| an outbreak of erysipelas in chukars. | a peracute severe outbreak of erysipelas in chukars (alectoris chukar) caused 55% mortality. pheasants and quails on the same premises were not affected. possible sources of infection and pathogenesis are discussed. | 1985 | 4074250 |
| a study of a salmonella infection in a flock of chukar partridges. | | 1963 | 5896513 |
| hexamita meleagridis (spironucleus meleagridis) infection in chukar partridges associated with high mortality and intracellular trophozoites. | an outbreak of infectious catarrhal enteritis, associated with the flagellated protozoan spironucleus meleagridis (syn. hexamita meleagridis), is reported from a commercial flock of chukar partridges in california. the disease affected birds between the ages of 4 and 6 wk and resulted in diarrhea, listlessness, depression, and high mortality. concurrent infection with other intestinal pathogens, including cryptosporidia, group e salmonella, long-segmented filamentous microorganisms (lsfmos), and ... | 2004 | 15529998 |
| cutaneous water evaporation--ii. survival of birds under extreme thermal stress. | two birds, the pigeon (columba livia) and the partridge (alectoris chukar), differing in their habits and flight ability were compared with regard to their ability to survive extreme high air temperatures (ta's). during 270 min survival tests birds were exposed to ta's between 45 and 60 degrees c and low relative humidities. the pigeon was observed to be unique in its ability to survive 270 min of exposure to 60 degrees c while regulating tb at 43.8 degrees c. the partridge could not survive 270 ... | 1983 | 6136379 |
| ascaridia galli (schrank, 1788) from the chukar partridge, alectoris chukar (gray), in nevada. | | 1969 | 5361278 |
| life cycle and biology of eimeria lettyae sp. n. (protozoa: eimeriidae) from the northern bobwhite, colinus virginianus (l.). | a new species of coccidium, eimeria lettyae sp. n. (protozoa: eimeriidae) was recovered from feces of the northern bobwhite, colinus virginianus (l.), from pennsylvania and florida. oocysts measured 21.1 microns (16.4 to 25.8) by 17.2 microns (14.1 to 21.2); index (l/w ratio) = 1.22. oocysts lacked a micropyle, residuum, and polar granules. sporozoites penetrated the upper 1/2 of the villi, then moved to the lamina propria at the base of the villi. there were five asexual generations, all of whi ... | 1985 | 4078970 |
| blood sampling from the venous occipital sinus of birds. | venous occipital sinus blood sampling was demonstrated to be an effective nonlethal method in all species tested including ducks, geese, chukar partridge, japanese quail, pea-fowl, pheasants, parakeets, turkeys, and chickens. maximum blood volume obtained from the occipital sinus of 1-day-old chicks equalled the volume obtained by cardiac puncture and exceeded the volume collected by decapitation. venous occipital sinus puncture was successfully used to rapidly collect several successive blood s ... | 1985 | 4070124 |
| fluoroacetamide (1081) oisoning in wild birds. | an outbreak of poisoning in four greylag geese (anser anser) and 35-45 teal (anas crecca) is described. laboratory findings led to the conclusion that a wheat bait containing the rodenticide fluoracetamide (1081) caused the poisoning. circumstantial evidence incriminated fluoracetamide as the cause of death in white-fronted geese (anser albifrons), mallards (anas platyrhynchos), and chukars (alectoris chukar). | 1975 | 1195498 |
| erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae infection in chukar partridge (alectoris graeca). | erysipelas was diagnosed in chukar partridges (alectoris graeca) kept as hunting stock. mortality was 265 of 500 (53%) over a period of one week. | 1976 | 933318 |
| development of the bursa of fabricius in the partridge and pheasant. | development and regression of the bursa of fabricius was measured in chukar partridge (alectoris chukar) and ring-necked pheasant (phasianus colchicus) from hatch to 40 and 34 weeks of age, respectively. testes weights were recorded for 8 to 34-week-old pheasants and 12 to 30-week-old chukars. approximately 12 partridges and 12 pheasants of mixed sex were killed every other week and their bursae measured and weighed. results indicated that chukar bursal weight peaked at about 10 weeks of age in ... | 1987 | 3601851 |
| lead pellet ingestion and liver-lead concentrations in upland game birds from southern ontario, canada. | one-hundred twenty-three gizzards from upland game birds (chukar, alectoris chukar; and common pheasant, phasianus colchicus) harvested by hunters in southern ontario, canada, were examined for lead pellet ingestion by manual examination of gizzard contents and by radiography. lead pellets were found to be ingested by chukars (6/76; 8%) and the common pheasant (16/47; 34%). further, 13% (17/129) of the bird (wild turkey, meleagris gallopavo; hungarian partridge, perdix perdix; chukar; and common ... | 2008 | 17763885 |
| west nile virus-associated mortality events in domestic chukar partridges (alectoris chukar) and domestic impeyan pheasants (lophophorus impeyanus). | west nile virus (wnv) infection was diagnosed in captive juvenile chukars (alectoris chukar), and captive juvenile impeyan pheasants (lophophorus impeyanus) on the basis of necropsy, histopathology, polymerase chain reaction, and immunohistochemistry. the chukars were kept in a game bird farm that experienced two outbreaks with approximately 25% mortality in hundreds of chukars between september and october 2002 and during the same months in 2003. the submitted pheasants were part of a group of ... | 2006 | 17039851 |
| comparison of the replication of influenza a viruses in chinese ring-necked pheasants and chukar partridges. | we investigated the replication and transmission of avian influenza a viruses in two species thought to be intermediate hosts in the spread of influenza a viruses in live poultry markets: chinese ring-necked pheasants and chukar partridges. all 15 hemagglutinin subtypes replicated in pheasants, and most subtypes transmitted to naïve contact pheasants, primarily via the fecal-oral route. many viruses were shed from the gastrointestinal tract of experimentally inoculated pheasants for 14 days or l ... | 2006 | 16474123 |
| a comparative study of genetic diversity of peripheral and central populations of chukar partridge from northwestern china. | although it has long been presumed that peripheral populations tend to exhibit low genetic diversity because of isolation and genetic drift, results of empirical investigation remain ambiguous. some chukar partridge (alectoris chukar) populations have expanded their ranges, resulting in several peripheral populations, due to recent deforestation by human beings in the longdong loess plateau of northwestern china. on the basis of mitochondrial dna control-region data, we compare the genetic diver ... | 2005 | 16382366 |
| epidemiology, production losses, and control measures associated with an outbreak of avian influenza subtype h7n2 in pennsylvania (1996-98). | an outbreak of h7n2 low-pathogenicity (lp) avian influenza (ai) occurred in a two-county area in pennsylvania from december of 1996 through april of 1998. the outbreak resulted in infection of 2,623,116 commercial birds on 25 premises encompassing 47 flocks. twenty-one (one premise with infection twice) of the twenty-five infected premises housed egg-laying chickens and one premise each had turkeys, layer pullets, quail, and a mixed backyard dealer flock. despite dose proximity of infected flock ... | 2003 | 14575105 |
| shifts in bilateral asymmetry within a distribution range: the case of the chukar partridge. | three major types of bilateral asymmetry (fluctuating asymmetry, directional asymmetry, and antisymmetry) have long been recognized in the literature. little, however, is known about transitions between asymmetry types, especially in natural populations. it is often assumed that directional asymmetry and antisymmetry have a larger genetic basis than fluctuating asymmetry. this leads many scientists to exclude traits or populations showing either directional asymmetry or antisymmetry from develop ... | 2001 | 11761067 |
| relationship between heterozygosity and asymmetry: a test across the distribution range. | the genetic basis of developmental stability, as measured by bilateral asymmetry, has been debated for over 50 years among developmental and evolutionary biologists. one of the central theories dealing with this relationship suggests that higher levels of genetic diversity, as reflected in heterozygosity, result in increased stability during development and thus in lower asymmetry. in this study, we aimed to test the relationship between asymmetry and heterozygosity at two levels: (1) the popula ... | 2001 | 11380656 |
| effects of body size on take-off flight performance in the phasianidae (aves). | to evaluate the mechanisms responsible for relationships between body mass and maximum take-off performance in birds, we studied four species in the phasianidae: northern bobwhite (colinus virginianus), chukar (alectoris chukar), ring-necked pheasant (phasianus colchicus) and wild turkey (meleagris gallopavo). these species vary in body mass from 0.2 to 5.3 kg, and they use flight almost solely to escape predators. during take-off, all the species used a similar wingbeat style that appeared to b ... | 2000 | 11023852 |
| chlamydiosis in pen-raised bobwhite quail (colinus virginianus) and chukar partridge (alectoris chukar) with high mortality. | in a flock of 12,000 bobwhite quail (colinus virginianus) and 7200 chukar partridge (alectoris chukar), the owner had 100% morbidity and 40%-50% mortality in birds between the ages of 2 and 4 wk. affected birds were stunted and anorexic and had yellow/green diarrhea. two- and 4-wk-old birds submitted for necropsy all had slight nasal discharge. histopathologic examination revealed mild (bobwhite) to severe (chukar) rhinitis. immunohistochemistry was positive for chlamydia psittaci in all birds. ... | 1999 | 10611999 |
| experimental reproduction of mycoplasma gallisepticum disease in chukar partridges (alectoris graeca). | an outbreak of conjunctivitis and severe respiratory disease occurred in an integrated chukar partridge (alectoris graeca) operation that involved about 8000 birds. the main clinical features were conjunctivitis and sinusitis and frequent mouth breathing, but almost no gasping or coughing. in 1000 breeders, egg production declined from 73% to 20%. morbidity reached 100%, and losses from mortality and culling approached 60%. at necropsy, a conjunctivitis (often bilateral) and extensive caseated s ... | 1996 | 8790893 |
| highlands j virus-associated mortality in chukar partridges. | | 1994 | 8011789 |
| mycoplasma gallisepticum infection in chukar partridges, pheasants, and peafowl. | mycoplasma gallisepticum infection was diagnosed in a group of chukar partridges, pheasants, and peafowl based on serology and isolation techniques. the farm also had quail, chickens, and ducks. clinical signs in growing birds consisted of foamy eyes, swollen infraorbital sinuses, respiratory distress, and death. breeding birds experienced a severe drop in egg production. histologically, the growing birds exhibited lymphoplasmacytic inflammation of the conjunctiva, sinus, and trachea. the most l ... | 1994 | 7702531 |
| pathogenicity of coccidia in japanese quail (coturnix coturnix japonica). | coccidia were recovered from a field outbreak in commercially raised japanese quail from south carolina. after propagation in unmedicated quail, the culture was identified as a mixture of approximately 65% eimeria uzura, 33% e. tsunodai, and 2% e. taldykurganica. several pure cultures of e. uzura were obtained by single oocyst isolation. a micropyle was not present in all oocysts; thus, it is not a reliable taxonomic characteristic for identification of e. uzura. neither the mixed culture nor th ... | 1984 | 6701143 |
| blood parameters of one-year-old and seven-year old partridges (alectoris chukar). | several blood parameters were determined for 12 1-year-old and 12 7-year-old partridges to establish base line values on blood chemistry of this species. after taking blood samples, the 7-year-old birds were killed and necropsied for gross examination. with aging, there was a significant increase in plasma glucose, glutamic-oxalacetic transaminase (got), potassium, cholesterol, uric acid, and albumin. males generally had a significantly lower lactic dehydrogenase (ldh) than females. the 7-year-o ... | 1983 | 6669515 |
| ascaridia numidae (leiper, 1908; travassos, 1913) in rock partridge (alectoris chukar) in turkey. | this report present first case of ascaridia numidae isolated from three dead rock partridges (alectoris chukar) with stressing morphological characteristics and its responsiveness to the medical treatment. a. numidae was confirmed by presence of one papilla on the posterior region of the preanal sucker and a total of 10 pairs of the caudal papillae. in necropsy, a total of 680 (282 male and 3,988 female) a. numidae and 289 (147 male and 142 female) heterakis dispar were isolated from all partrid ... | 2008 | 18040718 |
| cutaneous water evaporation--i. its significance in heat-stressed birds. | in a comparative study on avian cutaneous evaporation, two species of phasianidae, japanese quail coturnix coturnix japonica and chukar partridge alectoris chukar, and three species of columbidae, palm dove streptopelia senegalensis, collared turtle dove streptopelia decaocto and rock pigeon columbia livia, were investigated. the skin resistance to vapor diffusion (rs) and cutaneous water loss (cwl) were studied in these birds exposed to air temperatures (ta) between 20 and 52 degrees c. the ski ... | 1983 | 6136378 |
| experimental toxoplasmosis in chukar partridges(alectoris graeca). | thirty battery-hatched chukar partridges (alectorts graeca) were inoculated orally with oocysts of the me 49 or the gt-1 strain of toxoplasma gondii. all six chukars given 10,000 gt-1 strain oocysts died or were euthanized between postinoculation day (p.i.d.) 3 and 6. fifteen of 24 chukars given 10,000, 1000, 100 or 10 me 49 strain oocysts died or were euthanized between p.i.d. 6 and 14. nine chukars that were not ill by p.i.d. 14 remained clinically normal until euthanized in good health p.i.d. ... | 1995 | 18645768 |
| adenovirus group ii-like infection in chukar partridges (alectoris chukar). | seven live 5-to-6-wk-old chukar partridges (alectoris chukar) were examined because of increased lacrimation, swollen eyelids, and increased mortality. gross lesions consisted of mildly enlarged and mottled white spleens, swollen eyelids with external scab formation, and watery intestinal contents. microscopically, there were increased numbers of mononuclear phagocytic system cells in the spleen, some of which contained faintly staining basophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies, blepharoconjuncti ... | 2008 | 18646470 |
| high susceptibility of partridges ( perdix perdix ) to toxoplasmosis compared with other gallinaceous birds. | partridges ( perdix perdix ), chukars ( alectoris chukar ), wild guineafowl ( numida meleagris ), wild turkeys ( meleagris gallopavo ) and chickens ( gallus domesticus ) were inoculated per os with 103 or 105 toxoplasma gondii oocysts (k7 strain). two of five partridges fed 103 oocysts and six of eight partridges fed 105 oocysts died between day 6 and 16 post-inoculation (p.i.); no clinical symptoms were observed in surviving birds. antibodies to t. gondii were detected in the birds by the indir ... | 2000 | 19184852 |
| identification of raw and heat-processed meats from game bird species by polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism of the mitochondrial d-loop region. | polymerase chain reaction-rflp analysis has been applied to the identification of meats from quail (coturnix coturnix), pheasant (phasianus colchicus), red-legged partridge (alectoris rufa), chukar partridge (alectoris chukar), guinea fowl (numida meleagris), capercaillie (tetrao urogallus), eurasian woodcock (scolopax rusticola), and woodpigeon (columba palumbus). polymerase chain reaction amplification was carried out using a set of primers flanking a conserved region of approximately 310 bp f ... | 2009 | 19211540 |
| histomonas meleagridis and capillarid infection in a captive chukar (alectoris chukar). | a female, adult, pen-raised chukar (alectoris chukar) was submitted for postmortem examination. the main gross findings were severe emaciation, coelomic cavity and pericardial edema, and a large, sharply demarcated area of necrosis in the liver. histologically, the liver lesions were characterized by areas of severe necrosis and inflammation containing numerous protozoal organisms morphologically consistent with histomonas meleagridis. there was necrotizing typhlitis, with few histomonads and sc ... | 2009 | 20095170 |
| when hatchlings outperform adults: locomotor development in australian brush turkeys (alectura lathami, galliformes). | within galliformes, megapods (brush turkey, malleefowl, scrubfowl) exhibit unique forms of parental care and growth. hatchlings receive no post-hatching parental care and exhibit the most exaggerated precocial development of all extant birds, hatching with fully developed, flight-capable forelimbs. rather than flying up to safety, young birds preferentially employ wing-assisted incline running. newly hatched australian brush turkeys (alectura lathami) are extraordinarily proficient at negotiatin ... | 2010 | 21047855 |
| induced systemic listeriosis in alectoris chukar chicks: clinical, histopathological and microbiological findings. | 1. systemic listeriosis was induced in 14-d-old chukar partridge chicks, alectoris chukar, by intravenous injection of a suspension containing 10(6) cfu/ml of viable listeria monocytogenes organisms to study the course of infection. 2. septicaemic and encephalitic forms of listeriosis were observed in all birds. infection resulted in a fever response 8-h post-inoculation. disease rapidly developed over a 24-h period with decreased activity, lethargy, ruffled feathers, huddling, listlessness, ina ... | 2015 | 26551997 |
| diagnostic exercise: high mortality in a flock of chukar partridge chicks (alectoris chukar) in california. | mortality of 20% of a flock of 1000 chukar partridge chicks occurred over a 6-week period in northern california from august to september 2012. affected birds were 2 to 42 days old and died without premonitory clinical signs or after showing ruffled feathers and anorexia for 24 to 72 hours. three carcasses were submitted for necropsy, 2 birds had hemorrhagic tracheitis grossly, and all 3 had lymphoplasmacytic and histiocytic myocarditis with myocardial necrosis microscopically. the differential ... | 2015 | 24686386 |
| a comparison of fat-soluble antioxidants in wild and farm-reared chukar partridges (alectoris chukar). | this study assessed differences in antioxidant (carotenoid, retinol, retinol-ester, vitamin e and coenzyme q10) composition of egg yolk and tissue in chukar partridges (alectoris chukar) newly hatched from eggs of birds maintained in captivity on commercial maize-soybean based diets and birds from the wild whose diet was obtained from the natural environment. all eggs were incubated in a commercial hatchery. day-old chicks from both groups were sacrificed and dissected for antioxidant analysis. ... | 2017 | 28359879 |
| growth and development of chicks of two species of partridge: the grey partridge (perdix perdix) and the chukar (alectoris chukar). | 1. in two partridge species, the grey partridge (perdix perdix) and chukar (alectoris chukar), from hatching up to 120 d, the growth rate and development of body mass, wing, tarsus, and bill length were measured and fitted by gompertz equations. 2. as a typical precocial species, partridges hatched with relatively well developed legs and bills, and wing growth followed a gradual development of thermoregulation. 3. gompertz growth constants for body mass growth were 0·039 and 0·038 for grey partr ... | 2012 | 22404815 |
| new evidences of mitochondrial dna heteroplasmy by putative paternal leakage between the rock partridge (alectoris graeca) and the chukar partridge (alectoris chukar). | the rock partridge, alectoris graeca, is a polytypic species declining in italy mostly due to anthropogenic causes, including the massive releases of the closely related allochthonous chukar partridge alectoris chukar which produced the formation of hybrids. molecular approaches are fundamental for the identification of evolutionary units in the perspective of conservation and management, and to correctly select individuals to be used in restocking campaigns. we analyzed a cytochrome oxidase i ( ... | 2017 | 28114306 |
| coccidiosis in the chukar partridge ( alectoris chukar ): a survey of coccidiosis outbreaks and a test of anticoccidial drugs against eimeria kofoidi. | field isolates of coccidia from 20 natural outbreaks in the chukar partridge ( alectoris chukar ) were received from gamebird farms in 10 u.s. states. these were propagated in the laboratory and identified by microscopy and pcr. of 20 samples, 18 were eimeria kofoidi, two were eimeria legionensis only, and one was a mixture of the two species. one isolate of e. kofoidi also contained an unidentified species detected only by pcr, nucleotide sequencing, and phylogenetic analysis. the efficacy of a ... | 2016 | 27902917 |
| phylogeography of chukar partridge (alectoris chukar) in china based on mtdna control region. | the chukar partridge (alectoris chukar) is distributed in north and northwest of china, in mountainous areas that were heavily affected by cyclic climate and landscape changes during the last pleistocene glaciations. some partridge populations have colonized and expanded their present ranges only after deglaciation and recent deforestation by human. consequently, partridges from different areas could be genetically differentiated. in this study, a 1152-1154 bp portion of the mitochondrial dna co ... | 2016 | 27159688 |
| flapping before flight: high resolution, three-dimensional skeletal kinematics of wings and legs during avian development. | some of the greatest transformations in vertebrate history involve developmental and evolutionary origins of avian flight. flight is the most power-demanding mode of locomotion, and volant adult birds have many anatomical features that presumably help meet these demands. however, juvenile birds, like the first winged dinosaurs, lack many hallmarks of advanced flight capacity. instead of large wings they have small "protowings", and instead of robust, interlocking forelimb skeletons their limbs a ... | 2016 | 27100994 |
| asymmetrical introgression patterns between rusty-necklaced partridge (alectoris magna) and chukar partridge (alectoris chukar) in china. | the rusty-necklaced partridge (alectoris magna) and the chukar partridge (alectoris chukar) are the most common gamebirds in northern china. previous comparisons of mitochondrial dna (mtdna) have revealed an introgression phenomenon between 2 species of partridge in the liupan mountain region of china. mtdna is maternally inherited, making it difficult to determine the origin of parental genes. we assessed the genetic variation and gene flow between these 2 species of partridges using 8 microsat ... | 2016 | 26923908 |
| histochemical study of the oesophagus in the chukar partridge (alectoris chukar) embryo. | study of the histogenesis of different organs is a useful laboratory method which helps us achieve accurate basic information about organ development during the embryonic period. it also reveals histological differences of each organ in different species. this research was carried out to study the histogenesis of the oesophagus of chukar partridge. for this purpose, the embryonated eggs were placed in the incubator and the embryos were collected between the 5th to 24th days of incubation period. ... | 2016 | 26916205 |
| adult and embryo responses to organophosphate pesticides: azodrin. | azodrin was applied to adult embryo chickens, chukar partridge, and bobwhite quail. chronic exposure of adult birds to azodrin mixed in their feed indicated that no a priori predictions could be made about one species based on the results of another; each had a different no effect (mact) level. the chickens were between 25 and 100 ppm, the chukar partridge 5 and 25 ppm, and the bobwhite quail less than 1.25 ppm. the chicken adults were most resistant, and the quail were least resistant to chroni ... | 1979 | 572969 |
| the life cycle of eimeria dispersa tyzzer 1929 from the turkey in gallinaceous birds. | the life cycle of a turkey strain of eimeria dispersa was studied in chickens, chukar partridge, ring-necked pheasant, and bobwhite quail. endogenous development in partridge and quail differed from development in chickens and pheasant. in partridge and quail, mature 1st-, 2nd-, and 3rd-generation schizonts, macrogamets, and oocysts were found in tissue sections at an earlier time interval, mature 1st-generation schizonts were larger, and mature 1st-, 2nd-, and 3rd-generation schizonts contained ... | 1978 | 722458 |
| effect of turning and age of egg on hatchability in the pheasant, chukar, and japanese quail. | eggs from pheasants, chukar partridge and japanese quail were stored 1 to 28 days in a cold box where temperature and relative humidity were maintained at approximately 16 degrees c. and 70 percent, respectively. half the eggs from each species was turned once daily from a 45 degree angle from the verticle to the opposite angle. turning eggs prior to incubation had no appreciable effect on hatchability of eggs stored up to 28 days. length of storage for eggs from the pheasant and quail was criti ... | 1975 | 1187527 |
| stress and translocation: alterations in the stress physiology of translocated birds. | translocation and reintroduction have become major conservation actions in attempts to create self-sustaining wild populations of threatened species. however, avian translocations have a high failure rate and causes for failure are poorly understood. while 'stress' is often cited as an important factor in translocation failure, empirical evidence of physiological stress is lacking. here we show that experimental translocation leads to changes in the physiological stress response in chukar partri ... | 2009 | 19324794 |
| the effect of production system (barn and free-range), slaughtering age and gender on carcass traits and meat quality of partridges (alectoris chukar). | 1. a total of 400 alectoris chukar partridges were reared in either barn or free-range production systems and slaughtered at 14, 16 or 18 weeks of age in order to determine the effects of production system, age and gender on carcass traits (live weight, carcass weight, carcass yield, carcass part and edible inner organ percentages at slaughtering) and meat quality (l*, a* and b* meat colour and ph). 2. production system had a significant effect on both slaughter traits and meat quality. 3. partr ... | 2016 | 26813778 |
| prevalence and morphological characterization of cheilospirura hamulosa, diesing, 1861 (nematoda: acuarioidea), from partridges in iran. | this study reports data on the prevalence, morphology, and morphometry of the nematode cheilospirura hamulosa on the basis of light and stereoscopic microscopy and also camera lucida. specimens were recovered after necropsies of 100 partridges (alectoris chukar) from taleqan county in alborz province, iran. the prevalence of c. hamulosa in partridges was of 30% with a mean intensity of 3.9 and range of infection of 1-12. the mean length and width of females were 17.5 ± 2.14 and 0.39 ± 0.04 mm, w ... | 2015 | 26693346 |
| inconsistencies among secondary sources of chukar partridge (alectoris chukar) introductions to the united states. | the propagule pressure hypothesis asserts that the number of individuals released is the key determinant of whether an introduction will succeed or not. it remains to be shown whether propagule pressure is more important than either species-level or site-level factors in determining the fate of an introduction. studies claiming to show that propagule pressure is the primary determinant of introduction success must assume that the historical record as reported by secondary sources is complete and ... | 2015 | 26644981 |
| functional characteristics of the growth factor receptor family and some ligands in the oropharyngeal cavity of the chukar partridge (alectoris chukar). | 1. the aim of the present study is to describe, immunohistochemically, the expression and cell type localisation of growth factor receptors and some of their ligands in the oropharyngeal organs of the chukar partridge. 2. the tissue samples from 10 healthy adult partridges were dissected under ether anaesthesia and then embedded in paraffin following routine histological procedures. the immunoreaction for receptors and ligands of the epidermal growth factor receptor (egfr)/ligand system was loca ... | 2015 | 26569385 |
| coccidia of gallinaceous meat birds in brazil. | coccidiosis is a disease that limits the production and marketing of gallinaceous birds in north america, especially quails, pheasants and chukar partridges. virtually no research has been conducted in south america on the causative agents of diseases among these birds, including coccidia. the aim of this work was to make first observations on eimeria spp. in the chukar partridge alectoris chukar and the grey quail coturnix coturnix, which are reared for meat in brazil. fecal and tissue samples ... | 2015 | 26154966 |
| characterization of red-legged partridge (alectoris rufa) sperm: seasonal changes and influence of genetic purity. | the general decline in wild iberian populations of the red-legged partridge (alectoris rufa) has been accompanied by an increase in game-farm facilities producing hybrids with chukar partridges (alectoris chukar). genetic introgression from chukar partridges is thought to modify male red-legged partridge reproductive indicators. the aim of the present study was to determine the effects of such genetic introgression on seasonal reproductive patterns by comparing the sperm and plasma testosterone ... | 2015 | 25577796 |
| functional anatomy of the syrinx of the chukar partridge (galliformes: alectoris chukar) as a model for phonation research. | the phonation process of vertebrates is influenced by the material characteristics of the participating structures, ranging from molecular to macroscopic dimensions. good animal models for phonation research are still lacking. due to easy availability and relatively simple structure, the syrinx of birds might serve as a good animal model for this purpose. our aim was therefore to determine structural features of the syrinx and obtain insights into its mucus layer characteristics. epithelium and ... | 2015 | 25178267 |
| ontogeny of aerial righting and wing flapping in juvenile birds. | mechanisms of aerial righting in juvenile chukar partridge (alectoris chukar) were studied from hatching to 14 days-post-hatching (dph). asymmetric movements of the wings were used from 1 to 8 dph to effect progressively more successful righting behaviour via body roll. following 8 dph, wing motions transitioned to bilaterally symmetric flapping that yielded aerial righting via nose-down pitch, along with substantial increases in vertical force production during descent. ontogenetically, the use ... | 2014 | 25165451 |
| chromosome size-correlated and chromosome size-uncorrelated homogenization of centromeric repetitive sequences in new world quails. | many families of centromeric repetitive dna sequences isolated from struthioniformes, galliformes, falconiformes, and passeriformes are localized primarily to microchromosomes. however, it is unclear whether chromosome size-correlated homogenization is a common characteristic of centromeric repetitive sequences in aves. new world and old world quails have the typical avian karyotype comprising chromosomes of two distinct sizes, and c-positive heterochromatin is distributed in centromeric regions ... | 2014 | 24532185 |
| effect of a prebiotic on performance of partridge. | an experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of a prebiotic on performance of partridge. the experiment was carried out with a total of eighty-day-old male chukar partridge (alectoris chukar chukar) chicks in a completely randomized design. the dietary treatments consisted of a control and an experimental treatment, and each treatment was replicated four times with 10 chicks per replicate. the experimental period lasted 16 weeks with a starter period (0-8 weeks) and a grower period (9-1 ... | 2014 | 24033541 |
| three-dimensional, high-resolution skeletal kinematics of the avian wing and shoulder during ascending flapping flight and uphill flap-running. | past studies have shown that birds use their wings not only for flight, but also when ascending steep inclines. uphill flap-running or wing-assisted incline running (wair) is used by both flight-incapable fledglings and flight-capable adults to retreat to an elevated refuge. despite the broadly varying direction of travel during wair, level, and descending flight, recent studies have found that the basic wing path remains relatively invariant with reference to gravity. if so, joints undergo disp ... | 2013 | 23691132 |
| new single nucleotide polymorphisms in alectoris identified using chicken genome information allow alectoris introgression detection. | using the chicken genome, 114 polymorphisms (109 snps and 5 indels) were identified in the alectoris genus by polymerase chain reaction-single strand conformation polymorphism. using these, a panel of snps is described, which allows easy detection of introgression of alectoris chukar in wild alectoris rufa populations, when used with a primer extension protocol. the selected polymorphisms were genotyped and their allelic frequencies estimated on 98 a. rufa partridges sampled from nonrestocking s ... | 2010 | 21565012 |
| Immunization of chukar partridges against coccidia (Eimeria kofoidi and Eimeria legionensis) with low doses of live oocysts. | Experiments were conducted to determine whether chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) chicks would develop protective immunity after inoculation with coccidia. Young chukar chicks in battery cages inoculated with 100 or more oocysts of Eimeria kofoidi or Eimeria legionensis had significant protection at challenge 4 wk later, as measured by greatly reduced oocyst shedding and improved weight gain as compared with unvaccinated, challenged controls. However, when birds were housed in litter pens and ... | 2011 | 22017029 |
| pathogenesis of h9n2 virus in chukar partridges. | low-pathogenic avian influenza virus (h9n2) is circulating in the poultry industry of many countries in the middle east and asia, causing serious economic damage. in this study the clinical signs, antibody response, viral shedding and efficacy of oil emulsion vaccines in chukar partridges were investigated until 9 days post inoculation (d.p.i.). seventy-five chukar partridges (alectoris chukar) were divided randomly in three groups of challenged (group c), vaccinated and challenged (group vc) an ... | 2013 | 23631735 |
| comparison of the metal concentrations in the feathers of three bird species from southern iran. | this study was conducted to determine the concentration of metals, namely cadmium, lead, cobalt and copper, in the feathers of chukar (alectoris chukar), see-see partridge (ammoperdix griseogularis) and rock dove (columba livia) in order to: examine the species, gender and age related variations in trace metal accumulation, and identify any relationships between species. bird samples were collected in february 2012 from the hormod protected area, southern iran and the concentration of metals wer ... | 2012 | 22933174 |
| ontogeny of aerodynamics in mallards: comparative performance and developmental implications. | wing morphology correlates with flight performance and ecology among adult birds, yet the impact of wing development on aerodynamic capacity is not well understood. recent work using chukar partridge (alectoris chukar), a precocial flier, indicates that peak coefficients of lift and drag (c(l) and c(d)) and lift-to-drag ratio (c(l):c(d)) increase throughout ontogeny and that these patterns correspond with changes in feather microstructure. to begin to place these results in a comparative context ... | 2012 | 22855612 |
| ontogeny of lift and drag production in ground birds. | the juvenile period is often a crucial interval for selective pressure on locomotor ability. although flight is central to avian biology, little is known about factors that limit flight performance during development. to improve understanding of flight ontogeny, we used a propeller (revolving wing) model to test how wing shape and feather structure influence aerodynamic performance during development in the precocial chukar partridge (alectoris chukar, 4 to >100 days post hatching). we spun wing ... | 2011 | 21307057 |
| dna barcodes of arabian partridge and philby's rock partridge: implications for phylogeny and species identification. | recently, dna barcoding based on mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit i (coi) has gained wide attention because of simplicity and robustness of these barcodes for species identification including birds. the current genbank records show the coi barcodes of only one species, chukar partridge (alectoris chukar), of the alectoris genus. in this study, we sequenced the 694 bp segment of coi gene of the two species including, arabian partridge (alectoris melanocephala) and philby's rock partridg ... | 2010 | 21151586 |
| mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid receptor mrna expression in the brain of translocated chukar (alectoris chukar). | although translocation is an important conservation tool in the effort to create self-sustaining wild populations of threatened species, avian translocations have a high failure rate and causes for failure are poorly understood. while "stress" is considered to play a major role in translocation failure, the physiological changes associated with chronic stress resulting from translocation have been investigated only recently. translocation results in chronic stress-induced alterations of stress r ... | 2011 | 21118689 |
| analysis of genetic diversity of chukar partridge (alectoris chukar) populations in khorasan-e-razavi province of iran by rapd-pcr. | rapd markers were used to investigate population genetic parameters of an endangered partridge, alectoris chukar, in four areas of iran, as a part of a genetic conservation program. the aim of this study was to analyze the genetic similarity among these populations. blood samples from 75 birds were used for dna extraction and rapd-pcr analysis of 67 loci, with 28 polymorphic bands (41.79%). the populations of kalat-e-nader and mashhad were found to be closely related, as were the torbat-e-jaam a ... | 2010 | 20820903 |
| genetic structure of mediterranean chukar (alectoris chukar, galliformes) populations: conservation and management implications. | the chukar (alectoris chukar, galliformes) is a species hunted throughout its native range from the east mediterranean to manchuria and in the usa, which hosts the world's largest introduced population. this study aims to investigate the genetic structure of mediterranean chukar populations to aid management decisions. we genotyped 143 specimens at two regions of the mitochondrial dna (mtdna: cytochrome b, control region) and eight loci of the microsatellite dna. samples were collected in northe ... | 2009 | 19621211 |
| precocial development of locomotor performance in a ground-dwelling bird (alectoris chukar): negotiating a three-dimensional terrestrial environment. | developing animals are particularly vulnerable to predation. hence, precocial young of many taxa develop predator escape performance that rivals that of adults. ontogenetically unique among vertebrates, birds transition from hind limb to forelimb dependence for escape behaviours, so developmental investment for immediate gains in running performance may impair flight performance later. here, in a three-dimensional kinematic study of developing birds performing pre-flight flapping locomotor behav ... | 2009 | 19570787 |
| sunflower oil supplementation alters meat quality but not performance of growing partridges (alectoris chukar). | this study was conducted to evaluate the effects of sunflower oil supplementation (0%, 3%, 6% and 9%) to partridge chicks (alectoris chukar) on growth performance, nutrient digestibility and carcass characteristics. feed consumption and live weight gain were responsive to dietary sunflower oil inclusion during the starter period, but not during the grower period. increasing sunflower oil level linearly increased crude protein and fat digestibilities. except for abdominal fat, weights of inedible ... | 2010 | 19175454 |
| initial transference of wild birds to captivity alters stress physiology. | maintaining wild animals in captivity has long been used for conservation and research. while often suggested that captivity causes chronic stress, impacts on the underlying stress physiology are poorly understood. we used wild-caught chukar (alectoris chukar) as a model avian species to assess how the initial 10 days of captivity alters the corticosterone (cort) secretory pathway. in the first few days of captivity, birds lost weight, had lower hematocrit and demonstrated changes in cort concen ... | 2009 | 19026651 |
| aerodynamics of wing-assisted incline running in birds. | wing-assisted incline running (wair) is a form of locomotion in which a bird flaps its wings to aid its hindlimbs in climbing a slope. wair is used for escape in ground birds, and the ontogeny of this behavior in precocial birds has been suggested to represent a model analogous to transitional adaptive states during the evolution of powered avian flight. to begin to reveal the aerodynamics of flap-running, we used digital particle image velocimetry (dpiv) and measured air velocity, vorticity, ci ... | 2007 | 17488937 |
| introgression of alectoris chukar genes into a spanish wild alectoris rufa population. | in order to detect introgression of other alectoris genus species into wild populations of spanish alectoris rufa, we studied a sample of 93 red-legged partridges (supposed to be a. rufa) captured in the island of majorca. a set of 31 chukar partridges (alectoris chukar) from cyprus and 33 red-legged partridges (a. rufa) from one spanish farm were also studied to provide suitable populations for comparison. factorial correspondence analysis on microsatellite genotypes supported a clear distincti ... | 2007 | 17395601 |
| genetic insight into mediterranean chukar (alectoris chukar, galliformes) populations inferred from mitochondrial dna and rapd markers. | the chukar (alectoris chukar, galliformes) is one of the most important game birds as it is widely distributed and hunted over the whole of its range. the aim of this work was to assess the genetic differentiation as well as the possible presence of hybrid specimens in a. chukar populations from italy, greece and cyprus. to provide phylogenetic context, conspecific, allopatric specimens from israel, georgia, armenia, kazakhstan, afghanistan, pakistan, mongolia, china and usa were compared. seque ... | 2007 | 17286187 |
| electrocardiography of rock partridges (alectoris graeca) and chukar partridges (alectoris chukar). | standard limb, six lead (i, ii, iii, avr, avl, and avf) electrocardiograms (ecgs) were recorded in 10 awake mature rock partridges (alectoris graeca) and 10 chukar partridges (alectoris chukar). durations and amplitudes of p and t waves and qrs complexes, durations of p-q and q-t intervals, and mean heart rates were calculated from the lead ii ecgs. all observable p and t waves were negative in avr and avl, whereas they were positive in all remaining leads. the most frequent forms of qrs complex ... | 2004 | 15732592 |
| effects of sex and protein and energy levels in the diet on the blood parameters of the chukar partridge (alectoris chukar). | 1. the effects of sex and dietary composition were investigated in 48 male and 48 female 16-week old chukar partridges. 2. sixteen starter and 16 grower diets were arranged in a 4 x 4 factorial design with 4 concentration of crude protein (cp) and 4 concentration of metabolizable energy (me). 3. blood samples were collected at 16 weeks of age and analysed for total protein, triglycerides, uric acid, total cholesterol, glucose, calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium and chlorine. 4. there were no ... | 2004 | 15222427 |
| energy metabolism and thermoregulation in hand-reared chukars (alectoris chukar). | metabolic rate and colonic temperature were measured in chukars between 1st and 108th day of life (divided into six age groups: 1-3-days old, 1, 2, 3, and 4-weeks old and 3.5-months old) in ambient temperatures set separately for each group and ranging from -12 to 41 degrees c. the gompertz growth constant for growing chukars (0.042) was close to the value obtained in earlier study for the grey partridge. similarly as in other species of galliformes, newly hatched chukar chicks had lower t(b) at ... | 2003 | 14613803 |
| mechanics of wing-assisted incline running (wair). | a recently discovered locomotor behavior, wing-assisted incline running (wair), allows fully volant animals to 'run' up vertical obstacles. such a task would appear to be especially formidable for bipeds, yet wair is used preferentially by ground-dwelling birds, specifically chukar partridge alectoris chukar, to reach refugia. the basic locomotor mechanics that enable this behavior are not fully understood. for instance, are there functional differences at the level of the wing during wair and f ... | 2003 | 14610039 |
| effects of dietary protein and energy concentrations on performance and carcase characteristics of chukar partridge (alectoris chukar) raised in captivity. | 1. this study was conducted to determine the effects of starter and grower diets with differing crude protein (cp) and metabolisable energy (me) concentrations on the body weight (bw), live weight gain (lwg), feed consumption (fc), feed conversion ratio (fcr), and carcase, breast+back, rump, wing, neck and abdominal fat weights of chukar partridge raised in captivity. 2. chukar partridges were fed on starter diets containing 4 concentrations of cp (160, 200, 240, 280 g/kg) and 4 concentrations o ... | 2003 | 12964626 |
| effect of halofuginone (stenorol) on chukar partridge (alectoris chukar). | this study was conducted to assess the effect of the coccidiostat halofuginone (stenorol) on growth, feed consumption, and survival of chukar partridge. halofuginone was fed to three replicates (14 chicks per replicate) of chukar chicks from 2 to 7 d of age at levels of 0, 1.5, 3.0, 6.0 and 12 ppm. mortality from 2 to 7 d was 0, 0, 0, 11, and 21 birds, respectively, by treatment. seven-day body weight showed a significant linear decrease with increasing halofuginone level (p < 0.01). on the 7th ... | 1996 | 9000272 |
| prevention of coccidiosis in the chukar partridge (alectoris chukar) by medication with sulfadimethoxine and ormetoprim (rofenaid). | rofenaid (a 5:3 mixture of sulfadimethoxine and ormetoprim) was effective in preventing coccidiosis of chukar partridges. levels of .0100 or .0125% sulfadimethoxine, with the corresponding level of ormetoprim in the ration, gave the best results. these levels markedly reduced mortality in severe infections (over 75% mortality in unmedicated chukars) and eliminated mortality in medicated groups when infections produced 52% mortality or less in unmedicated controls. in the latter infections, rofen ... | 1990 | 2263542 |
| parasitosis of the chukar partridge, alectoris chukar in north iraq. | the aim of this study was to establish the identity of the parasitic communities of the chukar partridge from iraq as well as reporting on the prevalence and intensity of various infections from several localities and comprising both sexes. | 2012 | 23339947 |
| anatomical and histological structure of the tongue and histochemical characteristics of the lingual salivary glands in the chukar partridge (alectoris chukar, gray 1830). | 1. the aim of the study was to examine the morphology of the tongue and the histochemical features of the lingual salivary glands in this species. 2. the tongue was elongated, terminating in a rather sharp, dagger-like apex. on the surface of the tongue and situated between the body and root of the tongue, two rows of conical papillae, the sharp apices of which pointed towards the posterior part of the tongue, were observed. the keratinised epithelium lining the dorsal surface lacked typical gus ... | 2012 | 22978586 |
| primary feather molt and serum luteinizing hormone concentration in chukar partridge (alectoris chukar) during a photoperiodically induced molt with or without fasting. | in two experiments, 135 adult chukar partridge of two genetic lines, one selected for high egg production and a random-bred control line, were induced to molt by reducing photoperiod from 16 hr light/day to 8 hr light/day on day 0. in experiment 1, feed was removed from approximately half the birds on day 0 and returned on day 7. birds in experiment 2 were not fasted. photoperiod was increased to 16 hr light/day on day 56. primary feather molt scores, body weights, and, in experiment 2, serum lu ... | 1986 | 3588482 |
| shank length for determining sex in chukars. | shank length measurement of greater than or equal to 60 mm for males and less than 60 mm for females was used to predict sexes in male and female chukar partridges (alectoris chukar) at 8, 10, 12, 20, 32, and 64 weeks of age. growth of the shank is nearly complete at 10 weeks of age, whereas growth of body tissue continues to about 20 weeks of age. the best prediction of sexes was made at 10 weeks of age with an accuracy of about 95%. at 10 weeks of age, the accuracy for predicting males was hig ... | 1986 | 3737504 |
| tritiated water for estimating total body water and water turnover rate in birds. | the use of tritiated water (toh) to estimate total body water (tbw) and total water turnover rate was validated in chukar partridges (alectoris chukar) and sand partridges (ammoperdix heyi). for six chukar partridges weighing between 315 to 475 g, toh equilibration with body fluids was less than 45 min after intramuscular or intravenous injections. mean toh space in eight chukar partridges was 99.8% of the mean tbw measured by desiccation with individuals ranging between 97.9 and 103.2%. toh spa ... | 1981 | 7298458 |
| environmental temperature selection by the chukar partridge, alectoris chukar. | | 1977 | 613347 |
| effects of acute lead ingestion and diet on antibody and t-cell-mediated immunity in japanese quail. | this study investigated the interacting effects of acute lead exposure and different diets on antibody and t-cell-mediated immunity in japanese quail (coturnix coturnix). nine quail (nine week old males) were assigned randomly to each group in a factorial experiment with four treatments and two diets. the treatments were 1) a positive control group fed 20 micrograms/g corticosterone, 2) a negative control group given no lead or corticosterone, 3) a low-lead group, and 4) a high-lead group. the l ... | 1995 | 7710288 |
| hematological response of immunized and serially bled japanese quail. | sexually mature female japanese quail (coturnix coturnix japonica) were immunized by an intravenous injection with .5 ml of a 7.5% suspension of chukar partridge (alectoris graeca chukar) red blood cells (crbc). blood samples were collected either serially from one group of quail or a single time from separate groups of quail at 0 (nonimmunized), 3, 6, and 9 days post-immunization. total anti-crbc hemagglutinin titers (ha) were measured by a microhemagglutinin procedure. selected hematological v ... | 1985 | 4048067 |
| termination of photorefractoriness in the chukar partridge (alectoris graeca chukar) by low light intensity. | adult females were maintained under controlled conditions (22 degrees c, 60% relative humidity and 16 h light/day) within bioclimatic chambers throughout the test. for 6 weeks prior to photostimulation photorefractory birds were exposed to a light intensity of 1, 3, 5 or 7 lux. the intensity was then increased to 50 lux. control birds were kept in 8l : 16d and changed to 16l : 8d, the light intensity remaining at 50 lux. the time to first egg and the rate of egg production were recorded. a decre ... | 1981 | 7277311 |
| estimation of sodium requirement of growing chukar partridge (alectoris graeca). | two experiments were conducted with growing chukar partridges to estimate their sodium requirement for growth. birds fed the basal diet (0.025% na) had poor growth and high mortality. a total of about 0.095% dietary sodium was adequate for maximum growth and minimal mortality. | 1978 | 674019 |
| a report of trichomonas gallinarum infection in chukar partridges (alectoris graeca). | | 1956 | 13427412 |
| noninvasive genotyping of the red-legged partridge (alectoris rufa, phasianidae): semi-nested pcr of mitochondrial dna from feces. | dna-based studies using avian feces are scarce and deal only with large-sized species. the red-legged partridge, alectoris rufa, is a medium-sized member of the order galliformes. our goal was to set up a fast, noninvasive procedure for mitochondrial dna (mtdna) genotyping of a. rufa fecal samples. we focused on the protected population from elba island (tuscan archipelago national park, italy). dry a. rufa fecal samples (n = 30) were collected in winter. both the cytochrome b gene (1,092 bp) an ... | 2009 | 19714459 |
| ontogeny of flight capacity and pectoralis function in a precocial ground bird (alectoris chukar). | flight is the defining characteristic of birds, yet the mechanisms through which flight ability develops are only beginning to be understood. wing-assisted incline running (wair) and controlled flapping descent (cfd) are behaviors that may offer significant adaptive benefits to developing birds. recent research into these forms of locomotion has focused on species with precocial development, with a particularly rich data set from chukar partridge (alectoris chukar). here we briefly review the ki ... | 2017 | 28662566 |
| comparison of growth curve models in partridge. | this study was conducted in order to determine the goodness of fit of brody, gompertz, logistic, and von bertalanffy growth curve models in partridge (alectoris chukar). the growth curve parameters a (upper asymptote or mature weight parameter), b (scale parameter related to initial weight), and k (instantaneous growth rate parameter) were determined as 623.4, 1.05, and 0.075 for females and 723.8, 1.06, and 0.073 for males in the brody model, respectively, 472.9, 3.47, and 0.207 for females and ... | 2017 | 28204676 |
| characterization of the toxicity of the mycotoxins aflatoxin, ochratoxin, and t-2 toxin in game birds. i. chukar partridge. | chukar partridges were fed diets containing 1.25, 2.5, or 5 ppm aflatoxin; 1, 2, or 4 ppm ochratoxin a (oa); or 4, 8, or 16 ppm t-2 toxin. toxin-induced mortality was seen during the third week with 4 ppm oa (12.5%) and 16 ppm t-2 toxin (15%), compared with the mortality in control chukars fed no toxin (2.5%). body weights were significantly decreased by the highest level of aflatoxin at 3 weeks of age, by the highest level of oa by 2 weeks of age, and by 8 and 16 ppm t-2 toxin by 1 week of age. ... | 2013 | 2241700 |
| effects of light conditioning on reproduction in partridge. | reproductive response was measured in two lines of chukar partridge given conditioning light treatments of either 8 hr light:16 hr dark (8l:16d) at 50 lx or 16l:8d at .1 lx for 4, 6, or 8 weeks, respectively. birds were recycled to lay using the same conditioning light treatments. during both lay cycles, all birds received 16l:8d at 100 lx. the results indicate that both conditioning light regimens were effective in terminating postjuvenile and postlay refractoriness. hens given a conditioning l ... | 1986 | 3822980 |
| physalopterine larvae in muscles of blue grouse and a chukar partridge. | | 1986 | 3505945 |
| can tritiated water-dilution space accurately predict total body water in chukar partridges? | total body water (tbw) volumes determined from the dilution space of injected tritiated water have consistently overestimated actual water volumes (determined by desiccation to constant mass) in reptiles and mammals, but results for birds are controversial. we investigated potential errors in both the dilution method and the desiccation method in an attempt to resolve this controversy. tritiated water dilution yielded an accurate measurement of water mass in vitro. however, in vivo, this method ... | 1985 | 3905754 |
| cerebral nematodiasis in a chukar partridge. | | 1978 | 738961 |
| testicular regression and recovery in the chukar partridge as affected by photoperiod. | | 1978 | 674017 |