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effects of human samhd1 polymorphisms on hiv-1 susceptibility.samhd1 is a human restriction factor that prevents efficient infection of macrophages, dendritic cells and resting cd4+ t cells by hiv-1. here we explored the antiviral activity and biochemical properties of human samhd1 polymorphisms. our studies focused on human samhd1 polymorphisms that were previously identified as evolving under positive selection for rapid amino acid replacement during primate speciation. the different human samhd1 polymorphisms were tested for their ability to block hiv-1 ...201425010268
expression and purification of soluble hiv-2 viral protein r (vpr) using a sandwich-fusion protein strategy.viral accessory proteins of the human immunodeficiency virus (hiv), including virus protein r (vpr), are crucial for the efficient replication of the virus in the host organism. while functional data are available for hiv-1 vpr, there is a paucity of data describing the function and structure of hiv-2 vpr. in this report, the construction of a his6-mbp-intein1-vpr-intein2-cyt b5-his6 fusion protein is presented. unlike previous research efforts where only microgram quantities of hiv-1 vpr could ...201424380802
jatrophane diterpenes as inhibitors of chikungunya virus replication: structure-activity relationship and discovery of a potent lead.bioassay-guided purification of an etoac extract of the whole plant of euphorbia amygdaloides ssp. semiperfoliata using a chikungunya virus-cell-based assay led to the isolation of six new (1-4, 9, and 10) and six known (5-7, 8, 11, and 12) jatrophane esters. their planar structures and relative configurations were determined by extensive spectroscopic analysis, and their absolute configurations by x-ray analysis. these compounds were investigated for selective antiviral activity against chikung ...201424926807
increased hot flash severity and related interference in perimenopausal human immunodeficiency virus-infected women.as women with human immunodeficiency virus (hiv) are living longer, more are entering perimenopause. prior studies suggest that hiv-infected women are more likely to have hot flashes than non-hiv-infected women. however, little is known regarding hot flash severity and hot flash-related interference with daily function, mood, and quality of life in this population.201423820600
[positioning of lopinavir/ritonavir in antiretroviral treatment schemes].lopinavir/ritonavir (lpv/r) was approved for use in the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus (hiv) infection in 2001 and is the protease inhibitor that has been most widely studied in clinical trials. despite the time interval since its approval, all the evidence accumulated in the last 14 years indicates that lpv/r continues to occupy an important position among antiretroviral drugs. firstly, lpv/r plus 2 nucleoside/nucleotide analogs is still considered a good option for initial antiretro ...201425542874
structural basis of lentiviral subversion of a cellular protein degradation pathway.lentiviruses contain accessory genes that have evolved to counteract the effects of host cellular defence proteins that inhibit productive infection. one such restriction factor, samhd1, inhibits human immunodeficiency virus (hiv)-1 infection of myeloid-lineage cells as well as resting cd4(+) t cells by reducing the cellular deoxynucleoside 5'-triphosphate (dntp) concentration to a level at which the viral reverse transcriptase cannot function. in other lentiviruses, including hiv-2 and related ...201424336198
defective hiv-1 quasispecies in the form of multiply drug-resistant proviral dna within cells can be rescued by superinfection with different subtype variants of hiv-1 and by hiv-2 and siv.hiv-1 generates swarms of similar, but genetically distinct, variants termed quasispecies and many of these variants can be defective. a relevant question is whether such defective species can contribute to viral pathogenesis. indeed, we previously reported that a presumed recombination of defective proviral dna with other complementary defective proviral dna or with wild-type viral dna in the aftermath of superinfection could lead to the rescue of defective provirus and the production of replic ...201423963235
distribution of jc virus genotypes among serbian patients infected with hiv and in healthy donors.certain factors lead to increased reactivation of jc virus (jcv) and immunodeficiency seems to be the most important. jcv isolates can be classified into eight different genotypes and several subtypes based on nucleotide difference in the vp1 gene. jcv genotypes are strongly associated with particular ethnic groups and frequently used as genetic markers for human evolution and migration. the aim of this study was to determine the frequency of jcv urinary shedding and genotype distribution in ser ...201424123117
poly-proline motif in hiv-2 vpx is critical for its efficient translation.human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (hiv-2) carries an accessory protein vpx that is important for viral replication in natural target cells. in its c-terminal region, there is a highly conserved poly-proline motif (ppm) consisting of seven consecutive prolines, encoded in a poly-pyrimidine tract. we have previously shown that ppm is critical for vpx expression and viral infectivity. to elucidate the molecular basis underlying this observation, we analysed the expression of vpx proteins with var ...201424114794
dendritic cell-lymphocyte cross talk downregulates host restriction factor samhd1 and stimulates hiv-1 replication in dendritic cells.human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (hiv-1) replication in dendritic cells (dcs) is restricted by samhd1. this factor is counteracted by the viral protein vpx; vpx is found in hiv-2 and simian immunodeficiency virus (siv) from sooty mangabeys (sivsm) or from macaques (sivmac) but is absent from hiv-1. we previously observed that hiv-1 replication in immature dcs is stimulated by cocultivation with primary t and b lymphocytes, suggesting that hiv-1 restriction in dcs may be overcome under cocultu ...201424574390
new automated chemiluminescence immunoassay for simultaneous but separate detection of human immunodeficiency virus antigens and antibodies.the recently launched liaison xl murex hiv ab/ag assay (diasorin s.p.a) uses chemiluminescence immunoassay technology for the combined qualitative determination of p24 antigen of hiv-1 and specific antibodies to both hiv-1 and hiv-2. we studied 571 serum samples from those submitted to our laboratory for hiv screening. the samples were divided into 3 subsets: subset a, 365 samples collected prospectively during 1 week; subset b, 158 samples from confirmed hiv-positive patients; and subset c, 48 ...201424574285
cullin4a and cullin4b are interchangeable for hiv vpr and vpx action through the crl4 ubiquitin ligase complex.human immunodeficiency virus (hiv) seizes control of cellular cullin-ring e3 ubiquitin ligases (crls) to promote viral replication. hiv-1 vpr and hiv-2/simian immunodeficiency virus (siv) vpr and vpx engage the cullin4 (cul4)-containing ubiquitin ligase complex (crl4) to cause polyubiquitination and proteasomal degradation of host proteins, including ones that block infection. hiv-1 vpr engages crl4 to trigger the degradation of uracil-n-glycosylase 2 (ung2). both hiv-1 vpr and hiv-2/siv vpr tap ...201424719410
revised surveillance case definition for hiv infection--united states, 2014.following extensive consultation and peer review, cdc and the council of state and territorial epidemiologists have revised and combined the surveillance case definitions for human immunodeficiency virus (hiv) infection into a single case definition for persons of all ages (i.e., adults and adolescents aged ≥13 years and children aged <13 years). the revisions were made to address multiple issues, the most important of which was the need to adapt to recent changes in diagnostic criteria. laborat ...201424717910
cohort profile: french hospital database on hiv (fhdh-anrs co4).the french hospital database on hiv (fhdh) is a hospital-based multicentre open cohort with inclusions ongoing since 1989. the research objectives focus mainly on mid- and long-term clinical outcomes and therapeutic strategies, as well as severe aids and non-aids morbidities, and public health issues relative to hiv infection. fhdh also serves to describe hiv-infected patients receiving hospital care in france. fhdh includes data on more than 120,000 hiv-infected patients from 70 french general ...201424550249
hiv-1 nef down-modulates c-c and c-x-c chemokine receptors via ubiquitin and ubiquitin-independent mechanism.human and simian immunodeficiency virus (hiv-1, hiv-2, and siv) encode an accessory protein, nef, which is a pathogenesis and virulence factor. nef is a multivalent adapter that dysregulates the trafficking of many immune cell receptors, including chemokine receptors (ckrs). physiological endocytic itinerary of agonist occupied cxcr4 involves ubiquitinylation of the phosphorylated receptor at three critical lysine residues and dynamin-dependent trafficking through the escrt pathway into lysosome ...201424489825
vpx rescue of hiv-1 from the antiviral state in mature dendritic cells is independent of the intracellular deoxynucleotide concentration.sivmac/hiv-2 vpx recruits the cul4a-dcaf1 e3 ubiquitin ligase complex to degrade the deoxynucleotide hydrolase samhd1. this increases the concentration of deoxynucleotides available for reverse transcription in myeloid cells and resting t cells. accordingly, transduction of these cells by sivmac requires vpx. virus-like particles containing sivmac vpx (vpx-vlps) also increase the efficiency of hiv-1 transduction in these cells, and rescue transduction by hiv-1, but not sivmac, in mature monocyte ...201424485168
human immunodeficiency virus type 2 infections in austria.the first case of human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (hiv-2) seropositivity in austria was confirmed in 1993 in a dually human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (hiv-1)- and hiv-2-infected patient from ghana, who died in 2001. before this investigation, no further hiv-2 infection was published.201424442861
ruxolitinib and tofacitinib are potent and selective inhibitors of hiv-1 replication and virus reactivation in vitro.the jak-stat pathway is activated in both macrophages and lymphocytes upon human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (hiv-1) infection and thus represents an attractive cellular target to achieve hiv suppression and reduced inflammation, which may impact virus sanctuaries. ruxolitinib and tofacitinib are jak1/2 inhibitors that are fda approved for rheumatoid arthritis and myelofibrosis, respectively, but their therapeutic application for treatment of hiv infection was unexplored. both drugs demonstrat ...201424419350
novel restriction factor rna-associated early-stage anti-viral factor (reaf) inhibits human and simian immunodeficiency viruses.the discovery of novel anti-viral restriction factors illuminates unknown aspects of innate sensing and immunity. we identified rna-associated early-stage anti-viral factor (reaf) using a whole genome sirna screen for restriction factors to human immunodeficiency virus (hiv) that act in the early phase of viral replication.201424410916
antiretroviral therapy and drug resistance in human immunodeficiency virus type 2 infection.one to two million people worldwide are infected with the human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (hiv-2), with highest prevalences in west african countries, but also present in western europe, asia and north america. compared to hiv-1, hiv-2 infection undergoes a longer asymptomatic phase and progresses to aids more slowly. in addition, hiv-2 shows lower transmission rates, probably due to its lower viremia in infected individuals. there is limited experience in the treatment of hiv-2 infection an ...201424345729
hiv type 1 infection of plasmacytoid and myeloid dendritic cells is restricted by high levels of samhd1 and cannot be counteracted by vpx.dendritic cells are professional antigen-presenting cells of the immune system and are major producers of type-i interferon. their role in hiv-1 infection is not well understood. they express cd4 and ccr5 yet appear to be resistant to infection. in culture, infection of the cells with hiv-1 is inhibited by the host cell restriction factor samhd1. lentiviruses such as hiv-2/sivmac counteract the restriction by encoding vpx, a virion-packaged accessory protein that induces the proteasomal degradat ...201423924154
azvudine, a novel nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor showed good drug combination features and better inhibition on drug-resistant strains than lamivudine in vitro.azvudine is a novel nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor with antiviral activity on human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis b virus and hepatitis c virus. here we reported the in vitro activity of azvudine against hiv-1 and hiv-2 when used alone or in combination with other antiretroviral drugs and its drug resistance features. azvudine exerted highly potent inhibition on hiv-1 (ec(50)s ranging from 0.03 to 6.92 nm) and hiv-2 (ec(50)s ranging from 0.018 to 0.025 nm). it also showed synergi ...201425144636
nucleic acid testing of hepatitis b virus, hepatitis c virus, and human immunodeficiency virus 1, 2 in blood donors in the general university hospital, prague.the roche cobas taqscreen mpx test v1 - multiplex reverse transcription-real time (mpx rt-real time) pcr, performed on cobas s201 for hcv rna, hbv dna, hiv-1 rna /group m and o/, and hiv-2 rna was introduced as a supplement to the currently used imunoanalysis method for blood donor´s testing (abbott cmia - chemiluminescent microparticle imunoassay, performed on architect i2000 for anti-hcv, hepatitis b surface antigen (hbsag)), anti-hiv-1 /group m and o/, anti-hiv-2 and p24 hiv). the results of ...201424957719
hepatitis b and delta virus are prevalent but often subclinical co-infections among hiv infected patients in guinea-bissau, west africa: a cross-sectional study.co-infection with human immunodeficiency virus (hiv) and hepatitis b virus (hbv) may lead to accelerated hepatic disease progression with higher rates of liver cirrhosis and liver-related mortality compared with hbv mono-infection. co or super-infection with hepatitis delta virus (hdv) may worsen the liver disease and complicate treatment possibilities.201424915064
pathogen safety of beriate®.plasma-derived factor viii (fviii) concentrates have been used successfully to treat haemophilia a since the late 1960s. to ensure the pathogen safety of the plasma-derived fviii concentrate, beriate(®) (formerly beriate(®) p), donors of blood/plasma are carefully selected and all donations are screened for hepatitis b virus surface antigen (hbsag), antibodies against hiv types 1 and 2 (hiv-1/hiv-2) and hepatitis c virus (hcv), and genomic material of hepatitis a virus (hav), hepatitis b virus ( ...201424726555
hepatitis c prevalence among hiv-infected patients in guinea-bissau: a descriptive cross-sectional study.to estimate the prevalence and determine the clinical presentation of risk factors of hepatitis c virus (hcv) among hiv-infected patients in bissau, guinea-bissau.201425223805
differential sensitivities of tetherin isoforms to counteraction by primate lentiviruses.the mammalian antiviral membrane protein tetherin (bst2/cd317) can be expressed as two isoforms derived from differential translational initiation. the shorter isoform of the human protein (s-tetherin) lacks the first 12 amino acids of the longer (l-tetherin) cytoplasmic tail, which includes a tyrosine motif that acts as both an endocytic recycling signal and a determinant of virus-induced nf-κb activation. s-tetherin is also reported to be less sensitive to the prototypic viral antagonist human ...201424623426
[gesida/national aids plan: consensus document on antiretroviral therapy in adults infected by the human immunodeficiency virus (updated january 2014)].this consensus document is an update of combined antiretroviral therapy (cart) guidelines for hiv-1 infected adult patients.201424953253
[single-donor (apheresis) platelets and pooled whole-blood-derived platelets--significance and assessment of both blood products].the transfusion efficacy of atk, which contain fully functional platelets, is beyond all doubt. the equivalence of atk and ptk has been subject of many studies. some of those studies show the superiority of atk's, while others do not, but there have been no studies that demonstrated a superiority of ptk's. the superiority of platelets stored in plasma and in third generation additive solution was demonstrated in clinical studies; therefore, it cannot be said that all the platelet concentrates on ...201424779310
prevalence of monoclonal gammopathy in hiv patients in 2014.in non-hiv patients, monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (mgus) is associated with an increased risk of subsequent development of haematologic malignancies, especially multiple myeloma (mm) and it has been recently demonstrated that mm is always preceded by a mgus phase. a higher prevalence of mgus and mm has been observed in hiv patients compared to the general population. nevertheless, it has been shown that mgus in the context of hiv can disappear with antiretroviral therapy (a ...201425394153
[lopinavir/ritonavir in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection in special situations].ritonavir-boosted lopinavir (lpv/r) is a protease inhibitor used for the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus (hiv) infection in both normal patients and in certain situations. in patients with renal failure, lpv/r does not require dosage adjustment because it is metabolized in the liver. cohort studies have shown that the incidence of varying degrees of renal disease and/or crystalluria related to combination antiretroviral therapy with tenofovir and some protease inhibitors (pi) does not ...201425542871
rapid quantitative detection of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 by a reverse transcription-loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay.accurate and rapid quantitation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (hiv-1) rna levels is a critical aspect in estimating the effect of antiviral therapy and establishing therapeutic schedule. thus, for the first time, a rapid quantitative reverse transcription-loop-mediated isothermal amplification (rt-lamp) was designed to quantitate hiv-1 rna. the results showed that the dynamic range was from 2.5×10(2) to 10(7) copies with a coefficient of determination (r(2)) of 0.991, and the limit of d ...201424630968
discrepant amplification results during the development of an assay leads to reclassification of two aids reagent repository hiv-2 isolates as hiv-1.the development and verification of hiv-2 assays depends in part on the availability of well-characterized samples, including those from reagent repositories. during the development of an hiv-2 rna quantification assay, two hiv-2 viral isolates (cdc 301340 and cdc 301342) obtained from the niaid aids reagent and reference repository were not detected leading to an investigation. two hiv-2 primers/probe sets of known performance in real-time viral rna quantification assays, targeting different re ...201424797800
[hiv-1 subtype distribution determined by phylogenetic analysis of pol gene sequences and automated subtyping tools among hiv-1 isolates from the aegian region of turkey].human immunodeficiency virus (hiv) exhibiting remarkable genetic variability, includes two genotypes namely hiv-1 (group m, n, o and p) and hiv-2 (group a-h). hiv-1 group m, which is mainly the cause of the aids pandemic, is divided into nine pure subtypes, more than 45 circulating recombinant forms (crf) and numerous unique recombinant forms (urf). according to the documents of turkish government of health, among a total of 6802 hiv-positive cases, 1096 of them were defined as aids as of june 2 ...201425052108
how can mathematical models advance tuberculosis control in high hiv prevalence settings?existing approaches to tuberculosis (tb) control have been no more than partially successful in areas with high human immunodeficiency virus (hiv) prevalence. in the context of increasingly constrained resources, mathematical modelling can augment understanding and support policy for implementing those strategies that are most likely to bring public health and economic benefits. in this paper, we present an overview of past and recent contributions of tb modelling in this key area, and suggest a ...201424903784
protection versus pathology in aviremic and high viral load hiv-2 infection-the pivotal role of immune activation and t-cell kinetics.many human immunodeficiency virus (hiv)-2-infected individuals remain aviremic and behave as long-term non-progressors but some progress to aids. we hypothesized that immune activation and t-cell turnover would be critical determinants of non-progressor/progressor status.201424803534
hiv-2 interaction with cell coreceptors: amino acids within the v1/v2 region of viral envelope are determinant for ccr8, ccr5 and cxcr4 usage.human immunodeficiency virus 1 and 2 (hiv-1 and hiv-2) use cellular receptors in distinct ways. besides a more promiscuous usage of coreceptors by hiv-2 and a more frequent detection of cd4-independent hiv-2 isolates, we have previously identified two hiv-2 isolates (hiv-2mic97 and hiv-2mjc97) that do not use the two major hiv coreceptors: ccr5 and cxcr4. all these features suggest that in hiv-2 the env glycoprotein subunits may have a different structural organization enabling distinct - althou ...201425421818
a modular system to evaluate the efficacy of protease inhibitors against hiv-2.the human immunodeficiency virus (hiv) protease is a homodimeric aspartyl protease that is crucial for the viral life-cycle, cleaving proviral polyproteins, hence creating mature protein components that are required for the formation of an infectious virus. with diagnostic measures and clinically used protease inhibitors focusing on hiv-1, due to its higher virulence and prevalence, studies of the efficacy of those inhibitors on hiv-2 protease remain widely lacking. utilizing a wild-type hiv-2 v ...201425419967
hiv-2 x4 tropism is associated with lower cd4+ cell count in treatment-experienced patients.the distribution and evolution of x4/r5 viral tropism during hiv-2 infection remains unknown. hiv-2 tropism was assessed in 83 antiretroviral-experienced patients with virological failure. tropism was predicted as x4 in 58% of patients and was associated with a cd4 cell count of less than 100 cells/μl, and with a higher number of drug resistance mutations. this high prevalence of x4 virus might compromise the use of ccr5 inhibitors, currently mostly considered in hiv-2 salvage therapy of highly ...201425265081
novel inhibitors of human immunodeficiency virus type 2 infectivity.human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (hiv-2) infects about two million people worldwide. hiv-2 has fewer treatment options than hiv-1, yet may evolve drug resistance more quickly. we have analysed several novel drugs for anti-hiv-2 activity. it was observed that 5-azacytidine, clofarabine, gemcitabine and resveratrol have potent anti-hiv-2 activity. the ec50 values for 5-azacytidine, clofarabine and resveratrol were found to be significantly lower with hiv-2 than with hiv-1. a time-of-addition as ...201425103850
national hiv testing day and new testing recommendations.june 27 marks the 20th annual observance of national hiv testing day, which promotes testing as an important first step in a strategy to detect, treat, and prevent human immunodeficiency virus (hiv) infection. hiv testing is entering a new era in the united states because of food and drug administration approval of 1) combination tests that detect both hiv antigen and antibody, and 2) tests that accurately differentiate hiv-1 from hiv-2 antibodies. as a result, cdc has issued new guidelines, now ...201425095328
[diagnosing hiv in switzerland].the diagnosis "hiv infection" has severe consequences. false positive or false negative hiv results must be avoided. the swiss federal office of public health generated a concept for hiv testing which also includes the characterization of hiv for optimal medical care of the hiv-infected patient. this concept requests that the following four questions are answered: 1. is the patient indeed hiv-infected? 2. is it hiv-1 or hiv-2, and if the patient is tested positive for hiv-1, what group, m or o? ...201425093309
reference panel of cloned hiv-2 plasmid dna for nucleic acid assay development, evaluation, and quality monitoring.currently, no fda-approved hiv-2 nucleic acid assay is commercially available in the united states, although several laboratories have developed in-house assays to confirm hiv-2 infections. a major limitation in the development of novel hiv-2 diagnostic assays is the lack of reference materials that can be used to evaluate, optimize, and monitor assay performance.201425066885
false human immunodeficiency virus test results associated with rheumatoid factors in rheumatoid arthritis.to investigate if immunological factors associated with rheumatoid arthritis (ra) affect the result of human immunodeficiency virus (hiv) screening by electrochemiluminescence immunoassay (eclia) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (elisa).201424998232
hiv 2: a benign onlooker or a subtle threat?hiv-2 infection, originally discovered in west africa, has now been found in many countries throughout the world including india. despite it being a long acquaintance with the virus, not much is known about it conclusively. the present study was conducted at the ictc of a tertiary care hospital catering to the needs of jaipur and adjoining districts, to find the prevalence of hiv 2 among ictc attendees. a total of 8190 clients accessed ictc services during the study period, out of which 135 were ...201424995186
executive summary of the gesida/national aids plan consensus document on antiretroviral therapy in adults infected by the human immunodeficiency virus (updated january 2014).in this update, antiretroviral therapy (art) is recommended for all patients infected by type 1 human immunodeficiency virus (hiv-1). the strength and grade of the recommendation varies with clinical circumstances, number of cd4 cells, comorbid conditions and prevention of transmission of hiv. the objective of art is to achieve an undetectable plasma viral load. initial art should always comprise a combination of 3 drugs, including 2 nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and a third drug f ...201424986715
hiv-1 and hiv-2 vif interact with human apobec3 proteins using completely different determinants.human apobec3 (a3) restriction factors provide intrinsic immunity against zoonotic transmission of pathogenic viruses. a3d, a3f, a3g, and a3h haplotype ii (a3h-hapii) can be packaged into virion infectivity factor (vif)-deficient hivs to inhibit viral replication. to overcome these restriction factors, vif binds to the a3 proteins in viral producer cells to target them for ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation, thus preventing their packaging into assembling virions. therefore, the vif-a3 i ...201424942576
decreased hiv type 1 transcription in ccr5-δ32 heterozygotes during suppressive antiretroviral therapy.individuals who are heterozygous for the ccr5-δ32 mutation provide a natural model to examine the effects of reduced ccr5 expression on human immunodeficiency virus (hiv) persistence. we evaluated the hiv reservoir in 18 ccr5-δ32 heterozygotes and 54 ccr5 wild-type individuals during suppressive antiretroviral therapy. cell-associated hiv rna levels (p=.035), rna to dna transcriptional ratios (p=.013), and frequency of detectable hiv 2-long terminal repeat circular dna (p=.013) were significantl ...201424935955
evaluation of the bio-rad geenius hiv-1/2 test as a confirmatory assay.we have evaluated the recently conformité européenne (ce)-marked bio-rad geenius human immunodeficiency virus (hiv)1/2 as a rapid and simple alternative to western blot for confirmation of hiv screening results.201424932737
modeling scenarios for the end of aids.at the end of 2012, 3 decades after the human immunodeficiency virus (hiv) was first identified, neither a cure nor a fully preventive vaccine was available. despite multiple efforts, the epidemic remains an exceptional public health challenge. at the end of 2012, it was estimated that, globally, 35 million people were living with hiv, 2.3 million had become newly infected, and 1.6 million had died from aids-related causes. despite substantial prevention efforts and increases in the number of in ...201424926027
phylogenetic analysis of human immunodeficiency virus type 2 isolated from cuban individuals.the presence of infection by human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (hiv-2) in cuba has been previously documented. however, genetic information on the strains that circulate in the cuban people is still unknown. the present work constitutes the first study concerning the phylogenetic relationship of hiv-2 cuban isolates conducted on 13 cuban patients who were diagnosed with hiv-2. the env sequences were analyzed for the construction of a phylogenetic tree with reference sequences of hiv-2. phyloge ...201424925342
samhd1 specifically affects the antiviral potency of thymidine analog hiv reverse transcriptase inhibitors.sterile alpha motif and histidine-aspartic domain-containing protein 1 (samhd1) is a deoxynucleoside triphosphate (dntp) triphosphohydrolase recently recognized as an antiviral factor that acts by depleting dntp availability for viral reverse transcriptase (rt). samhd1 restriction is counteracted by the human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (hiv-2) accessory protein vpx, which targets samhd1 for proteosomal degradation, resulting in an increased availability of dntps and consequently enhanced vira ...201424913159
hiv-2 integrase polymorphisms and longitudinal genotypic analysis of hiv-2 infected patients failing a raltegravir-containing regimen.to characterize the hiv-2 integrase gene polymorphisms and the pathways to resistance of hiv-2 patients failing a raltegravir-containing regimen, we studied 63 integrase strand transfer inhibitors (insti)-naïve patients, and 10 heavily pretreated patients exhibiting virological failure while receiving a salvage raltegravir-containing regimen. all patients were infected by hiv-2 group a. 61.4% of the integrase residues were conserved, including the catalytic motif residues. no insti-major resista ...201424681625
moderate restriction of macrophage-tropic human immunodeficiency virus type 1 by samhd1 in monocyte-derived macrophages.macrophage-tropic human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (hiv-1) strains are able to grow to high titers in human monocyte-derived macrophages. however, it was recently reported that cellular protein samhd1 restricts hiv-1 replication in human cells of the myeloid lineage, including monocyte-derived macrophages. here we show that degradation of samhd1 in monocyte-derived macrophages was associated with moderately enhanced growth of the macrophage-tropic hiv-1 strain. samhd1 degradation was induced ...201424599229
samhd1 restricts hiv-1 replication and regulates interferon production in mouse myeloid cells.samhd1 restricts the replication of hiv-1 and other retroviruses in human myeloid and resting cd4(+) t cells and that is counteracted in siv and hiv-2 by the vpx accessory protein. the protein is a phosphohydrolase that lowers the concentration of deoxynucleoside triphosphates (dntp), blocking reverse transcription of the viral rna genome. polymorphisms in the gene encoding samhd1 are associated with aicardi-goutières syndrome, a neurological disorder characterized by increased type-i interferon ...201424586870
hiv-1 vpr-a still "enigmatic multitasker".like other hiv-1 auxiliary proteins, vpr is conserved within all the human (hiv-1, hiv-2) and simian (siv) immunodeficiency viruses. however, vpr and homologous hiv-2, and siv vpx are the only viral auxiliary proteins specifically incorporated into virus particles through direct interaction with the gag precursor, indicating that this presence in the core of the mature virions is mainly required for optimal establishment of the early steps of the virus life cycle in the newly infected cell. in s ...201424744753
hiv-2 infects resting cd4+ t cells but not monocyte-derived dendritic cells.human immunodeficiency virus-type 2 (hiv-2) encodes vpx that degrades samhd1, a cellular restriction factor active in non-dividing cells. hiv-2 replicates in lymphocytes but the susceptibility of monocyte-derived dendritic cells (mddcs) to in vitro infection remains partly characterized.201525582927
signatures in simian immunodeficiency virus sivsme660 envelope gp120 are associated with mucosal transmission but not vaccination breakthrough in rhesus macaques.mucosal surfaces are vulnerable to human immunodeficiency virus (hiv)/simian immunodeficiency virus (siv) infection and thus are key sites for eliciting vaccine-mediated protection. vaccine protocols carried out at the yerkes primate research center utilized sivmac239-based immunization strategies with intrarectal and intravaginal sivsme660 challenge of rhesus macaques. we investigated whether there were genetic signatures associated with sivsme660 intrarectal and intravaginal transmissions in v ...201526676777
samhd1: at the crossroads of cell proliferation, immune responses, and virus restriction.samhd1 is a triphosphohydrolase enzyme that controls the intracellular level of deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates (dntps) and plays a role in innate immune sensing and autoimmune disease. samhd1 has also been identified as an intrinsic virus restriction factor, inactivated through degradation by hiv-2 vpx or through a post-transcriptional regulatory mechanism. phosphorylation of samhd1 by cyclin-dependent kinases has been strongly associated with inactivation of the virus restriction mechanism, ...201526439297
evaluation of performance of human immunodeficiency virus antigen/antibody combination assays in taiwan.the fourth-generation human immunodeficiency virus (hiv) combination assay, which can simultaneously detect the presence of anti-hiv antibody and hiv antigen, has been shown to shorten the window period in hiv diagnosis compared with the third-generation hiv antibody immunoassay. this study was aimed to determine the performance of hiv combination assays in taiwan, where the hiv-1 seroprevalence is 0.007% and hiv-2 infection has never been reported.201526433754
conserved determinants of lentiviral genome dimerization.retroviruses selectively package two copies of their unspliced genomes by what appears to be a dimerization-dependent rna packaging mechanism. dimerization of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (hiv-1) genomes is initiated by "kissing" interactions between gc-rich palindromic loop residues of a conserved hairpin (dis), and is indirectly promoted by long-range base pairing between residues overlapping the gag start codon (aug) and an upstream unique 5' element (u5). the dis and u5:aug structures ...201526420212
patients' understanding of blood tests and attitudes to hiv screening in the emergency department of a swiss teaching hospital: a cross-sectional observational study.in switzerland, patients may undergo "blood tests" without being informed what these are screening for. inadequate doctor-patient communication may result in patient misunderstanding. we examined what patients in the emergency department (ed) believed they had been screened for and explored their attitudes to routine (non-targeted) human immunodeficiency virus (hiv) screening.201526636370
on-demand preexposure prophylaxis in men at high risk for hiv-1 infection.antiretroviral preexposure prophylaxis has been shown to reduce the risk of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (hiv-1) infection in some studies, but conflicting results have been reported among studies, probably due to challenges of adherence to a daily regimen.201526624850
structure of an hiv-2 gp120 in complex with cd4.hiv-2 is a nonpandemic form of the virus causing aids, and the majority of hiv-2-infected patients exhibit long-term nonprogression. the hiv-1 and hiv-2 envelope glycoproteins, the sole targets of neutralizing antibodies, share 30 to 40% identity. as a first step in understanding the reduced pathogenicity of hiv-2, we solved a 3.0-å structure of an hiv-2 gp120 bound to the host receptor cd4, which reveals structural similarity to hiv-1 gp120 despite divergence in amino acid sequence.201526608312
maraviroc: a review of its use in hiv infection and beyond.the human immunodeficiency virus-1 (hiv-1) enters target cells by binding its envelope glycoprotein gp120 to the cd4 receptor and/or coreceptors such as c-c chemokine receptor type 5 (ccr5; r5) and c-x-c chemokine receptor type 4 (cxcr4; x4), and r5-tropic viruses predominate during the early stages of infection. ccr5 antagonists bind to ccr5 to prevent viral entry. maraviroc (mvc) is the only ccr5 antagonist currently approved by the united states food and drug administration, the european comm ...201526491256
mechanistic and kinetic differences between reverse transcriptases of vpx coding and non-coding lentiviruses.among lentiviruses, hiv type 2 (hiv-2) and many simian immunodeficiency virus (siv) strains replicate rapidly in non-dividing macrophages, whereas hiv type 1 (hiv-1) replication in this cell type is kinetically delayed. the efficient replication capability of hiv-2/siv in non-dividing cells is induced by a unique, virally encoded accessory protein, vpx, which proteasomally degrades the host antiviral restriction factor, sam domain- and hd domain-containing protein 1 (samhd1). samhd1 is a dntpase ...201526483545
executive summary of the gesida/national aids plan consensus document on antiretroviral therapy in adults infected by the human immunodeficiency virus (updated january 2015).in this update, antiretroviral therapy (art) is recommended for all patients infected by type 1 human immunodeficiency virus (hiv-1). the strength and grade of the recommendation vary depending on the cd4+ t-lymphocyte count, the presence of opportunistic infections or comorbid conditions, age, and the efforts to prevent the transmission of hiv. the objective of art is to achieve an undetectable plasma viral load (pvl). initial art should comprise three drugs, namely, two nucleoside reverse tran ...201526021186
the expression of functional vpx during pathogenic sivmac infections of rhesus macaques suppresses samhd1 in cd4+ memory t cells.for nearly 20 years, the principal biological function of the hiv-2/siv vpx gene has been thought to be required for optimal virus replication in myeloid cells. mechanistically, this vpx activity was recently reported to involve the degradation of sterile alpha motif and hd domain-containing protein 1 (samhd1) in this cell lineage. here we show that when macaques were inoculated with either the t cell tropic sivmac239 or the macrophage tropic sivmac316 carrying a vpx point mutation that abrogate ...201525996507
a direct interaction with rna dramatically enhances the catalytic activity of the hiv-1 protease in vitro.though the steps of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (hiv-1) virion maturation are well documented, the mechanisms regulating the proteolysis of the gag and gag-pro-pol polyproteins by the hiv-1 protease (pr) remain obscure. one proposed mechanism argues that the maturation intermediate p15nc must interact with rna for efficient cleavage by the pr. we investigated this phenomenon and found that processing of multiple substrates by the hiv-1 pr was enhanced in the presence of rna. the accelera ...201525986307
the importance of glutamine 294 that affects the ribonuclease h activity of the reverse transcriptase of hiv-2 to viral replication.most currently-used antiretroviral drugs inhibit the reverse-transcriptase (rt) of hiv. the differences between hiv-1 and hiv-2 rts explain why some of the anti-hiv-1 drugs are not effective against hiv-2. one major difference between the two hiv rts is the low ribonuclease h (rnase h) activity of hiv-2 rt relative to hiv-1 rt. our previous studies showed that residue gln294 in hiv-2 rt accounts for this rnase h reduction (the comparable residue in hiv-1 rt is pro294), as the q294p mutant of hiv ...201525965791
[gesida/national aids plan: consensus document on antiretroviral therapy in adults infected by the human immunodeficiency virus (updated january 2015)].this consensus document is an update of combined antiretroviral therapy (cart) guidelines and recommendations for hiv-1 infected adult patients.201525959461
cyclin d3-dependent control of the dntp pool and hiv-1 replication in human macrophages.cyclins control the activation of cyclin-dependent kinases (cdk), which in turn, control the cell cycle and cell division. intracellular availability of deoxynucleotides (dntp) plays a fundamental role in cell cycle progression. sam domain and hd domain-containing protein 1 (samhd1) degrades nucleotide triphosphates and controls the size of the dntp pool. samhd1 activity appears to be controlled by cdk. here, we show that knockdown of cyclin d3 a partner of cdk6 and e2 a partner of cdk2 had a ma ...201525927932
samhd1 limits hiv-1 antigen presentation by monocyte-derived dendritic cells.monocyte-derived dendritic cells (mddc) stimulate cd8 cytotoxic t lymphocytes (ctl) by presenting endogenous and exogenous viral peptides via major histocompatibility complex class i (mhc-i) molecules. mddc are poorly susceptible to hiv-1, in part due to the presence of samhd1, a cellular enzyme that depletes intracellular deoxynucleoside triphosphates (dntps) and degrades viral rna. vpx, an hiv-2/sivsm protein absent from hiv-1, antagonizes samhd1 by inducing its degradation. the impact of samh ...201525926647
a multiple sirna-based anti-hiv/shiv microbicide shows protection in both in vitro and in vivo models.human immunodeficiency virus (hiv) types 1 and 2 (hiv-1 and hiv-2) are the etiologic agents of aids. most hiv-1 infected individuals worldwide are women, who acquire hiv infections during sexual contact. blocking hiv mucosal transmission and local spread in the female lower genital tract is important in preventing infection and ultimately eliminating the pandemic. microbicides work by destroying the microbes or preventing them from establishing an infection. thus, a number of different types of ...201526407080
the nucleoside analog bms-986001 shows greater in vitro activity against hiv-2 than against hiv-1.treatment options for individuals infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (hiv-2) are restricted by the intrinsic resistance of the virus to nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (nnrtis) and the reduced susceptibility of hiv-2 to several protease inhibitors (pis) used in antiretroviral therapy (art). in an effort to identify new antiretrovirals for hiv-2 treatment, we evaluated the in vitro activity of the investigational nucleoside analog bms-986001 (2',3'-didehydro-3'-deoxy ...201526392486
dental age estimation in brazilian hiv children using willems' method.the notification of the human immunodeficiency virus (hiv) in brazilian children was first reported in 1984. since that time more than 21 thousand children became infected. approximately 99.6% of the children aged less than 13 years old are vertically infected. in this context, most of the children are abandoned after birth, or lose their relatives in a near future, growing with uncertain identification. the present study aims to estimate the dental age of brazilian hiv patients in face of healt ...201526318404
evaluation of performance of two rapid tests for detection of hiv-1 and -2 in high- and low-prevalence populations in nigeria.the availability of reliable human immunodeficiency virus types 1 and 2 (hiv-1/2) rapid tests in resource-limited settings represents an important advancement in the accurate diagnosis of hiv infection and presents opportunities for implementation of effective prevention and treatment interventions among vulnerable populations. a study of the potential target populations for future hiv vaccine studies examined the prevalence of hiv infections at six selected sites in nigeria and evaluated the us ...201526311857
development of water-soluble polyanionic carbosilane dendrimers as novel and highly potent topical anti-hiv-2 microbicides.the development of topical microbicide formulations for vaginal delivery to prevent hiv-2 sexual transmission is urgently needed. second- and third-generation polyanionic carbosilane dendrimers with a silicon atom core and 16 sulfonate (g2-s16), napthylsulfonate (g2-ns16) and sulphate (g3-sh16) end-groups have shown potent and broad-spectrum anti-hiv-1 activity. however, their antiviral activity against hiv-2 and mode of action have not been probed. cytotoxicity, anti-hiv-2, anti-sperm and antim ...201526274532
dutpase: the frequently overlooked enzyme encoded by many retroviruses.retroviruses are among the best studied viruses in last decades due to their pivotal involvement in cellular processes and, most importantly, in causing human diseases, most notably-acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (aids) that is triggered by human immunodeficiency viruses types 1 and 2 (hiv-1 and hiv-2, respectively). numerous studied were conducted to understand the involvement of the three cardinal retroviral enzymes, reverse transcriptase, integrase and protease, in the life cycle of the v ...201526259899
determinants in hiv-2 env and tetherin required for functional interaction.the interferon-inducible factor bst-2/tetherin blocks the release of nascent virions from the surface of infected cells for certain enveloped virus families. the primate lentiviruses have evolved several counteracting mechanisms which, in the case of hiv-2, is a function of its env protein. we sought to further understand the features of the env protein and tetherin that are important for this interaction, and to evaluate the selective pressure on hiv-2 to maintain such an activity.201526248668
cenicriviroc, a novel ccr5 (r5) and ccr2 antagonist, shows in vitro activity against r5 tropic hiv-2 clinical isolates.maraviroc activity against hiv-2, a virus naturally resistant to different hiv-1 antiretroviral drugs, has been recently demonstrated. the aim of this study was to assess hiv-2 susceptibility to cenicriviroc, a novel, once-daily, dual ccr5 and ccr2 antagonist that has completed phase 2b development in hiv-1 infection.201526247470
vpx-independent lentiviral transduction and shrna-mediated protein knock-down in monocyte-derived dendritic cells.the function of dendritic cells (dcs) in the immune system is based on their ability to sense and present foreign antigens. powerful tools to research dc function and to apply in cell-based immunotherapy are either silencing or overexpression of genes achieved by lentiviral transduction. to date, efficient lentiviral transduction of dcs or their monocyte derived counterparts (mddcs) required high multiplicity of infection (moi) or the exposure to the hiv-2/siv protein vpx to degrade viral restri ...201526208151
lv4 is a capsid-specific antiviral activity in human blood cells that restricts viruses of the sivmac/sivsm/hiv-2 lineage prior to integration.hiv-2 and sivmac are aids-causing, zoonotic lentiviruses that jumped to humans and rhesus macaques, respectively, from sivsm-bearing sooty mangabey monkeys. cross-species transmission events such as these sometimes necessitate virus adaptation to species-specific, host restriction factors such as trim5. here, a new human restriction activity is described that blocks viruses of the sivsm/sivmac/hiv-2 lineage. human t, b, and myeloid cell lines, peripheral blood mononuclear cells and dendritic cel ...201526181333
hiv-1 and hiv-2 exhibit similar mutation frequencies and spectra in the absence of g-to-a hypermutation.human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (hiv-2) is often distinguished clinically by lower viral loads, reduced transmissibility, and longer asymptomatic periods than for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (hiv-1). differences in the mutation frequencies of hiv-1 and hiv-2 have been hypothesized to contribute to the attenuated progression of hiv-2 observed clinically.201526160407
laboratory-confirmed hiv and sexually transmitted infection seropositivity and risk behavior among sexually active transgender patients at an adolescent and young adult urban community health center.the sexual health of transgender adolescents and young adults who present for health care in urban community health centers is understudied. a retrospective review of electronic health record (ehr) data was conducted from 180 transgender patients aged 12-29 years seen for one or more health-care visits between 2001 and 2010 at an urban community health center serving youth in boston, ma. analyses were restricted to 145 sexually active transgender youth (87.3% of the sample). laboratory-confirmed ...201525790139
degradation of samhd1 by vpx is independent of uncoating.sterile alpha motif domain and hd domain-containing protein 1 (samhd1) restricts human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (hiv-1) replication in myeloid and resting t cells. lentiviruses such as hiv-2 and some simian immunodeficiency viruses (sivs) counteract the restriction by encoding vpx or vpr, accessory proteins that are packaged in virions and which, upon entry of the virus into the cytoplasm, induce the proteasomal degradation of samhd1. as a tool to study these mechanisms, we generated hela c ...201525762741
aav-expressed ecd4-ig provides durable protection from multiple shiv challenges.long-term in vivo expression of a broad and potent entry inhibitor could circumvent the need for a conventional vaccine for hiv-1. adeno-associated virus (aav) vectors can stably express hiv-1 broadly neutralizing antibodies (bnabs). however, even the best bnabs neutralize 10-50% of hiv-1 isolates inefficiently (80% inhibitory concentration (ic80) > 5 μg ml(-1)), suggesting that high concentrations of these antibodies would be necessary to achieve general protection. here we show that ecd4-ig, a ...201525707797
dolutegravir in hiv-2-infected patients with resistant virus to first-line integrase inhibitors from the french named patient program.dolutegravir has shown in vitro activity against human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (hiv-2). we report safety and efficacy data of regimens containing dolutegravir (50 mg twice daily) in antiretroviral-experienced, hiv-2-infected patients.201525690598
fluorescent image analysis of hiv-1 and hiv-2 uncoating kinetics in the presence of old world monkey trim5α.uncoating of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (hiv-1) and type 2 (hiv-2) conical cores is an important early step for establishment of infection. in old world monkey (owm) cells, the trim5α cellular factor potently suppresses an early step of infection by hiv-1. previously, biochemical studies using whole cell lysates of infected cells revealed that owm trim5α accelerates the uncoating of hiv-1, leading to premature reverse transcription. in the present study, we re-evaluated uncoating kineti ...201525803716
characterization of the interactions between sivrcm vpx and red-capped mangabey samhd1.samhd1 (sam domain- and hd domain-containing protein 1) inhibits hiv-1 infection of myeloid cells and resting cd4+ t-cells. two lineages of primate lentiviruses, the sooty mangabey siv (simian immunodeficiency virus) (sivsm)/macaque siv (sivmac)/hiv-2 lineage and the red-capped mangabey siv (sivrcm) lineage, carry a samhd1 antagonist called vpx. vpx recognizes samhd1 and recruits a ubiquitin e3 ligase complex that is composed of cul4 (cullin4), ddb1 (damaged dna-binding protein 1) and a member o ...201525791246
atypical presentations of genital herpes simplex virus in hiv-1 and hiv-2 effectively treated by imiquimod.atypical presentations of genital herpes simplex virus have been described in hiv. we report two cases with hypertrophic presentations which were effectively treated with imiquimod, one of which is the first reported case occurring in a patient with hiv-2.201524912536
seropositivity and determinants of immunoglobulin-g (igg) antibodies against herpes simplex virus (hsv) types -1 and -2 in pregnant women in port harcourt, nigeria.this study is the first documented prevalence of igg antibody against hsv-1&-2 in port harcourt, nigeria and thus provides baseline data for future in-depth studies on hsv infection in south-south, nigeria.201526957960
hiv-1 group o infection in cameroon from 2006 to 2013: prevalence, genetic diversity, evolution and public health challenges.the human immunodeficiency virus, hiv, is characterized by a tremendously high genetic diversity, leading to the currently known circulating hiv types, groups, subtypes, and recombinant forms. hiv-1 group o is one of the most diverse forms of hiv-1 and has been so far related to cameroon or individuals originating from cameroon. in this study, we investigated in cameroon, the evolution of this viral group from 2006 to 2013, in terms of prevalence, genetic diversity and public health implications ...201526371064
establishment and evaluation of a loop-mediated isothermal amplification (lamp) assay for the semi-quantitative detection of hiv-1 group m virus.the past decade has witnessed a dramatic increase of anti-retroviral treatment of human immunodeficiency virus (hiv) infected patients in many african countries. due to costs and lack of currently available commercial viral load assays, insufficient attention has been paid to therapy monitoring through measurement of plasma viral load. this challenge of patient monitoring by tests as viral load, cd4 cell count, and finally hiv drug resistance could reverse achievements already made against hiv/a ...201525445795
performance of liaison xl automated immunoassay platform for blood-borne infection screening on hepatitis b, hepatitis c, hiv 1/2, htlv 1/2 and treponema pallidum serological markers.aim of the study was to evaluate performance of a new fully automated platform, diasorin-liaison® xl (diasorin s.p.a, vercelli, italy), in blood donor screening, specifically for hepatitis b surface antigen (hbsag), hepatitis b core antibodies (anti-hbc), hepatitis c antibodies (anti-hcv), hiv p24 antigen, hiv antibodies, human t-lymphotropic virus types 1 and 2 (htlv-1/2) and treponema pallidum antibodies.201525779614
oral syphilis: report of three cases and characterization of the inflammatory cells.syphilis is a sexually transmitted infectious disease caused by treponema pallidum. this study reports 3 cases of syphilis and highlights the importance of identifying oral lesions for its final diagnosis. case 1: a 48-year-old male patient presented with a bleeding ulcer in the lower lip. overall clinical examination revealed patchy alopecia and skin target lesions. case 2: a 61-year-old male patient presented with white spots on the lateral tongue and nodules on the dorsum of the tongue. overa ...201525736987
viral co-infection and leprosy outcomes: a cohort study.the role of the host immunity in determining leprosy clinical forms and complications is well recognized, implying that changes in the immune status may interfere with several aspects of the disease. therefore, we hypothesized that the presence of viral co-infections and associated immunological changes will have a clinical impact on leprosy outcomes. the aim of our study was to determine the clinical impact of human immunodeficiency virus (hiv), human t cell lymphotrophic virus type 1 (htlv-1), ...201526267882
inclusion of human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (hiv-2) in a multiplex transcription-mediated amplification assay does not affect detection of hiv-1 and hepatitis b and c virus genotypes: a multicenter performance evaluation study.the ultrio elite assay (hologic/grifols) runs on the panther blood screening system and is comparable to the ultrio plus assay apart from the addition of oligonucleotides for human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (hiv-2) detection. in this multicenter evaluation study the analytical sensitivity and genotype detection efficiency of the two assay versions were compared.201526103564
cohort profile: the bissau hiv cohort-a cohort of hiv-1, hiv-2 and co-infected patients.the west african country guinea-bissau is home to the world's highest prevalence of hiv-2, and its hiv-1 prevalence is rising. other chronic viral infections like human t-lymphotropic virus type 1 (htlv-1) and hepatitis b virus are common as well. the bissau hiv cohort was started in 2007 to gain new insights into the overall effect of introducing antiretroviral treatment in a treatment-naïve population with concomitant infection with three retroviruses (hiv-1, hiv-2 and htlv-1) and tuberculosis ...201525342251
how does the humoral response to hiv-2 infection differ from hiv-1 and can this explain the distinct natural history of infection with these two human retroviruses?a substantial proportion of people infected with hiv-2, the second causative agent of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (aids), behave as long-term non-progressors (ltnp) and are able to control the infection more effectively than most hiv-1-infected patients. a better understanding of the differences in the natural history of hiv-1 and hiv-2 infection, and how these relate to the relative immunogenicity and evolution of the two virus strains, could provide important insights into the mechanis ...201525445493
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