the wall of blood vessels of various organs, but the gill is the primary site of infection. initial infection occurs in the intestine, and xenomas are easily detected in the gills by standard histology at 4-6 wk post-exposur ... | 2005 | 16004365 |
| impact of a water temperature shift on xenoma clearance and recovery time during a loma salmonae (microsporidia) infection in rainbow trout oncorhynchus mykiss. | previous studies have modelled the relationship between water temperature and the rate of sporulation as defined by xenoma formation during microsporidial gill disease (mgd) in salmon caused by loma salmonae. although offering insight into the epidemiology of mgd, a key unexplored area is the role of temperature in the rate of xenoma dissolution including spore release into the environment, and this is crucial to our ability to model horizontal transmission of mgd within confined net-pen populat ... | 2004 | 15109141 |
| ultrastructural study of the late stages of loma salmonae development in the gills of experimentally infected rainbow trout. | the main objective of this investigation was to examine the ultrastructural features of gills from rainbow trout experimentally infected with loma salmonae to determine the morphological events that occur during the late stages of development of this parasite. peripheral distribution of the mature parasites inside round xenomas was observed at weeks 5 and 6 postexposure (pe), but eventually the parasite occupied the entire xenoma. degenerative changes were observed only in immature parasites at ... | 2003 | 12880243 |
| phagocytosis of loma salmonae (microsporidia) spores in atlantic salmon (salmo salar), a resistant host, and chinook salmon (oncorhynchus tshawytscha), a susceptible host. | the in vitro phagocytosis of loma salmonae spores by macrophages of atlantic salmon and two strains of chinook salmon were investigated. opsonisation of l. salmonae with plasma factors increased uptake by head kidney macrophages. macrophages of atlantic salmon, which are resistant to the parasite, had a significantly higher phagocytic index (pi) than those of chinook salmon, a susceptible species. this may indicate a possible mechanism contributing to resistance in atlantic salmon or that l. sal ... | 2001 | 11271605 |
| viability of loma salmonae (microsporidia) under laboratory conditions. | the viability of the fish-infecting microsporidian loma salmonae morrison and sprague, 1981 was determined under laboratory conditions by polar filament extrusion and infectivity to chinook salmon (oncorhynchus tshawytscha). extrusion rates of isolated spores decreased from 51.0% to 0.0% by 100 days after storage in fresh or sea water at 4 degrees c. spores stored up to 95 days in either solution infected 80.0-100.0% of exposed chinook, although no spores infected fish at 100 days in one trial. ... | 2000 | 11133113 |
| experimental and natural host specificity of loma salmonae (microsporidia). | the microsporidian loma salmonae (putz, hoffman & dunbar, 1965) morrison & sprague, 1981 has caused significant gill disease in pacific salmon oncorhynchus spp. host specificity of the parasite was examined experimentally by per os challenge of selected salmonids and non-salmonids with infective chinook salmon o. tshawytscha gill material. pink oncorhynchus gorbuscha and chum salmon o. keta, brown salmo trutta and brook trout salvelinus fontinalis, and chinook salmon (controls) were positive, wh ... | 2000 | 10782347 |
| nonisotopic detection of loma salmonae (microspora) in rainbow trout (oncorhynchus mykiss) gills by in situ hybridization. | loma salmonae, a microsporidian parasite of salmonids of the genus oncorhynchus, is a significant cause of economic loss in pen-reared chinook salmon (o. tschawytscha). final stages of l. salmonae infections are easily recognized by the xenomas that form in the gills during sporogony. however, early prexenoma stages of infection (3 weeks or less after infection) are difficult to detect on histologic slides. an l. salmonae-specific single-stranded dna probe labeled with digoxigenin was used to de ... | 1999 | 10568444 |
| a preliminary investigation of alternatives to fumagillin for the treatment of loma salmonae infection in rainbow trout. | the effects of the following six treatments against loma salmonae, a microsporidian gill pathogen, were examined in rainbow trout: fumagillin (high dose), pyrimethamine + sulphaquinoxaline, albendazole, amprolium, fumagillin (low dose), and metronidazole. the fish were infected by mouth and the treatments were administered at intervals for a period of several weeks. the results were assessed on the basis of (1) delay in the formation of xenomas, and (2) the number of xenomas per gill arch. the f ... | 1999 | 10486160 |
| description of five new loma (microsporidia) species in pacific fishes with redesignation of the type species loma morhua morrison & sprague, 1981, based on morphological and molecular species-boundaries tests. | five new species of loma were described from five pacific fishes using light-microscopic and ultrastructural features along with phylogenetic analysis of the gene sequences of ribosomal rna (rrna) and elongation factor 1-alpha. morphological data revealed both qualitative and quantitative differences in developmental stages and timing, vesicles, xenoma features, and spore sizes with statistical support that differentiated loma pacificodae n. sp. in pacific cod, loma wallae n. sp. in walleye poll ... | 2010 | 21040100 |
| low genetic variation in the salmon and trout parasite loma salmonae (microsporidia) supports marine transmission and clarifies species boundaries. | loma salmonae is a microsporidian parasite prevalent in wild and farmed salmon species of the genus oncorhynchus. this study compared ribosomal rna (rdna) and elongation factor-1 alpha (ef-1alpha) gene sequences to look for variation that may provide a basis for distinguishing populations. specimens were collected from laboratory, captive (sea netpen farm and freshwater hatchery) and wild populations of fish. the host range included rainbow trout o. mykiss, pacific salmon oncorhynchus spp. and b ... | 2010 | 20853740 |
| selected parasitosis in cultured and wild fish. | while intensive aquaculture has and will continue to supply the ever growing population with highly nutritious protein, it also comes with problems which include more frequent outbreaks of diseases in fish farms and transmission of diseases between farmed and wild fish. we have selected four phyla of economically important fish parasites for our present discussion-a haemoflagellate (cryptobia salmositica), a microsporidian, (loma salmonae), a monogenean (gyrodactylus salaries) and two copepods ( ... | 2009 | 19573992 |
| effects of dexamethasone on host innate and adaptive immune responses and parasite development in rainbow trout oncorhynchus mykiss infected with loma salmonae. | the effects of dexamethasone (dex) treatment on infections with the microsporidian parasite, loma salmonae and the effects of dex on initiation of the adaptive immune response were investigated in rainbow trout, oncorhynchus mykiss experimentally infected with the parasite. dex treatment resulted in significantly higher infections with the parasite in the gills and other internal organs, suggesting that dex inhibits aspects of the innate immune response to l. salmonae; the heavier infections in ... | 2008 | 18359641 |
| a new parvicapsulid (myxosporea) species in adult pink salmon, oncorhynchus gorbuscha, from the quinsam river, british columbia, canada. | myxospores consistent with species of parvicapsula were observed in kidney of 15 of 95 (15.8%) adult pink salmon, oncorhynchus gorbuscha, collected from the quinsam river, british columbia, canada. the spores were elongate and curved with unequal valves, and 2 spherical-to-subspherical polar capsules within a highly refractile capsular region. the spores were unlike those of p. minibicornis found in nearby populations of pacific salmon, oncorhynchus spp. the spore dimensions were similar to thos ... | 2006 | 17304813 |
| whole body net ion fluxes, plasma electrolyte concentrations and haematology during a loma salmonae infection in juvenile rainbow trout, oncorhynchus mykiss (walbaum). | loma salmonae infections of salmonids culminate in the development of branchial xenomas and subsequent focal hyperplasia of the lamellar or filament epithelium following xenoma rupture and spore release. the effects of this acute branchial disruption upon net ionic flux rates and plasma electrolyte concentrations were determined in juvenile rainbow trout given an experimental oral exposure to l. salmonae. mean numbers of branchial xenomas peaked at week 5 post-exposure (pe), which coincided with ... | 2006 | 17169105 |
| ultrastructural examination of the host inflammatory response within gills of netpen reared chinook salmon (oncorhynchus tshawytscha) with microsporidial gill disease. | the sequence of host changes following the rupture of spore-laden xenomas of the microsporidian loma salmonae during microsporidial gill disease of salmon was deduced from ultrastructural examination of the gills of naturally infected, moribund, chinook salmon from a commercial aquaculture site. the gills contained many stages of parasite development suggesting fish were chronically exposed to the parasite. intact xenomas were generally found beneath the endothelium in arteries and arterioles an ... | 2007 | 16891122 |
| induction time for resistance to microsporidial gill disease caused by loma salmonae following vaccination of rainbow trout (oncorhynchus mykiss) with a spore-based vaccine. | resistance to re-infection of rainbow trout to loma salmonae, a microsporidian gill parasite has been previously documented and this study examined how rapidly this resistance develops. naive rainbow trout were inoculated intraperitoneally (ip) with an inactivated spore-based vaccine and were then given an oral challenge with a high dose of l. salmonae spores at various weeks after being vaccinated. non-vaccinated naive fish (exposed group) were challenged alongside of each group of vaccinated f ... | 2006 | 16464612 |
| differences in metabolic response to loma salmonae infection in juvenile rainbow trout oncorhynchus mykiss and brook trout salvelinus fontinalis. | routine and post-exercise metabolic rates were measured for juvenile rainbow trout oncorhynchus mykiss and brook trout salvelinus fontinalis infected with the microsporidium gill parasite loma salmonae under laboratory conditions. rainbow trout increased routine and post-exercise metabolic rate in response to infection compared with controls. brook trout, on the other hand, lowered routine metabolic rate without effecting post-exercise metabolic rate compared to controls. the result of these 2 d ... | 2005 | 16408839 |
| isolation of the salmonid rhamnose-binding lectin stl2 from spores of the microsporidian fish parasite loma salmonae. | the microsporidian parasite, loma salmonae, is the causative agent of gill disease in both wild and netpen-reared salmonids worldwide. in this paper we report the finding of a rhamnose-binding lectin from steelhead trout, oncorhynchus mykiss, which was found bound in high concentration to the surface coat of l. salmonae spores. sds-page, immunoblot, n-terminal sequencing and mass spectrometric analyses were used to determine that the dominant 24 kda protein lectin observed on sds-page analysis o ... | 2005 | 16159363 |
| xenoma formation during microsporidial gill disease of salmonids caused by loma salmonae is affected by host species (oncorhynchus tshawytscha, o. kisutch, o. mykiss) but not by salinity. | host species and salinity often affect the development of disease in aquatic species. eighty chinook salmon oncorhynchus tshawytscha, 80 coho salmon o. kisutch and 80 rainbow trout o. mykiss were infected with loma salmonae. forty of each species were reared in seawater and 40 in freshwater. the mean number of xenomas per gill filament was 8 to 33 times greater in chinook salmon than in rainbow trout (rbt). coho salmon had a mean xenoma intensity intermediate to that of chinook salmon and rbt. i ... | 2002 | 12005234 |
| fish microsporidia: immune response, immunomodulation and vaccination. | immune response to fish microsporidia is still unknown and there are current research trying to elucidate the events involved in the immune response to this parasite. there is evidence suggesting the role of innate immune response and it is clear that adaptive immunity plays an essential part for eliminating and then mounting a solid resistance against subsequent microsporidian infections. this review article discusses the main mechanisms of resistance to fish microsporidia, which are considered ... | 2011 | 21352922 |
| Luna stain, an improved selective stain for detection of microsporidian spores in histologic sections. | Microsporidia in histologic sections are most often diagnosed by observing spores in host tissues. Spores are easy to identify if they occur in large aggregates or xenomas when sections are stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E). However, individual spores are not frequently detected in host tissues with conventional H&E staining, particularly if spores are scattered within the tissues, areas of inflammation, or small spores in nuclei (i.e. Nucleospora salmonis). Hence, a variety of selective ... | 2011 | 21848126 |
| development of the microsporidian parasite, loma salmonae, in a rainbow trout gill epithelial cell line (rtg-1): evidence of xenoma development in vitro. | growth and propagation of fish-infecting microsporidians within cell culture has been more difficult to achieve than for insect- and human-infecting microsporidians. fish microsporidia tend to elicit xenoma development rather than diffuse growth in vivo, and this process likely increases host specificity. we present evidence that the fish microsporidian, loma salmonae, has the capacity to develop xenomas within a rainbow trout gill epithelial cell line (rtg-1). spore numbers increased over a 4 w ... | 2015 | 25434457 |
| immunohistochemical localization of inflammatory cells and cell cycle proteins in the gills of loma salmonae infected rainbow trout (oncorhynchus mykiss). | microsporidial gill diseases particularly those caused by loma salmonae incur significant economic losses to the salmonid aquaculture industry. the gill responses to infection include the formation of xenomas and the acute hyperplastic inflammatory responses once the xenomas rupture releasing infective spores. the aim of this work was to characterize the inflammatory responses of the gill to both the presence of the xenomas as well as the hyperplasia associated with l. salmonae infection in the ... | 2014 | 24979224 |
| demonstrated efficacy of a pilot heterologous whole-spore vaccine against microsporidial gill disease in rainbow trout. | intraperitoneal vaccines using whole viable spores of the microsporidian glugea anomala or glugea hertwigi reduced the numbers of branchial xenomas by 80% and 91%, respectively, after a standard experimental infection of juvenile rainbow trout with the microsporidian loma salmonae. similar significant results were obtained when killed-spore preparations were used. | 2013 | 23825192 |
| impact and control of protozoan parasites in maricultured fishes. | aquaculture, including both freshwater and marine production, has on a world scale exhibited one of the highest growth rates within animal protein production during recent decades and is expected to expand further at the same rate within the next 10 years. control of diseases is one of the most prominent challenges if this production goal is to be reached. apart from viral, bacterial, fungal and metazoan infections it has been documented that protozoan parasites affect health and welfare and the ... | 2015 | 23448656 |