| acute exudative pneumonia and airsacculitis associated with ornithobacterium rhinotracheale in turkeys. | | 1994 | 7801442 |
| [respiratory problems, growth retardation and arthritis in turkeys and broilers caused by a pasteurella-like organism: ornithobacterium rhinotracheale or 'taxon 28']. | since august 1993 moderate to serious respiratory problems with necrotic pneumonia, growth depression and fast increasing mortality are seen in commercial turkeys (2-8 weeks of age) and broilers (4-6 weeks of age). an unidentified pleiomorphic gram-negative rod was isolated from affected tissues. this pasteurella-like organism, with yet unknown taxonomy, is recently named ornithobacterium rhinotracheale gen. nov. sp. nov. or 'taxon 28'. experimentally severe growth depression and arthritis could ... | 1994 | 8122221 |
| ornithobacterium rhinotracheale gen. nov., sp. nov., isolated from the avian respiratory tract. | the phylogenetic position and various genotypic, chemotaxonomic, and classical phenotypic characteristics of 21 gram-negative avian isolates were studied. these strains constitute a genotypically homogeneous taxon in rrna superfamily v, as shown by dna-rrna hybridization data. determination of the 16s rrna sequence of this taxon revealed its detailed position within the "flavobacter" subgroup of the "flavobacter-bacteroides" phylum as described by gherna and woese (r. gherna and c. r. woese, sys ... | 1994 | 8123560 |
| in vitro antibiotic sensitivity of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale strains from poultry and wild birds. | | 1995 | 8560703 |
| concomitant ornithobacterium rhinotracheale and newcastle disease infection in broilers in south africa. | ornithobacterium rhinotracheale was first isolated from broilers in south africa in 1991. the importance of o. rhinotracheale infections has been established, with growth suppression, respiratory symptoms, and arthritis commonly seen as complications. dual infection with newcastle disease and o. rhinotracheale in 28-day-old broilers led to more severe respiratory lesions and higher mortality rates than in birds with only newcastle disease. it was concluded that the pathogenicity of newcastle dis ... | 1996 | 8790906 |
| pathogenicity of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale for turkey poults under experimental conditions. | | 1996 | 8819291 |
| pathogenicity differences between south african isolates of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale. | three selected south african ornithobacterium rhinotracheale field isolates were identified and inoculated via the caudal abdominal airsac into 28-day-old broilers, which were monitored under controlled laboratory conditions. it was concluded from data that the o. rhinotracheale isolates were capable of causing primary disease, with statistically significant resultant mass loss. respiratory and arthritis symptoms were reproduced. however, no sinusitis was observed. airsacculitis- and arthritis-l ... | 1996 | 8917856 |
| experimental infection in turkeys and chickens with ornithobacterium rhinotracheale. | ornithobacterium rhinotracheale was found to cause growth retardation in both turkeys and chickens after experimental intra-air sac administration and to cause growth retardation together with airsacculitis and pneumonia after aerosol administration. both turkey and chicken isolates of o. rhinotracheale were able to induce the same kind of respiratory inflammations and weight-gain losses in chickens as well as turkeys. turkey rhinotracheitis virus was found to have a triggering effect on the o. ... | 1996 | 8980818 |
| ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection in turkey breeders. | a sequence of outbreaks of respiratory disease separated by intervals of about 2 wk occurred on three turkey breeder ranches. the last two ranches affected belonged to different companies and were separated by a distance of 11 km. mortality on the last ranch was particularly severe among certain segregated groups of turkeys that included toms, heavier birds, and birds undergoing a stressful event such as artificial insemination. on this ranch, percentages of mortality within an 18-day period wer ... | 1996 | 8980819 |
| identification and serotyping of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale. | in the present study 443 strains of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale, a causative agent of respiratory disease in fowl, were investigated biochemically and serologically. in both ways o. rhinotracheale could be differentiated from other gram-negative rods and, more particularly, from the pasteurella-like bacteria potentially pathogenic for fowl. for the biochemical characterization of o. rhinotracheale the api 2one identification strip proved to be useful, although o. rhinotracheale is not includ ... | 1997 | 9003608 |
| isolation and identification of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale from commercial broiler flocks on the delmarva peninsula. | the growth and biological characteristics of isolates of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ort) from commercial broiler chickens in the mid-atlantic region of the u.s.a. appear to be identical to those previously reported in the literature. the clinical disease and lesions are also similar to those reported from other poultry growing regions including south africa and europe. the diagnostic cases included in this report were often associated with known respiratory pathogens, namely, lentogenic ne ... | 1997 | 9087345 |
| [pilot study on the prevalence of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infections in food chickens in northwest germany]. | samples of sera from broiler chicken and broiler chicken breeder flocks of north western germany were examined for presence of antibodies against ornithobacterium (o.) rhinotracheale with a self-developed elisa system. a total of 3600 samples of sera from 190 broiler flocks in 70 different farms were tested. in 332 samples of sera (9.4%) from 25 flocks (13.2%) in 22 farms specific antibodies were detected. additionally, serum samples from the breeder hens, taken between the 9, and 61, weeks of a ... | 1997 | 9324927 |
| molecular epidemiology of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale. | ornithobacterium rhinotracheale is a recently described gram-negative rod-shaped bacterium associated with respiratory tract infections in poultry. in order to determine the molecular epidemiology of this bacterium, we characterized 55 o. rhinotracheale isolates from eight countries on four continents by multilocus enzyme electrophoresis (mlee), repetitive sequence based-pcr (rep-pcr), and 16s rrna gene sequencing. mlee discriminated the o. rhinotracheale isolates into six electrophoretic types ... | 1997 | 9350754 |
| development of a serum plate agglutination test to detect antibodies to ornithobacterium rhinotracheale. | | 1998 | 9526867 |
| ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection in turkeys: experimental reproduction of the disease. | this report details the first experimental production of clinical disease, mortality, and pathology resembling that of field infections by using ornithobacterium rhinotracheale alone. twenty-two-week-old male turkeys were exposed to o. rhinotracheale or lung homogenate from o. rhinotracheale-infected turkeys. within 24 hr after inoculation, turkeys given o. rhinotracheale or lung homogenate intratracheally were depressed and coughing and had decreased feed intake. by 48 hr, several birds were co ... | 1998 | 9533093 |
| isolation and identification of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale from commercial turkey flocks in the upper midwest. | increased death loss was seen in a flock of 22-wk-old tom turkeys. the predominant postmortem lesion was fibrinopurulent pneumonia and pleuritis. within 5 wk, turkey flocks on 17 other farms developed similar problems. all affected flocks during the 5-wk period were between 14 and 22 wk of age, and the severity of clinical signs and the degree of mortality increased with age. ornithobacterium rhinotracheale was isolated in pure culture from affected lungs. further investigation by tracheal swab ... | 1998 | 9533106 |
| genetic diversity of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale strains isolated from poultry in france. | twenty-three strains of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale from various origins, associated with respiratory pathology of birds, were compared using plasmid profiles, ribotyping and random amplified polymorphic dna (rapd) in order to achieve a precise strain characterization as well as to highlight the relationships between these strains. no plasmid could be detected. these strains were poorly discriminated by ribotyping although different enzymes were used. the rapd analysis has given reproducible ... | 1998 | 9569707 |
| current status on the laboratory diagnosis of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale "ort" in poultry. | respiratory disease conditions are one of the most serious groups of diseases affecting poultry. ornithobacterium rhinotracheale by has recently been recognized in many countries. clinical signs and lesions are of little value in diagnosis. accurate diagnosis must be substantiated by isolation and identification of the causative bacteria and/or detection of antibodies using serological examination. in the present paper a review on the current status of ort laboratory diagnosis, results of seroty ... | 1998 | 9581349 |
| tissue distribution of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale in experimentally infected turkeys. | | 1998 | 9699256 |
| vaccination of chickens against ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection. | vaccination of young broilers with inactivated vaccines against experimental ornithobacterium rhinotracheale challenge was found to be effective, but the results of vaccination were influenced, in a negative way, by the presence of maternal antibodies. the use of a strong adjuvant, such as mineral oil, in a bacterin was necessary to obtain good protection when maternal antibodies were present. vaccination of broiler breeders resulted in high serologic responses and protection of their progeny ag ... | 1998 | 9777158 |
| inclusion body tracheitis associated with avian adenovirus in turkeys. | nine turkey flocks with basophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies, suggestive of adenovirus, within the epithelial cells of the tracheal mucosa were studied. respiratory signs and increased mortality occurred in turkeys between 6 and 10 wk of age from nine commercial turkey meat flocks in central california. necropsy findings included tracheitis and occasional mild sinusitis. histopathology of the tracheas revealed epithelial deciliation, squamous metaplasia, large basophilic intranuclear inclusi ... | 1998 | 9777161 |
| isolation of georgia variant (georgia isolate 1992) infectious bronchitis virus but not ornithobacterium rhinotracheale from a kentucky broiler complex. | integrated broiler production operations in western kentucky have been very successful. the reason for this success includes the fact that flocks are free of many endemic diseases for a period of time, often years, because birds are raised in virgin, disease-free territory. this case report documents that importation of birds from an area with endemic georgia variant (ga-92) infectious bronchitis virus and ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ort) bacterial infection resulted in introduction of ga-9 ... | 1998 | 9777165 |
| evaluation of a commercial system for the identification of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale. | | 1999 | 9925221 |
| correlation between ability of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale to agglutinate red blood cells and susceptibility to fosfomycin. | twenty five freeze-dried isolates of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale were used for the determination of minimum inhibitory concentrations (mic) against the antibiotic fosfomycin (fosbac, produced by bedson sa, consisting of a 25% mixture of fosfomycin). the same isolates were tested for their ability to haemagglutinate chicken red blood cells. ten of the 25 isolates were found to be susceptible to fosfomycin (mic values below 128 ug/ml). all of these isolates were able to agglutinate red blood c ... | 1998 | 10192845 |
| investigations on different ornithobacterium rhinotracheale "ort" isolates. | the aim of the present investigation was to determine the antigenic relationship between different ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ort) isolates and to serotype field isolates obtained from turkey and chickens. different antigen extractions (heat-stable, proteinase k-stable [lipopolysaccharide], and sodium dodecyl sulfate [sds] extractions) were prepared from each serotype (a, b, c, d, e, and g) as well as from 21 ort field isolates and examined in agar gel precipitation (agp) and enzyme-linked ... | 1999 | 10216753 |
| ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection in a turkey flock in ontario. | | 1999 | 10340099 |
| confirmation that pcr can be used to identify nad-dependent and nad-independent haemophilus paragallinarum isolates. | seventy five bacteria tentatively identified as haemophilus paragallinarum (the causative agent of infectious coryza), eight identified as ornithobacterium rhinotracheale and 13 identified as nad-independent pasteurella species were isolated from chickens with respiratory infection in various provinces in south africa. the isolates were characterized by conventional biochemical and serological methods. a polymerase chain reaction (pcr) assay specific for h. paragallinarum was used to identify th ... | 1999 | 10396764 |
| isolation of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale from turkeys in quebec, canada. | in the spring of 1997, three large white hybrid turkey layer flocks of 52 wk of age experienced a severe respiratory condition. during the outbreak, the turkeys showed respiratory signs, an increased mortality rate, and an important drop in egg production. macroscopic and histopathologic examinations were carried out on several carcasses, as well as bacteriologic analyses on different tissues. colonies of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (or) were detected after 24 hr of incubation, and the isola ... | 1999 | 10494438 |
| infectious coryza: overview of the disease and new diagnostic options. | infectious coryza is a well-recognized and commonly encountered upper respiratory tract disease of chickens that is caused by the bacterium haemophilus paragallinarum. the occurrence of recent outbreaks in north america has emphasized that the disease can be significant in meat chickens as well as layer chickens. in developing countries, coryza is commonly complicated by the presence of a range of other infections, resulting in severe disease and significant economic losses. unusual forms of the ... | 1999 | 10515906 |
| [ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infections in poultry: a review]. | o. rhinotracheale is a relatively new bacterium. it is found in commercial fowl and wild birds throughout the world. o. rhinotracheale causes respiratory disease, presenting as pneumonia and air sacculitis. it is transmitted horizontally as well as vertically. o. rhinotracheale is difficult to isolate. serologically, twelve serotypes can be distinguished, of which serotype a is the most prevalent. treatment can be difficult, because acquired resistance against the regular antibiotics is common i ... | 2000 | 10705607 |
| efficacy of elisa for detection of antibodies against several ornithobacterium rhinotracheale serotypes. | the present investigation were carried out to compare self-made elisa based on sds-antigen extraction of serotype b and one commercial elisa-kit (biocheck, gouda, the netherlands) for their ability to detect antibodies against 12 ort serotypes (a-l). using both elisa systems, antibodies against all serotypes were detected. examination of serum samples collected from commercial flocks showed similar results on flock bases. however, some minor variations on sample basis could be demonstrated. in c ... | 2000 | 10829563 |
| ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection in japan: preliminary investigations. | | 2000 | 10888000 |
| ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection in turkeys: immunoprophylaxis studies. | ornithobacterium rhinotracheale has been shown to cause serious clinical illness and is a significant concern to the turkey industry because of its potential economic impact. in this study, 6-wk-old turkeys were vaccinated intranasally with a live or subcutaneously with a killed o. rhinotracheale vaccine. at 14 or 21 wk of age, the birds were challenged intratracheally with live o. rhinotracheale. airsacculitis and pneumonia occurred less frequently in vaccinated birds than in unvaccinated birds ... | 2000 | 11007002 |
| ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection in commercial laying-type chickens. | ornithobacterium rhinotracheale is a gram-negative, rod-shaped, pleomorphic bacterium that has been isolated from flocks of turkeys and broilers from around the world. infections cause respiratory disease, mortality, and growth suppression, or clinical signs of infection may be absent. in layers, there have been few reports of disease caused by o. rhinotracheale. this is the first report of o. rhinotracheale infection in united states layer flocks. | 2000 | 11007028 |
| increased condemnation of broilers associated with ornithobacterium rhinotracheale. | | 2000 | 11072989 |
| infection of turkeys with ornithobacterium rhinotracheale and mycoplasma synoviae. | within 1 mo, two separate outbreaks of respiratory disease occurred in two flocks on the multiage market turkey farm in slovenia. more severe dinical signs and higher mortality were observed in male birds. ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ort) was isolated in pure culture from tracheas of the affected birds in both outbreaks. commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay test showed the presence of antibodies to ort in sera of birds from both clinically affected flocks and also in two flocks of y ... | 2000 | 11195628 |
| ornithobacterium rhinotracheale, a primary pathogen in broilers. | field strains of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale were tested on their virulence in different chicken breeds. ornithobacterium rhinotracheale was able to induce lesions after aerosol challenge without a previous priming with virus, and thus o. rhinotracheale was proven to be a primary pathogen. the virulence of dutch strains, isolated between 1995 and 1998, did not increase, but the dutch isolates and a south african strain were more pathogenic compared with an american strain of o. rhinotracheal ... | 2000 | 11195645 |
| outer membrane proteins for serologic detection of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection in turkeys. | ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ort) is a bacterium responsible for a respiratory disease in turkeys and chickens and has been identified as one of the emerging respiratory bacterial pathogens. the clinical signs and lesions caused by ort are very similar to those caused by other respiratory infectious agents; therefore, an accurate diagnostic test is necessary to identify the infection. in this study, we have investigated the use of outer membrane proteins of ort in an indirect enzyme-linked i ... | 2000 | 11195654 |
| serologic survey of slaughter-age ostriches (struthio camelus) for antibodies to selected avian pathogens. | serum samples from 163 slaughter-age ostriches (struthio camelus) in ohio and indiana were tested for antibodies to avian influenza virus (aiv), newcastle disease virus (ndv), paramyxovirus (pmv) 2, pmv3, pmv7, infectious bursal disease virus (ibdv), bordetella avium, mycoplasma synoviae, mycoplasma gallisepticum, ornithobacterium rhinotracheale, salmonella pullorum, salmonella gallinarum, and salmonella typhimurium. one ostrich had antibodies to aiv h5n9, 57% of the ostriches had antibodies to ... | 2000 | 11195659 |
| characterisation of some ornithobacterium rhinotracheale strains and examination of their transmission via eggs. | the biochemical characteristics and antibiotic susceptibility of 12 ornithobacterium rhinotracheale strains isolated from chickens and turkeys suffering from respiratory clinical signs and the survival of some isolates on egg-shell and within chicken eggs during hatching were examined. all o. rhinotracheale strains showed typical biochemical characteristics. among the 16 drugs examined, penicillin g, ampicillin (mics ranging from < or = 0.06 microgram/ml to 1 microgram/ml), ceftazidim (with mics ... | 2001 | 11402640 |
| polyamine distribution profiles in the eighteen genera phylogenetically located within the flavobacterium-flexibacter-cytophaga complex. | cellular polyamines of eighteen genera belonging to the flavobacterium-flexibacter-cytophaga complex were analysed by ion exchange liquid chromatography. homospermidine was the major polyamine in the genera bergeyella, riemerella, ornithobacterium, weeksella, capnocytophaga, polaribacter and psychroflexus belonging to the family flavobacteriaceae. in the family spirosomaceae, runella, spirosoma and flectobacillus species contained spermidine whereas cyclobacterium species contained homospermidin ... | 2001 | 11491527 |
| in vitro antibiotic sensitivity of strains of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale isolated in the netherlands between 1996 and 1999. | all the strains of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale isolated in the netherlands between 1996 and 1999 were tested in the agar gel diffusion test for their sensitivity to amoxycillin, tetracycline, enrofloxacin and trimethoprim/sulphonamide (tmp/s). the percentages of strains sensitive to amoxycillin and tetracycline decreased in successive years from approximately 62 per cent to 14 per cent, and four strains were resistant to enrofloxacin or tmp/s. twelve multiresistant strains were tested agains ... | 2001 | 11761291 |
| seroprevalence of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection in commercial laying hens in the north central region of the united states. | this study was the first to examine the seroprevalence of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ort) within a commercial egg layer population. serum samples collected from egg production companies were examined by serum plate agglutination test (spat) and outer membrane protein-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (elisa). results show that 90% of layer flocks were positive by spat and 100% by elisa. of the pullet flocks examined, 43% and 52% were positive by spat and elisa, respectively. our stud ... | 2001 | 11785880 |
| phenotypic and molecular characterization of isolates of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale from peru. | twenty-five isolates of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale were examined by agar gel precipitation, immunoperoxidase assay, sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, western blot analysis, and a polymerase chain reaction. all of the isolates were identified as serotype a. protein profiles of whole cell extracts were similar for all the isolates, and a polypeptide with a molecular weight of 33 kd was a major component, being present in all the isolates. in the main, proteins of 33, ... | 2001 | 11785905 |
| development, characterization, and preliminary evaluation of a temperature-sensitive mutant of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale for potential use as a live vaccine in turkeys. | a temperature-sensitive (ts) mutant strain of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ort) was developed after exposure of the wild-type organism to n-methyl-n'-nitro-n-nitrosoguanidine. the ts mutant strain grew at 31 c but had its growth inhibited at 41 c unlike wild-type parent strain. the ts mutant and parent strains were characterized. morphologic and biochemical properties of wild-type and mutant strains did not show any differences. the strains were also characterized by polymerase chain reactio ... | 2002 | 11922328 |
| minimization of pathologic changes in ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection in turkeys by temperature-sensitive mutant strain. | the protection elicited by a temperature-sensitive (ts) mutant of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ort) vaccine against challenge with pathogenic strain was investigated. in experiment 1, specific serologic response to ort was detected in 12%-19% of ts-vaccinated birds at 3 wk postvaccination by either drinking water or oculo-nasal instillation. at 7 days postchallenge, 100% of ts-vaccinated turkeys of all groups were able to respond with an ort-specific antibody response, but the control group ... | 2002 | 11922331 |
| pathogenesis of avian pneumovirus infection in turkeys. | avian pneumovirus (apv) is the cause of a respiratory disease of turkeys characterized by coughing, ocular and nasal discharge, and swelling of the infraorbital sinuses. sixty turkey poults were reared in isolation conditions. at 3 weeks of age, serum samples were collected and determined to be free of antibodies against apv, avian influenza, hemorrhagic enteritis, newcastle disease, mycoplasma gallisepticum, mycoplasma synoviae, mycoplasma meleagridis, ornithobacterium rhinotracheale, and borde ... | 2002 | 12014494 |
| investigation of the presence of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale in chickens in turkey and determination of the seroprevalance of the infection using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. | in this study, the presence of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection in the avian population in the marmara and the western black sea region was investigated. trachea samples were randomly obtained from 96 chickens sent to slaughterhouses. the seroprevalance of the infection was determined in 384 blood sera. ninety-six of these 384 samples belonged to animals from which trachea samples were obtained. eleven (11.46%) o. rhinotracheale were isolated in 96 trachea samples taken from 10 differen ... | 2002 | 12061656 |
| [isolation and differentiation of a cytochrome oxidase-negative strain of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale from turkeys]. | the present study describes the first isolation and identification of a cytochrome oxidase-negative strain of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale. this strain was isolated from 19-week-old turkeys with severe respiratory signs and was identified using biochemical, cytochemical and serological test methods. these findings indicate that cytochrome oxidase-negative ornithobacterium rhinotracheale strains become probably also an important rule as a causative agent. | 2002 | 12174724 |
| clinical signs and mortality caused by ornithobacterium rhinotracheale in turkey flocks. | upper respiratory tract disease (manifesting itself in rhinitis, tracheitis and conjunctivitis) and mortality associated with ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection were observed in four flocks of 2- to 3-week-old turkeys. in a 15- to 16-week-old turkey flock bilateral catarrhal-croupous pneumonia was found in the dead birds. in a further 5-week-old flock and in three 16- to 20-week-old turkey flocks mortality was preceded by nervous signs (motor disturbances, recumbency, abnormal carriage of ... | 2002 | 12237971 |
| studies on the bacterial etiology of airsacculitis of broilers in northern and middle jordan with special reference to escherichia coli, ornithobacterium rhinotracheale, and bordetella avium. | a total of 100 poultry farms in northern and middle areas of jordan were sampled to investigate the bacteria associated with airsacculitis in broiler chickens. of 170 bacterial isolates, 88.2% were identified as escherichia coli, 8.8% as ornithobacterium rhinotracheale, and 3% as bordetella avium. fourteen serotypes of e. coli were identified among 66 typeable isolates and the remainder were untypeable. the most prevalent serotypes were o1, o8, and o78. the main serotype of o. rhinotracheale was ... | 2002 | 12243524 |
| identification and characterization of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale isolates from mexico. | ten gram-negative, pleomorphic, rod-shaped isolates from coryza-like, respiratory diseased laying and broiler chickens were identified as ornithobacterium rhinotracheale. all o. rhinotracheale isolates showed typical biochemical and enzymatic characteristics. also, all isolates showed hemagglutinating activity with glutaraldehyde-fixed erythrocytes. on the basis of this property, a rabbit-raised antiserum was produced for an isolate. all isolates were identified by antiserum by hemagglutination- ... | 2002 | 12243533 |
| a comparative study on detection of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale antibodies in meat-type turkeys by dot immunobinding assay, rapid agglutination test and serum agglutination test. | the objectives of the present study were to develop a dot-immunobinding assay (dia) and a serum agglutination test (sat) for detection of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale, to compare the rapid agglutination test (rat) and the sat, and to make a serosurvey of o. rhinotracheale exposure on turkey farms in turkey. antiserum against o. rhinotracheale bacterin was prepared in rabbits and 72 serum samples were collected from turkeys with respiratory signs on four farms. comparison of the tests showed t ... | 2002 | 12396366 |
| survival of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale in sterilized poultry litter. | ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ort) has been associated with respiratory disease, increased mortality, retarded growth, and decreased egg production in chickens and turkeys. surveillance of exposure to ort infection in the field has shown that prevalence of the infection is higher during winter months. the ability of ort to remain viable in the poultry litter was studied at different temperatures over time. presterilized poultry litter was inoculated with 10(11) colony-forming units of ort and ... | 2002 | 12495066 |
| the effect of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale vaccination of broiler breeder chickens on the performance of their progeny. | the effect of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale vaccination of broiler breeders on antibody titres and performance of breeders and broilers was investigated. o. rhinotracheale antibody titres and performance data were recorded from 16 different broiler breeder flocks and from 79 of their broiler progeny flocks. eight breeder flocks were vaccinated with an inactivated o. rhinotracheale vaccine while the other eight breeder flocks were left unvaccinated against this bacterium. following vaccination, ... | 2002 | 12593747 |
| in vitro susceptibility of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale to several antimicrobial drugs. | as part of the basic characterization of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale, the minimal inhibitory concentrations of 10 antimicrobial drugs were determined for reference strains and mexican isolates by a broth microdilution method. for optimal growth of the organisms, a supplemented brain-heart infusion broth was used. the susceptibility of o. rhinotracheale to amoxicillin, enrofloxacin, and oxytetracycline was variable. however, consistent higher minimal inhibitory concentrations values were obta ... | 2003 | 12887209 |
| in vitro antibiotic resistance profiles of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale strains from minnesota turkeys during 1996-2002. | antimicrobial resistance in nearly all human and animal pathogens is on the increase. in poultry, ornithobacterium rhinotracheale has been identified as a newly emerging respiratory bacterial pathogen that has caused significant economic losses to the poultry industry. in this study, we examined in vitro antibiotic resistance profiles of 125 isolates of o. rhinotracheale isolated from turkeys in minnesota during 1996-2002. a majority of isolates was sensitive to clindamycin, erythromycin, specti ... | 2003 | 14562885 |
| prevalence of antibodies against ornithobacterium rhinotracheale in broilers and breeders in southern brazil. | in this investigation, we determined the prevalence of the ornithobacerium rhinotracheale (ort) infection in broilers and broiler breeders in southern brazil. we also correlated the presence of antibodies in broilers with performance. sera from 1550 broilers from 50 flocks were collected during the slaughter time in nine companies with federal veterinary inspection of the state of rio grande do sul. sera from 480 meat-type breeders of 40 flocks from 14 companies in southern brazil were also anal ... | 2003 | 14562904 |
| evaluation of pathogenic potential of avian influenza virus serotype h9n2 in chickens. | recently seven isolates of avian influenza virus (aiv) serotype h9n2 recovered from an outbreak of ai were analyzed on the basis of their biological and molecular characteristics. all the isolates belonged to the low-pathogenicity group of aiv. to further evaluate their pathogenic potential in association with other organisms, an isolate was inoculated experimentally in chickens using different routes and subsequently challenged with infectious bronchitis virus, ornithobacterium rhinotracheale o ... | 2003 | 14575070 |
| seroprevalence of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale in chickens in pakistan. | | 2003 | 14620555 |
| effects of bacterial coinfection on the pathogenesis of avian pneumovirus infection in turkeys. | four- and nine-week-old poults were inoculated with cell culture propagated avian pneumovirus (apv) into each conjunctival space and nostril, followed by inoculation 3 days later with escherichia coli, bordetella avium (ba), or ornithobacterium rhinotracheale or a mixture of all three (ebo). clinical signs were evaluated on days 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, and 14 postinoculation (pi) of apv. the poults were euthanatized on days 2, 4, 6, 10, and 14 pi, and blood and tissues were collected. the poults that re ... | 2004 | 15077796 |
| significance of interactions between escherichia coli and respiratory pathogens in layer hen flocks suffering from colibacillosis-associated mortality. | this study aimed to examine the significance of interactions between escherichia coli and various respiratory pathogens during outbreaks of colibacillosis-associated mortality in layer hen flocks under field conditions. for this purpose, a case-control study involving 20 control flocks with baseline mortality and 20 flocks with increased mortality due to e. coli septicaemia and polyserositis, was conducted. in each colibacillosis flock, blood samples were taken from 20 hens at the onset of clini ... | 2004 | 15223556 |
| studies of the transmission routes of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale and immunoprophylaxis to prevent infection in young meat turkeys. | the importance and prevention of the horizontal as well as the vertical transmission of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale were investigated. in our first experiment we observed that specific-pathogen-free broiler chickens that were placed in hatching incubators at a commercial turkey hatchery during hatch showed respiratory tract lesions at postmortem examination that were positive for o. rhinotracheale by bacteriology and immunohistology. it appeared that vertical transmission occurred and that h ... | 2004 | 15283409 |
| characterization of plasmid por1 from ornithobacterium rhinotracheale and construction of a shuttle plasmid. | the bacterium ornithobacterium rhinotracheale has been recognized as an emerging pathogen in poultry since about 10 years ago. knowledge of this bacterium and its mechanisms of virulence is still very limited. here we report the development of a transformation system that enables genetic modification of o. rhinotracheale. the system is based on a cryptic plasmid, por1, that was derived from an o. rhinotracheale strain of serotype k. sequencing indicated that the plasmid consisted of 14,787 nucle ... | 2004 | 15466524 |
| the use of a bacterin vaccine in broiler breeders for the control of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale in commercial broilers. | ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ort) is a recently identified bacterial pathogen of poultry, linked to the respiratory disease complex of broilers and the economic losses associated with that disease complex. present control measures applied for the disease include the continuous use of in-feed antibiotics. a recently developed bacterin vaccine that is applied to broiler-breeder hens to pass on protective immunity to their broiler progeny was tested under large-scale commercial conditions in so ... | 2004 | 15628804 |
| isolation and characterization of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale from chickens in brazil. | ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ort) is a recently described species of bacterium associated with respiratory disease, growth retardation, mortality, and decreased egg production in chickens and turkeys. pneumonia, pleuritis, and airsacculitis characterise the infection. ort has been isolated in many countries but it is still considered exotic in brazil. up to date it is prohibited to import and produce reagents for diagnostic and vaccination control. the aim of this study was to isolate and id ... | 2004 | 15766941 |
| diagnosis and incidence of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infections in commercial broiler chickens at slaughter. | | 2005 | 15786921 |
| key role of chlamydophila psittaci on belgian turkey farms in association with other respiratory pathogens. | two hundred turkey sera from eight belgian and two french farms were tested for the presence of antibodies against avian pneumovirus (apv), ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ort), mycoplasma gallisepticum, mycoplasma meleagridis and chlamydophila psittaci. at slaughter, c. psittaci, apv and ort antibodies were detected in 94, 34 and 6.5% of the turkeys, respectively. no antibodies against m. gallisepticum or m. meleagridis were present. additionally, turkeys on three belgian farms were examined f ... | 2005 | 15795081 |
| passive immunization of immune-suppressed animals: chicken antibodies protect against ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection. | unravelling of the protective immunity acquired during a natural infection may contribute to vaccine development. to assess the role of antibody-mediated immunity in protection against ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection in chickens, a novel experimental method was applied that combined immune depletion and passive transfer of immunity within the same host. administration of cyclophosphamide (cy) to broiler chickens successfully suppressed b lymphocyte development, and therefore humoral im ... | 2005 | 15837364 |
| intraspecies genetic variability of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale in commercial birds in peru. | strains of the bacterium ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ort), a causal agent of respiratory diseases in birds, were microbiologically isolated, identified, and molecularly characterized. blood-enriched culture media and biochemistry tests were used for microbiologic identification. polymerase chain reaction (pcr) and repetitive extragenic palindromic pcr (rep-pcr) techniques were used for molecular identification and characterization, respectively, of the microorganism. ort strains were isolat ... | 2005 | 15839422 |
| successful selection of cross-protective vaccine candidates for ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection. | ornithobacterium rhinotracheale is a bacterial pathogen known for causing respiratory disease in poultry. in this study, we demonstrate for the first time that cross-protective immunity against different o. rhinotracheale serotypes can be induced by live vaccination. sera from these live-vaccinated and cross-protected birds were used to identify new vaccine targets by screening an o. rhinotracheale expression library. out of 20,000 screened plaques, a total of 30 cross-reactive clones were selec ... | 2005 | 16177359 |
| synergy between avian pneumovirus and ornithobacterium rhinotracheale in turkeys. | the purpose of this study was to assess the possible synergism between ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ort) and avian pneumovirus (apv), inoculated into turkeys via the natural route, for the reproduction of respiratory disease. three-week-old specific pathogen free turkeys were inoculated oculonasally with either apv subtype a, ort or both agents using two different time intervals (3 and 5 days) between apv and ort. the birds were observed clinically on a daily basis and swabbed intratracheall ... | 2005 | 16191703 |
| vaccine potential of recombinant ornithobacterium rhinotracheale antigens. | ornithobacterium rhinotracheale is a pathogen involved in respiratory infection and systemic disease in poultry. previously, eight potential vaccine candidates were identified that induced cross-protective immunity when administered to chickens as a multi-component vaccine. in this study, we analyzed the immunogenicity of these eight recombinant proteins by subunit vaccination, and characterized the different proteins and corresponding genes more thoroughly by sequencing, in vitro expression ana ... | 2006 | 16318896 |
| seroprevalence of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection in broiler and broiler breeder chickens in west azerbaijan province, iran. | ornithobacterium rhinotracheale is a pleomorphic gram-negative rod shaped bacterium of the rrna superfamily v that is associated with respiratory disease in poultry. this study was conducted to determine the seroprevalence of o. rhinotracheale infection in broiler and broiler breeder chickens in west azerbaijan (urmia lake region) by using a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. in this study, 463 serum samples were obtained from 50 broiler flocks and 472 blood sera from 42 broiler breed ... | 2006 | 16411908 |
| diagnosis of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection in chickens by elisa. | specific ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ort) antibodies were determined in serum samples of 24 clinically infected broiler flocks of different ages (1-42 d) and 11 broiler-breeding flocks (at ages between 26-56 w) by elisa. two commercially available kits were separately assessed. the biocheck elisa kit was used for testing 363 serum samples representing 12 broiler flocks, where 74 samples (20.3 %) were found to be positive and 49 (13.5 %) were suspected. the idexx elisa kit was used for testi ... | 2005 | 16734143 |
| comparison of the efficacy of four antimicrobial treatment schemes against experimental ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection in turkey poults pre-infected with avian pneumovirus. | the clinical efficacy of drinking-water administration of enrofloxacin for 3 and 5 days, amoxicillin for 5 days and florfenicol for 5 days for the treatment of respiratory disease induced by an experimental ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection in turkeys pre-infected with avian pneumovirus (apv) was assessed based on clinical, bacteriological and histopathological examinations. experimental groups of 15 susceptible 3-week-old turkeys were each inoculated oculonasally with apv subtype a and ... | 2006 | 16753615 |
| in vivo selection of reduced enrofloxacin susceptibility in ornithobacterium rhinotracheale and its resistance-related mutations in gyra. | this study determines the genetic background of the change in antimicrobial susceptibility to enrofloxacin of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ort) isolates with increased mic values, isolated either from the field or from turkeys treated with enrofloxacin under experimental challenge conditions. in the field strains of ort that were either less susceptible or, occasionally, resistant to enrofloxacin, point mutations had occurred in amino acids at positions 83 (serine) or 87 (aspartic acid) of t ... | 2006 | 16922632 |
| biological and molecular characterization of avian influenza virus (h9n2) isolates from iran. | three influenza a virus (h9n2) isolates obtained from three separate broiler flocks with variable mortality rates were cloned twice in embryonated spf chicken eggs by limiting dilution. biological properties of these isolates were examined in 4-week-old spf chickens and chick embryo fibroblast (cef) cultures. the isolates neither caused mortality in the inoculated chickens nor produced cpe in cell cultures, indicating low pathogenicity. pcr products of 486 bp containing the sequences for hemaggl ... | 2006 | 17131934 |
| efficacy of enrofloxacin, florfenicol and amoxicillin against ornithobacterium rhinotracheale and escherichia coli o2:k1 dual infection in turkeys following apv priming. | experimental groups of 15 susceptible 3-week-old turkeys were inoculated oculonasally with avian metapneumovirus (apv) subtype a and susceptible escherichia coli o2:k1 and ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ort) bacteria, with a 3 days interval between viral and bacterial inoculation and approximately 8h between the two bacterial inoculations. the aims of the present study were to assess the efficacy of drinking-water administration of enrofloxacin for 3 and 5 days, amoxicillin for 5 days and flor ... | 2007 | 17187945 |
| phenotypic and molecular characterization of isolates of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale from chickens and pigeons in taiwan. | forty ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ort) strains were isolated from 28 chickens and 12 pigeons for the first time in taiwan. all isolates reacted positively in the p-nitrophenyl-beta-d-galactopyranoside (pnpg) and oxidase tests, showing an api 20ne identification system biocode 0-0-2-0-0-0-4. all the pigeon isolates and 85.7% (24 of 28) of the chicken isolates belonged to serotype a. compared to the ort atcc 51464 strain, 14.3% (4 of 28) of chicken isolates and 58.3% (7 of 12) of pigeon isola ... | 2006 | 17274285 |
| application of polymerase chain reaction fingerprinting to differentiate ornithobacterium rhinotracheale isolates. | ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ort) is an infectious respiratory pathogen of chickens, turkeys, and wild birds. there are 18 serotypes of ort reported worldwide. in this study, enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus (eric) polymerase chain reaction and random amplified polymorphic dna assay with universal m13 primer-based fingerprinting techniques were investigated for their ability to differentiate ort isolates. the authors examined 50 field isolates and 8 reference strains of ort fo ... | 2007 | 17609355 |
| seroprevalence and identification of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale from broiler and broiler breeder flocks in thailand. | ornithobacteriosis is an infectious disease of avian species that has been reported in almost all countries around the world, except thailand. the objectives of this study were to determine the seroprevalence of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ort) and to isolate and identify ort in broilers and broiler breeders in thailand. chicken antibodies had been randomly checked from 17 farms (19 flocks) of broilers and 23 farms (28 flocks) of broiler breeders. the seropositive flocks were 63% and 100% i ... | 2007 | 17992941 |
| the effect of vaccination of pullets against ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection. | the effect of vaccination of chickens with different inactivated vaccines against experimental ornithobacterium rhinotracheale challenge was investigated. eight different vaccines, with different inactivating substances (formalin and thiomersal) and with or without adjuvant (mineral oil, alum and aluminium hydroxide gel), were produced. following vaccination of experimental chickens at week 8 with formalin-inactivated mineral oil adjuvant bacterin, the mean o. rhinotracheale antibody titres rose ... | 2007 | 17994327 |
| amplified 16s ribosomal dna restriction analysis for identification of avibacterium paragallinarum. | a molecular technique based on the restriction fragment length polymorphism of the 16s ribosomal genes amplified by a polymerase chain reaction (pcr), referred to as amplified 16s ribosomal dna restriction analysis (ardra), was designed to identify 19 avibacterium paragallinarum strains isolated from infraorbital sinus and nasal turbinate bone samples of broiler chickens, breeders, and laying hens from different regions of peru. the 16s rdna was amplified by pcr using a pair of bacterial univers ... | 2008 | 18459296 |
| hemagglutinating activity of serovar reference strains of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale. | in the present study, the hemagglutinating activity of 9 reference strains (serovars a-i) of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale was investigated by using fresh erythrocytes from 15 different species: chicken (broiler, rooster, hen), turkey, pigeon, quail, duck, harris hawk (parabuteo unicinctus), house finch (carpodacus mexicanus), cow, sheep, horse, dog, rabbit, pig, human (groups a, b, ab, and o), and rainbow trout (oncorhynchus mykiss). all 9 strains agglutinated rabbit erythrocytes. none of the ... | 2008 | 18460626 |
| isolation and identification of nad-independent bacteria from chickens with symptoms of infectious coryza. | since 1990, nad-independent bacteria have been isolated in south africa from poultry showing respiratory manifestations similar to infectious coryza. a total of 126 isolates was examined biochemically and serologically, using polyclonal as well as monoclonal antibodies. forty isolates were identified as ornithobacterium rhinotra-cheale, some of which agglutinated glutaraldehyde-fixed red blood cells. furthermore, fourteen pasteurella avium isolates, five p. volantium and three pasteurella specie ... | 1997 | 18483930 |
| [ethics in practice: antibiotics in poultry]. | | 2008 | 18615905 |
| isolation and identification of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale in broiler breeder flocks of guilan province, north of iran. | the aims of the present study were to isolate and serotype, determine the seroprevalence, drug susceptibility and diagnosis of infection by polymerase chain reaction (pcr). in this study 460 serum samples and 220 tracheal swabs, 90 ovaries and oviduct swabs, 90 misshapen egg shells swabs were collected from 22 broiler breeder flocks of 5 companies. serological results showed that all of the 22 flocks (100%) were positive for ort infection. ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ort) antibodies were de ... | 2008 | 18817252 |
| iron acquisition by ornithobacterium rhinotracheale. | ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ort) is an emerging respiratory pathogen of poultry in north america that is causing millions of dollars in economic losses to the poultry industry. ornithobacterium rhinotracheale is associated with airsacculitis, pleuritis, pneumonia, and consolidation of lungs. little is known about the molecular mechanisms of infection. in this study, the mechanism of iron acquisition by o. rhinotracheale was explored. o. rhinotracheale strains grown under iron deprivation in ... | 2008 | 18939629 |
| simultaneous zoonotic transmission of chlamydophila psittaci genotypes d, f and e/b to a veterinary scientist. | two groups of five 1-day-old conventional turkeys were housed in negative pressure stables to become experimentally infected with avian metapneumovirus (ampv) and ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ort) at the age of 3 weeks. however, during the first 2 weeks, turkeys started to show respiratory disease characterized by rhinitis and dyspnoea. routine bacterial and viral diagnoses remained negative. therefore, pharyngeal swabs from the turkeys and from the veterinary scientist handling the animals ... | 2009 | 18963600 |
| the role of outer membrane proteins of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale in attachment to chicken tracheal epithelium. | ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ort) infections cause major losses to the poultry industry. in search for factors implicated in the pathogenesis of ort infections, the role of outer membrane proteins (omps) in the interaction of ort with chicken tracheal epithelium was investigated. for this purpose, immune sera were prepared against total extracted omps, whole cell bacteria and three major omps of 45, 53 and 70 kda and used in bacterial adherence inhibition assay. the results showed antibodies ... | 2007 | 19069519 |
| antibiotic sensitivity and resistance in ornithobacterium rhinotracheale strains from belgian broiler chickens. | establishing the antibiotic sensitivity of the avian respiratory pathogen ornithobacterium rhinotracheale is difficult because of the organism's complex growth requirements and the unusually frequent occurrence of resistance. the minimal inhibitory concentrations of 10 antibiotics were determined for 45 strains of o. rhinotracheale from belgian broiler chickens collected from 45 farms between 1995 and 1998. they were compared with the type strain, which was isolated from a turkey, and a strain i ... | 2001 | 19184900 |
| use of random amplified polymorphic dna analysis and single-enzyme amplified fragment length polymorphism in molecular typing of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale strains. | ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ort) is a bacterium common to commercial poultry and wild birds throughout the world. it is also known as a causative agent of respiratory diseases. a total of 93 ort isolates originating from chickens, pigeons, ostriches, quail, turkeys, and an asian crested goshawk (accipiter trivirgatus) in taiwan, between 2004 and 2006, were used in this study. high genetic similarity (97%-100%) in 16s rrna sequence was revealed among the 50 randomly selected isolates, in add ... | 2009 | 19432012 |
| sero-prevalence and identification of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale in broiler flocks in south-eastern iran. | ornithobacterium rhinotracheale is a gram negative bacterial pathogen causing respiratory tract infections in poultry. tracheal, lung and serum samples were obtained from 21 broiler flocks of 8 farms from a slaughterhouse located in south-eastern of iran. among 630 tracheal and lung samples from samples resulting from 315 chickens, 11 (3.5%) ort isolates were identified using biochemical tests. the isolates originated from 9 (42.9%) flocks out of 4 farms. all of the isolates were recovered from ... | 2009 | 19437126 |
| the effect of reduced treatment time and dosage of enrofloxacin on the course of respiratory disease caused by avian metapneumovirus and ornithobacterium rhinotracheale. | a dose titration and reduced duration medication study were performed to evaluate the current enrofloxacin treatment schedule in growing turkeys experimentally infected with avian metapneumovirus and ornithobacterium rhinotracheale. experimental groups of 17 four-week-old turkeys were first infected with avian metapneumovirus and 3 d later with o. rhinotracheale. enrofloxacin treatment in the drinking water was started 24 h after o. rhinotracheale inoculation. in the dose titration study, enrofl ... | 2009 | 19834081 |
| efficacy of four enrofloxacin treatment regimens against experimental infection in turkey poults with avian pneumovirus and ornithobacterium rhinotracheale. | drinking-water treatment with enrofloxacin is widely used to cure respiratory infections in turkeys. the current treatment regimen advises a 5-day treatment at 10 mg/kg body weight. since enrofloxacin exerts a concentration-dependent activity it might be useful to provide the total treatment dose of 50 mg/kg total dose in a single-day treatment regimen. we therefore assessed whether single-day treatment regimens with 50 mg/kg body weight were clinically equivalent to the advised multiple-day tre ... | 2009 | 19937513 |
| nervous signs associated with otitis and cranial osteomyelitis and with ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection in red-legged partridges (alectoris rufa). | a case of nervous signs in red-legged partridges (alectoris rufa) associated with a severe otitis and osteomyelitis is reported. the outbreak was characterized by abnormal head position, torticollis and difficulty in standing, walking and flying. pathological, microbiological and molecular genetic data supported an association with ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ort) infection. clinical signs persisted for several days and were accompanied by weight loss leading to death. morbidity was approxi ... | 2009 | 19937521 |
| control of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale in poultry. | | 2009 | 19946131 |
| chlamydophila psittaci infections in turkeys: overview of economic and zoonotic importance and vaccine development. | we provide evidence on the multifactorial infectious etiology of respiratory disease in turkeys. although chlamydophila psittaci is difficult to diagnose, this entity should not be neglected in veterinary diagnostic laboratories. the present results suggest a pathogenic interplay between chlamydophila, avian metapneumovirus and ornithobacterium rhinotracheale. additionally, we demonstrate zoonotic transmission from turkeys to humans. psittacosis due to contact with poultry probably occurs more o ... | 2009 | 20011707 |
| ornithobacterium rhinotracheale in nestling falcons. | this case report describes a severe outbreak of airsacculitis caused by ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ort) in a large falcon breeding farm. forty young falcons hatched from artificially incubated hatching eggs and were raised by hand for 5-8 days after hatch. afterwards they were placed back with the parents. three days after being with the parents, the stock breeder observed that the young falcons stopped begging for food, their crops were empty, and approximately 20% of the young demonstrat ... | 2010 | 20408418 |