| west nile virus infection rates in culex nigripalpus (diptera: culicidae) do not reflect transmission rates in florida. | we describe the first documented field transmission of west nile (wn) virus by a north american mosquito. wn was first detected in northern florida in 2001. an intensive mosquito trapping and surveillance program was conducted in this region for four nights to assess mosquito transmission of wn. four mosquito traps, each with a single sentinel chicken, were placed at five different locations on each of four nights. a total of 11,948 mosquitoes was collected, and 14 mosquito pools were found to c ... | 2003 | 12943101 |
| surveillance results from the first west nile virus transmission season in florida, 2001. | after west nile virus (wnv) was first detected in florida in july 2001, intensive surveillance efforts over the following five months uncovered virus activity in 65 of the state's 67 counties with 1,106 wild birds, 492 horses, 194 sentinel chickens, and 12 people found infected with the virus. thirteen of 28 mosquito isolations came from culex mosquitoes. as seen in the northeastern united states, wild bird mortality was the most sensitive surveillance method. however, unlike the predominantly u ... | 2003 | 13677369 |
| west nile virus activity--united states, june 16-22, 2004. | as of june 22, 2004, seven states reported a total of 32 human cases of west nile virus (wnv) illness to cdc through arbonet. twenty cases were reported from arizona, six cases from california, two cases from florida, and one case each from nebraska, new mexico, south dakota, and wyoming. twenty-three (72%) of the cases occurred in males; the median age of patients was 52 years (range: 9-78 years), and dates of illness onset ranged from may 8 to june 7. sixteen (50%) of the patients had neuroinv ... | 2004 | 15215743 |
| west nile virus activity--united states, june 23-29, 2004. | as of june 29, eight states had reported a total of 57 human cases of west nile virus (wnv) illness to cdc through arbonet in 2004. a total of 38 cases had been reported from arizona, 10 from california, three from new mexico, two from florida, and one each from michigan, nebraska, south dakota, and wyoming. thirty-six (64%) of the cases occurred in males; the median age of patients was 53 years (range: 9-84 years), and dates of illness onset ranged from april 23 to june 15. of the 57 cases, one ... | 2004 | 15229416 |
| west nile virus activity--united states, august 4-10, 2004. | during august 4-10, a total of 89 cases of human west nile virus (wnv) illness were reported from 14 states (alabama, arizona, california, florida, illinois, kentucky, louisiana, minnesota, mississippi, missouri, new mexico, north dakota, south dakota, and wyoming). | 2004 | 15306758 |
| west nile virus activity--united states, august 25-31, 2004. | during august 25-31, a total of 210 cases of human west nile virus (wnv) illness were reported from 14 states (arizona, california, florida, illinois, indiana, kansas, maryland, minnesota, montana, nevada, new mexico, north dakota, oklahoma, and pennsylvania). | 2004 | 15343148 |
| west nile virus activity--united states, september 15-21, 2004. | during september 15-21, a total of 218 cases of human west nile virus (wnv) illness were reported from 21 states (arizona, california, florida, illinois, indiana, kansas, maryland, michigan, minnesota, mississippi, missouri, nebraska, nevada, new mexico, north dakota, oklahoma, south dakota, texas, utah, wisconsin, and wyoming). | 2004 | 15385920 |
| west nile virus activity--united states, september 29-october 5, 2004. | during september 29-october 5, a total of 81 cases of human west nile virus (wnv) illness were reported from 18 states (alabama, arizona, arkansas, california, florida, georgia, illinois, iowa, kansas, kentucky, minnesota, missouri, ohio, oklahoma, pennsylvania, south dakota, texas, and virginia). | 2004 | 15470326 |
| west nile virus activity--united states, october 6-12, 2004. | during october 6-12, a total of 86 cases of human west nile virus (wnv) illness were reported from 18 states (arizona, florida, illinois, kansas, louisiana, michigan, minnesota, missouri, nevada, new jersey, new mexico, north dakota, ohio, oklahoma, pennsylvania, tennessee, texas, and utah). | 2004 | 15483530 |
| evaluation of various attributes of gravid female traps for collection of culex in florida. | gravid female traps are used for surveillance of populations of culex spp. and arboviruses such as west nile virus. field trials evaluating various attributes of gravid female traps for collection of gravid culex were conducted in rural habitats in alachua and marion counties, fl. screened cage tests in the field were also used to compare trap models. three trap models were evaluated: two based on the original reiter design (gravid cdc traps a and b) and one based on the revised reiter design (g ... | 2004 | 15707288 |
| west nile virus epizootiology in the southeastern united states, 2001. | we investigated mosquito and bird involvement in west nile virus (wnv) transmission in july 2001 in jefferson county, fl, and lowndes county, ga. we detected 16 wnv-infected pools from culex quinquefasciatus, cx. salinarius, cx. nigripalpus, and culiseta melanura. in florida, 11% of 353 bird sera neutralized wnv. antibody prevalence was greatest in northern cardinal (cardinalis cardinalis, 75%), northern mockingbird (mimus polyglottus, 50%), common ground-dove (columbina passerina, 25%), common ... | 2005 | 15815153 |
| west nile virus infection in farmed american alligators (alligator mississippiensis) in florida. | in september and october 2002, an epizootic of neurologic disease occurred at an alligator farm in florida (usa). three affected american alligators (alligator mississippiensis) were euthanatized and necropsied, and results confirmed infection with west nile virus (wnv). the most significant microscopic lesions were a moderate heterophilic to lymphoplasmacytic meningoencephalomyelitis, necrotizing hepatitis and splenitis, pancreatic necrosis, myocardial degeneration with necrosis, mild interstit ... | 2005 | 15827215 |
| validation and use of an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of antibodies to west nile virus in american alligators (alligator mississippiensis) in florida. | in october 2002, west nile virus (wnv) was identified in farmed american alligators (alligator mississippiensis) in florida showing clinical signs and having microscopic lesions indicative of central nervous system disease. to perform seroepidemiologic studies, an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (elisa) was developed to determine exposure of captive and wild alligators to wnv. to validate the test, a group of wnv-seropositive and -seronegative alligators were identified at the affecte ... | 2005 | 15827216 |
| quantification of west nile virus in the saliva of culex species collected from the southern united states. | culex quinquefasciatus, cx. restuans, cx. pipiens complex, and cx. nigripalpus were collected as larvae or egg rafts from the southern usa. adult female mosquitoes were intrathoracically inoculated with approximately 1,000 plaque-forming units of west nile virus (wnv) and saliva was collected from them 5 days later. the amount of infectious wnv in the saliva samples was quantified by plaque assay and wnv rna was detected by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (rt-pcr). more than 90% ... | 2006 | 16646323 |
| fatal hemorrhagic fever caused by west nile virus in the united states. | most west nile virus (wnv) infections in humans are asymptomatic; severe disease occurs in relatively few patients and typically manifests as encephalitis, meningitis, or acute flaccid paralysis. a few cases of life-threatening disease with diffuse hemorrhagic manifestations have been reported in africa; however, this clinical presentation has not been documented for any of the >16,700 cases of wnv disease reported in the united states during 1999-2004. we describe a case of fulminant wnv infect ... | 2006 | 16652309 |
| emergency mosquito aerial spray response to the 2004 florida hurricanes charley, frances, ivan, and jeanne: an overview of control results. | in total, 43 aerial spray missions were conducted in 26 florida counties to control mosquito populations after each of the 4 hurricanes making landfall in florida in 2004. mosquitoes were trapped before and after each spray mission to determine the percentage (%) of control for the west nile virus vector culex nigripalpus (64.1%), the floodwater pest mosquito psorophora columbiae (69.7%), and for all species combined (67.7%). a discussion on these results and suggestions for future efforts are p ... | 2006 | 17067046 |
| developing global climate anomalies suggest potential disease risks for 2006-2007. | el niño/southern oscillation (enso) related climate anomalies have been shown to have an impact on infectious disease outbreaks. the climate prediction center of the national oceanic and atmospheric administration (noaa/cpc) has recently issued an unscheduled el niño advisory, indicating that warmer than normal sea surface temperatures across the equatorial eastern pacific may have pronounced impacts on global tropical precipitation patterns extending into the northern hemisphere particularly ov ... | 2006 | 17194307 |
| larval habitats of potential mosquito vectors of west nile virus in the florida keys. | the occurrence of larvae of two potential vectors of west nile virus, culex nigripalpus and culex quinquefasciatus, was examined in the florida keys. about half of the aquatic habitats examined contained larvae of either one or both of the species. culex quinquefasciatus was the most frequently encountered species, whereas only 9% of habitats sampled contained culex nigripalpus. over half of those samples that contained culex nigripalpus also contained culex quinquefasciatus. the two species uti ... | 2007 | 17402282 |
| impact of extrinsic incubation temperature and virus exposure on vector competence of culex pipiens quinquefasciatus say (diptera: culicidae) for west nile virus. | culex pipiens quinquefasciatus say mosquitoes from a laboratory colony were exposed to artificial blood meals containing west nile virus (wnv) and held at incubation temperatures approximating average daily temperatures that occur during florida arboviral periods. mosquitoes fed blood meals containing 6.2 logs plaque-forming units (pfu) wnv/ml and held at 25 degrees c, 28 degrees c, or 30 degrees c for 13 days exhibited significantly different rates of infection (30%, 52%, 93%) and dissemination ... | 2007 | 18021028 |
| arbovirus transmission by culex nigripalpus in florida, 2005. | understanding the transmission patterns of west nile and st. louis encephalitis viruses (family flaviviridae, genus flavivirus, wnv and slev) could result in an increased ability to predict transmission risk to humans. to examine transmission patterns between vector and host, we trapped mosquitoes in three florida counties from june to november 2005 by using chicken-baited lard can mosquito traps. these traps were used to monitor for presence of wnv and slev in mosquitoes and subsequent transmis ... | 2008 | 18533444 |
| cnact-1 gene is differentially expressed in the subtropical mosquito culex nigripalpus (diptera: culicidae), the primary west nile virus vector in florida. | analysis of differentially expressed genes is a common molecular biological tool to investigate changes in mosquito genes after a bloodmeal or parasite exposure. we report here the characterization of a differentially expressed actin gene, cnact-1, from the subtropical mosquito, culex nigripalpus theobald (diptera: culicidae). the cnact-1 genomic clone is 1.525 kb, includes one 66-bp intron, and a 328-bp 3'-untranslated region. the 376-amino acid putative translation product shares high similari ... | 2008 | 18826030 |
| diversification of west nile virus in a subtropical region. | west nile virus (wnv) has spread across north, central, and south america since its introduction in 1999. at the start of this spread, florida was considered a potentially important area with regards to transmission due to its geographic, climatological, and demographic conditions. curiously, the anticipated high levels of transmission or disease outbreaks have not been observed. as other studies have predicted that the lack of intense wnv transmission is not due to vector incompetence, we sough ... | 2009 | 19607722 |
| host-seeking height preferences of aedes albopictus (diptera: culicidae) in north central florida suburban and sylvatic locales. | the response of aedes albopictus to the bg-sentinel, omni-directional-fay-prince, and mosquito magnetx traps was evaluated in four suburban and four sylvatic habitats in north-central florida to ascertain potential height preference of this species. these traps, which are primarily designed to attract diurnal mosquitoes, were set at 1 and 6 m and were evaluated during 40 trapping periods over 4 mo. we collected 45,640 mosquitoes, representing 26 species from 10 genera, the most common being aede ... | 2009 | 19645296 |
| modeled response of the west nile virus vector culex quinquefasciatus to changing climate using the dynamic mosquito simulation model. | climate can strongly influence the population dynamics of disease vectors and is consequently a key component of disease ecology. future climate change and variability may alter the location and seasonality of many disease vectors, possibly increasing the risk of disease transmission to humans. the mosquito species culex quinquefasciatus is a concern across the southern united states because of its role as a west nile virus vector and its affinity for urban environments. using established relati ... | 2010 | 20683620 |
| impact of west nile virus dose and incubation period on vector competence of culex nigripalpus (diptera: culicidae). | abstract female culex nigripalpus were fed blood containing a low dose (6.3±0.01 logs plaque-forming units (pfu)/ml) or high dose (7.3±0.1 logs pfu/ml) of west nile virus (wnv) and maintained at 28°c for incubation periods (ips) of 6 or 12 days. vector competence was measured using rates of infection (% with wnv-positive bodies), dissemination (% infected with wnv-positive legs), and transmission (% infected with wnv-positive saliva). infection rates were not influenced by dose or ip. disseminat ... | 2011 | 21756030 |
| line item cut threatens monitoring of more than west nile virus. | | 2010 | 20823853 |
| vector competence of culex pipiens quinquefasciatus (diptera: culicidae) for west nile virus isolates from florida. | to assess vector competence (infection, dissemination and transmission) of culex pipiens quinquefasciatus for florida (fl) west nile virus (wnv) isolates. | 2014 | 24898274 |
| ecological niche modeling of mosquito vectors of west nile virus in st. john's county, florida, usa. | the lack of available vaccines and consistent sporadic transmission of wnv justify the need for mosquito vector control and prediction of their geographic distribution. however, the distribution of wnv transmission is dependent on the mosquito vector and the ecological requirements, which vary from one place to another. | 2016 | 27357295 |
| environmental risk factors associated with west nile virus clinical disease in florida horses. | the objective of this study was to examine the extrinsic risk factors of west nile virus (wnv) clinical disease in florida horses as established from confirmed and negative horses tested within the state from 2001 to 2003. an arboviral case information form (acf) was submitted by a referring veterinarian at the time of testing to the florida department of agriculture and consumer services on every horse suspected of a viral encephalitis in florida. a follow-up survey that focused on arbovirus pr ... | 2009 | 19941601 |
| prevalence of antibodies to west nile virus and other arboviruses among crested caracaras (caracara cheriway) in florida. | we documented the antibody prevalence to three arboviruses, st. louis encephalitis virus (slev), eastern equine encephalitis virus (eeev), and west nile virus (wnv), in crested caracaras (caracara cheriway; n = 80) in florida from 2007 to 2008. antibody prevalence to wnv was higher (9%) than for the other viruses. most seropositive birds were adults (< or =3 yr of age), with 55% of adults testing positive for antibodies to at least one virus. adults were significantly more likely to have antibod ... | 2009 | 19617494 |
| using hydrologic conditions to forecast the risk of focal and epidemic arboviral transmission in peninsular florida. | the accurate forecasting and tracking of arboviral transmission is becoming increasingly critical for the early recognition and management of arboviral epidemics. meteorological factors, especially rainfall and temperature, drive arboviral epidemics, but monitoring rainfall and temperature alone is not predictive of increased levels of vector-borne disease transmission. in florida, model simulations of water table depth (wtd) provide a measure of drought, and they have been shown to provide an a ... | 2008 | 18533440 |
| achieving operational hydrologic monitoring of mosquitoborne disease. | mosquitoes and mosquitoborne disease transmission are sensitive to hydrologic variability. if local hydrologic conditions can be monitored or modeled at the scales at which these conditions affect the population dynamics of vector mosquitoes and the diseases they transmit, a means for monitoring or modeling mosquito populations and mosquitoborne disease transmission may be realized. we review how hydrologic conditions have been associated with mosquito abundances and mosquitoborne disease transm ... | 2005 | 16229760 |
| wintering of neurotropic velogenic newcastle disease virus and west nile virus in double-crested cormorants (phalacrocorax auritus) from the florida keys. | during november 2002, six double-crested cormorants (dccs; phalacrocorax auritus) were found moribund in big pine key, fl, exhibiting clinical signs indicative of neurologic disease. postmortem diagnostic evaluations were performed on two adult birds. virulent newcastle disease virus (ndv) was isolated from a cloacal swab from cormorant 1. west nile virus (wnv) was isolated from the brain and lung of cormorant 2. nucleotide sequence analysis of a portion of the fusion (f) protein gene of the ndv ... | 2005 | 16094838 |
| drought-induced amplification and epidemic transmission of west nile virus in southern florida. | we show that the spatial-temporal variability of human west nile (wn) cases and the transmission of west nile virus (wnv) to sentinel chickens are associated with the spatial-temporal variability of drought and wetting in southern florida. land surface wetness conditions at 52 sites in 31 counties in southern florida for 2001-2003 were simulated and compared with the occurrence of human wn cases and the transmission of wnv to sentinel chickens within these counties. both wnv transmission to sent ... | 2005 | 15799522 |
| west nile virus activity--united states, september 8-14, 2004. | during september 8-14, a total of 195 cases of human west nile virus (wnv) illness were reported from 26 states (alabama, arizona, arkansas, california, colorado, florida, georgia, idaho, illinois, iowa, kansas, maryland, minnesota, missouri, nebraska, nevada, new mexico, new york, north dakota, oklahoma, oregon, pennsylvania, south dakota, tennessee, texas, and wisconsin). | 2004 | 15371969 |
| west nile virus activity--united states, august 18-24, 2004. | during august 18-24, a total of 154 cases of human west nile virus (wnv) illness were reported from 18 states (alabama, arizona, california, colorado, connecticut, florida, georgia, illinois, kentucky, minnesota, mississippi, missouri, nevada, new mexico, north carolina, south dakota, tennessee, and wisconsin). | 2004 | 15329654 |
| west nile virus activity--united states, august 11-17, 2004. | during august 11-17, a total of 194 cases of human west nile virus (wnv) illness were reported from 17 states (alabama, arizona, california, colorado, florida, illinois, louisiana, maryland, minnesota, mississippi, missouri, new mexico, ohio, south dakota, texas, utah, and virginia). | 2004 | 15318160 |
| west nile virus activity--united states, july 28-august 3, 2004. | during july 28-august 3, a total of 141 cases of human west nile virus (wnv) illness were reported from 11 states (alabama, arizona, california, colorado, florida, illinois, nevada, new york, north dakota, south dakota, and texas). during 2004, a total of 20 states have reported a total of 406 cases of human wnv illness to cdc through arbonet. of these, 247 (61%) were reported from arizona. a total of 226 (57%) of the 406 cases occurred in males; the median age of patients was 51 years (range: 1 ... | 2004 | 15295314 |
| west nile virus activity--united states, july 21-27, 2004. | during july 21-27, a total of 83 cases of human west nile virus (wnv) illness were reported from 13 states (alabama, arizona, arkansas, california, colorado, florida, illinois, iowa, missouri, new mexico, ohio, pennsylvania, and south dakota). | 2004 | 15282450 |
| west nile virus activity--united states, july 14-20, 2004. | during the week of july 14-20, a total of 74 cases of human west nile virus (wnv) illness were reported from seven states (arizona, california, florida, new mexico, new york, south dakota, and texas). | 2004 | 15269701 |
| poor replication of west nile virus (new york 1999 strain) in three reptilian and one amphibian species. | because west nile (wn) virus primarily cycles between mosquitoes and birds, north american reptiles and amphibians have not been evaluated as reservoir hosts of this virus. we infected three species of reptiles and one species of amphibian: iguana iguana (green iguana), thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis (florida garter snake), trachymes scripta elegans (red-ear slider), and rana catesbeiana (north american bullfrog). after inoculation with wn virus, some of the green iguanas, bullfrogs, and garter sn ... | 2003 | 14628941 |
| mosquitoes infected with west nile virus in the florida keys, monroe county, florida, usa. | more than 30,000 mosquitoes in 22 species or species groups were collected from the florida keys, monroe county, fl, usa, in dry ice-baited light and gravid traps. dry ice-baited traps collected more mosquitoes than did gravid traps. west nile virus was detected in pools of anopheles atropos dyar & knab, deinocerites cancer theobald, and ochlerotatus taeniorhynchus (wiedemann). | 2003 | 12943117 |
| surveillance for acute insecticide-related illness associated with mosquito-control efforts--nine states, 1999-2002. | ground and aerial applications of insecticides are used to control populations of adult mosquitoes, which spread such diseases as west nile virus--related illness, eastern equine encephalitis, and dengue fever. this report summarizes investigations of illnesses associated with exposures to insecticides used during 1999-2002 to control mosquito populations in nine states (arizona, california, florida, louisiana, michigan, new york, oregon, texas, and washington) (estimated 2000 population: 118 mi ... | 2003 | 12855943 |
| from the centers for disease control and prevention. west nile virus infection in organ donor and transplant recipients--georgia and florida, 2002. | | 2002 | 12353502 |
| investigation of blood transfusion recipients with west nile virus infections. | an investigation conducted by cdc, the food and drug administration (fda), the american red cross, and state health departments in georgia and florida has confirmed transmission of west nile virus (wnv) from a single organ donor to four organ recipients. during treatment for injuries that eventually proved fatal, the organ donor received numerous transfusions of blood products. however, the source of the organ donor's infection remains unknown. | 2002 | 12269472 |
| organ transplants and blood transfusions may transmit west nile virus. | | 2002 | 12228130 |
| west nile virus infection in organ donor and transplant recipients--georgia and florida, 2002. | on august 23, 2002, the georgia division of public health (gdph) and cdc were notified of two cases of unexplained fever and encephalitis in recipients of organ transplants from a common donor. an investigation has identified illness in two other recipients from the same donor: one with encephalopathy and the other with febrile illness. cdc, the food and drug administration, gdph, and the florida department of health are conducting the investigation. this duster could possibly represent the firs ... | 2002 | 12227442 |
| west nile virus spreading. | | 2001 | 11505956 |
| observations on dengue fever, benign protector and killer: a dr. jekyll and mr. hyde. | | 1969 | 4388466 |
| reproductive biology and susceptibility of florida culex coronator to infection with west nile virus. | abstract ornithophilic culex species are considered the primary amplification vectors of west nile virus (wnv) in bird hosts as well as vectors responsible for epidemic transmission. culex coronator was first collected from okaloosa, santa rosa, walton, and washington counties in florida in 2005 and has since spread throughout the state. the vector competence of cx. coronator for wnv, known to be infected in nature, has not been assessed. without this knowledge, we are unable to assess this spec ... | 0 | 25072992 |
| fluid spatial dynamics of west nile virus in the united states: rapid spread in a permissive host environment. | the introduction of west nile virus (wnv) into north america in 1999 is a classic example of viral emergence in a new environment, with its subsequent dispersion across the continent having a major impact on local bird populations. despite the importance of this epizootic, the pattern, dynamics, and determinants of wnv spread in its natural hosts remain uncertain. in particular, it is unclear whether the virus encountered major barriers to transmission, or spread in an unconstrained manner, and ... | 2015 | 26512086 |
| evaluation of the honey-card technique for detection of transmission of arboviruses in florida and comparison with sentinel chicken seroconversion. | zoonotic mosquito-borne viruses, such as the west nile virus (wnv) and eastern equine encephalitis virus (eeev), are major public health threats in the united states. early detection of virus transmission and targeted vector management are critical to protect humans against these pathogens. sentinel chickens and pool screening of mosquitoes, the most widely used methods of arbovirus early detection, have technical time-lags that compromise their early-detection value. the exploitation of sugar-f ... | 2016 | 27330092 |
| factors that influence the transmission of west nile virus in florida. | west nile virus (wnv) was first detected in north america in new york city during the late summer of 1999 and was first detected in florida in 2001. although wnv has been responsible for widespread and extensive epidemics in human populations and epizootics in domestic animals and wildlife throughout north america, comparable epidemics have never materialized in florida. here, we review some of the reasons why wnv has yet to cause an extensive outbreak in florida. the primary vector of mosquito- ... | 2015 | 26336216 |
| willingness to pay for mosquito control in key west, florida and tucson, arizona. | mosquito-borne illnesses like west nile virus (wnv) and dengue are growing threats to the united states. proactive mosquito control is one strategy to reduce the risk of disease transmission. in 2012, we measured the public's willingness to pay (wtp) for increased mosquito control in two cities: key west, fl, where there have been recent dengue outbreaks, and tucson, az, where dengue vectors are established and wnv has been circulating for over a decade. nearly three quarters of respondents in b ... | 2016 | 26903603 |
| west nile virus activity--united states, october 20-26, 2004. | during october 20-26, a total of 80 cases of human west nile virus (wnv) illness were reported from 16 states (arizona, california, florida, iowa, kentucky, louisiana, michigan, mississippi, missouri, montana, nebraska, new york, ohio, south dakota, texas, and utah). | 2004 | 15514584 |
| antibodies to west nile virus in feral swine from florida, georgia, and texas, usa. | west nile virus (wnv) exposure has not yet been reported in feral swine (sus scrofa) despite the broad geographic range and population density of this species. the objectives of this study were to determine the prevalence of antibodies to wnv in feral pigs, and to evaluate serologic diagnostics as applied to this species. feral pig serum from three states was evaluated for antibodies to wnv. the overall wnv seroprevalence rate for 222 samples collected in 2001-2004 was 22.5%. seroprevalence rate ... | 2006 | 16989565 |
| a temperature-limited assessment of the risk of rift valley fever transmission and establishment in the continental united states of america. | the rapid spread of west nile virus across north america after its introduction in 1999 highlights the potential for foreign arboviruses to become established in the united states of america. of particular concern is rift valley fever virus (rvfv), which has been responsible for multiple african epidemics resulting in death of both humans and livestock, as well as major economic disruption due to livestock loss and trade restrictions. modern globalization, travel, and commerce allow viruses to e ... | 2012 | 22639118 |