| interphotoreceptor retinoid-binding protein (irbp) promotes the release of all-trans retinol from the isolated retina following rhodopsin bleaching illumination. | all-trans retinol generated in rod photoreceptors upon the bleaching of rhodopsin is known to move from the rods to the retinal pigment epithelium (rpe), where it is enzymatically converted to 11-cis retinal in the retinoid visual cycle. interphotoreceptor retinoid-binding protein (irbp) contained in the extracellular compartment (interphotoreceptor matrix) that separates the retina and rpe has been hypothesized to facilitate this movement of all-trans retinol, but the precise role of irbp in th ... | 2005 | 15935345 |
| a novel signalling pathway originating in mitochondria modulates rat skeletal muscle membrane excitability. | single skeletal muscle fibres from rat and cane toad were mechanically skinned and stimulated either electrically by initiating action potentials in the sealed transverse (t-) tubular system or by ion substitution causing depolarisation of the t-system to pre-determined levels. depression of mitochondrial atp-producing function with three diverse mitochondrial function antagonists (azide: 1-10 mm; oligomycin 1 microg ml-1 and carbonyl cyanide 4-trifluoromethoxyphenylhydrazone (fccp) 1 microm), u ... | 2003 | 12611917 |
| a retrospective report of 90 dogs with suspected cane toad (bufo marinus) toxicity. | to report the clinical characteristics of toad toxicity in domestic dogs in brisbane. | 2004 | 15887382 |
| temperature effects on spectral properties of red and green rods in toad retina. | temperature effects on spectral properties of the two types of rod photoreceptors in toad retina, "red" and "green" rods, were studied in the range 0-38 degrees c. absorbance spectra of the visual pigments were recorded by single-cell microspectrophotometry (msp) and spectral sensitivities of red rods were measured by electroretinogram (erg) recording across the isolated retina. the red-rod visual pigment is a usual rhodopsin (lambda(max) = 503.6 nm and 502.3 nm at room temperature (21degrees c) ... | 2002 | 12688672 |
| functional roles for the compartmentalization of the subcutaneous lymphatic sacs in anuran amphibians. | compliance of the subcutaneous lymph sacs of the hindlimbs increases from distal to proximal, as does limb segment mass (and presumably rate of lymph formation), for the semiaquatic bullfrog rana catesbeiana and the cane toad bufo marinus but not the aquatic clawed toad xenopus laevis. subcutaneous lymph-sac compliances vary interspecifically. the distal-to-proximal increase in lymph-sac compliance and estimates of lymph formation rate in the various hindlimb segments indicate that partitioning ... | 2005 | 15957106 |
| functional effects of na+,k+-atpase gene mutations linked to familial hemiplegic migraine. | familial hemiplegic migraine type 2, an autosomal dominant form of migraine with aura, has been associated with four distinct mutations in the alpha2-subunit of the na+,k+-atpase. we have introduced these mutations in the alpha2-subunit of the human na+,k+-atpase and the corresponding mutations in the bufo marinus alpha1-subunit and studied these mutants by expression in xenopus oocyte. metabolic labeling studies showed that the mutants were synthesized and associated with the beta-subunit, exce ... | 2004 | 15970628 |
| why are some mitochondria more powerful than others: insights from comparisons of muscle mitochondria from three terrestrial vertebrates. | we studied the molecular composition of muscle mitochondria to evaluate whether the contents of cytochromes or adenine nucleotide translocase (ant) or phospholipid acyl compositions reflect differences in mitochondrial oxidative capacities. we isolated mitochondria from three vertebrates of similar size and preferred temperature, the rat (rattus norvegicus), the cane toad (bufo marinus) and the bearded dragon lizard (pogona vitticeps). mitochondrial oxidative capacities were higher in rats and c ... | 2005 | 16085440 |
| cane toad toxicity: an assessment of extracts from early developmental stages and adult tissues using mdck cell culture. | extracts of the cane toad (bufo [chaunus] marinus) adversely affected the growth of mardin-darby canine kidney (mdck) cells during culture. in a similar manner to ouabain treatment, application of toad extracts over a 24 h period resulted in high levels of cytotoxicity, as indicated by cell detachment, increased membrane permeability and loss of mitochondrial function. cell viability and growth were unchanged for controls (pbs) and increased with the application of limnodynastes peronii tadpole ... | 2009 | 18948131 |
| gorgoderina festoni n. sp. (digenea: gorgoderidae) in anurans (amphibia) from mexico. | gorgoderina festoni n. sp. is described from the urinary bladder of gastrophryne usta, leptodactylus labialis, l. melanonotus and bufo marinus from localities at low altitude in the states of veracruz, oaxaca, guerrero and colima, mexico. this species differs from most other species of the genus by a combination of the following characters: lobed vitelline masses, body size 3.45-4.26 (mean 3.75) mm and sucker-ratio 1:1.3-1.52 (mean 1:1.44). the new species shares these three features with g. bil ... | 2005 | 16315078 |
| cannibalism in a population of the medicinal leech (hirudo medicinalis l.). | medicinal leeches (hirudo medicinalis l.) were maintained in large ponds in a commercial leech farm at biebertal, germany. the feeding of hungry adult leeches was performed on representative individuals that were placed on cloth soaked with mammalian blood obtained from a local butchery (pig, sus scrofa). in a second set of experiments, cane toads (bufo marinus) were used as host organisms. the leeches rapidly attached to the toads, explored the body and sucked blood. after feeding, the fully en ... | 2005 | 16535988 |
| how might you compare mitochondria from different tissues and different species? | mitochondria were isolated from the liver, kidney and mixed hindlimb skeletal muscle of three vertebrate species; the laboratory rat rattus norvegicus, the bearded dragon lizard pogona vitticeps, and the cane toad bufo marinus. these vertebrate species are approximately the same body mass and have similar body temperatures. the content of cytochromes b, c, c1, and a were measured in these isolated mitochondria by oxidised-reduced difference spectra. adenine nucleotide translocase (ant) was measu ... | 2006 | 16408229 |
| invasion and the evolution of speed in toads. | cane toads (bufo marinus) are large anurans (weighing up to 2 kg) that were introduced to australia 70 years ago to control insect pests in sugar-cane fields. but the result has been disastrous because the toads are toxic and highly invasive. here we show that the annual rate of progress of the toad invasion front has increased about fivefold since the toads first arrived; we find that toads with longer legs can not only move faster and are the first to arrive in new areas, but also that those a ... | 2006 | 16482148 |
| the cane toad's (chaunus [bufo] marinus) increasing ability to invade australia is revealed by a dynamically updated range model. | invasive species threaten biological diversity throughout the world. understanding the dynamics of their spread is critical to mitigating this threat. in australia, efforts are underway to control the invasive cane toad (chaunus [bufo] marinus). range models based on their native bioclimatic envelope suggest that the cane toad is nearing the end of its invasion phase. however, such models assume a conserved niche between native and invaded regions and the absence of evolution to novel habitats. ... | 2007 | 17389221 |
| mortality and toxin bioaccumulation in bufo marinus following exposure to cylindrospermopsis raciborskii cell extracts and live cultures. | cylindrospermopsis raciborskii is a cyanobacterium responsible for the production of the toxin, cylindrospermopsin (cyn). tadpoles of the cane toad bufo marinus were exposed to freeze-thawed whole cell extracts or live cultures of c. raciborskii containing maximum cyn concentrations of 400 microg l-1 or 232 microg l-1, respectively. exposure to live culture treatment solutions resulted in up to 66% mortality of b. marinus, whereas tadpoles exposed to whole cell extracts containing similar toxin ... | 2007 | 17046128 |
| two new species of rhabdias (nematoda: rhabdiasidae) from the marine toad, bufo marinus (l.) (lissamphibia: anura: bufonidae), in central america. | two new rhabdias species are described from the lungs of the cane toad bufo marinus (l.) from costa rica and nicaragua. rhabdias alabialis n. sp. differs from other known species of the genus by the remarkable morphology of its head end, i.e., the absence of lips or pseudolabia, the slitlike oral opening, and the triangular shape of the buccal capsule in apical view. rhabdias pseudosphaerocephala n. sp. is identified as a form previously known in central and south america as rhabdias sphaeroceph ... | 2007 | 17436957 |
| an invasive species induces rapid adaptive change in a native predator: cane toads and black snakes in australia. | rapid environmental change due to human activities has increased rates of extinction, but some species may be able to adapt rapidly enough to deal with such changes. our studies of feeding behaviour and physiological resistance to toxins reveal surprisingly rapid adaptive responses in australian black snakes (pseudechis porphyriacus) following the invasion of a lethally toxic prey item, the cane toad (bufo marinus). snakes from toad-exposed localities showed increased resistance to toad toxin an ... | 2006 | 16777750 |
| characterization of a major secretory protein in the cane toad (bufo marinus) choroid plexus as an amphibian lipocalin-type prostaglandin d synthase. | here we report the enzymatic and ligand-binding properties of a major secretory protein in the choroid plexus of cane toad, bufo marinus, whose protein is homologous with lipocalin-type prostaglandin (pg) d synthase (l-pgds) and is recombinantly expressed in xenopus a6 cells and escherichia coli. the toad protein bound all-trans retinal, bile pigment, and thyroid hormones with high affinities (k(d)=0.17 to 2.00 microm). the toad protein also catalysed the l-pgds activity, which was accelerated i ... | 2007 | 17167040 |
| a rapid immunological test for the detection of early pregnancy. | an evaluation of a rapid immunological test for the detection of early pregnancy is reported. patients tested included normal pregnant women at various times of gestation, postpartum patients, nonpregnant women with normal menstrual cycles, patients presenting with amenorrhea, postmenopausal patients, and male patients. 75 consecutive urines were assayed by the new immunologic technique and compared with the biologic assay using the male toad, bufo marinus. in the immunologic test 1 drop of an ... | 1964 | 12334391 |
| palytoxin acts on na(+),k (+)-atpase but not nongastric h(+),k (+)-atpase. | palytoxin (ptx) opens a pathway for ions to pass through na,k-atpase. we investigate here whether ptx also acts on nongastric h,k-atpases. the following combinations of crna were expressed in xenopus laevis oocytes: bufo marinus bladder h,k-atpase alpha(2)- and na,k-atpase beta(2)-subunits; bufo na,k-atpase alpha(1)- and na,k-atpase beta(2)-subunits; and bufo na,k-atpase beta(2)-subunit alone. the response to ptx was measured after blocking endogenous xenopus na,k-atpase with 10 microm ouabain. ... | 2007 | 17639367 |
| a toad more traveled: the heterogeneous invasion dynamics of cane toads in australia. | to predict the spread of invasive species, we need to understand the mechanisms that underlie their range expansion. assuming random diffusion through homogeneous environments, invasions are expected to progress at a constant rate. however, environmental heterogeneity is expected to alter diffusion rates, especially by slowing invasions as populations encounter suboptimal environmental conditions. here, we examine how environmental and landscape factors affect the local invasion speeds of cane t ... | 2008 | 18271722 |
| adapting to an invasive species: toxic cane toads induce morphological change in australian snakes. | the arrival of invasive species can devastate natural ecosystems, but the long-term effects of invasion are less clear. if native organisms can adapt to the presence of the invader, the severity of impact will decline with time. in australia, invasive cane toads (bufo marinus) are highly toxic to most snakes that attempt to eat them. because snakes are gape-limited predators with strong negative allometry for head size, maximum relative prey mass (and thus, the probability of eating a toad large ... | 2004 | 15569943 |
| possible differences in pathogenicity between cane toad-, frog- and platypus-derived isolates of mucor amphibiorum, and a platypus-derived isolate of mucor circinelloides. | platypuses (ornithorhynchus anatinus) in the north of the island state of tasmania, australia, suffer from a serious disease called ulcerative mycosis, which is responsible for high morbidity and, presumably, mortality rates in areas where it occurs. the disease is caused by the dimorphic fungus mucor amphibiorum, which is also found in queensland, new south wales and victoria. however, it does not cause disease in platypuses in those states. it has been previously reported that a closely relate ... | 2005 | 15832556 |
| natural and experimental infection of the lizard ameiva ameiva with hemolivia stellata (adeleina: haemogregarinidae) of the toad bufo marinus. | developmental stages of a haemogregarine in erythrocytes of the lizard ameiva ameiva (teiidae), from pará state, north brazil, were shown to be those of hemolivia by the nature of the parasite's sporogonic cycle in the tick amblyomma rotondatum. the type species, hemolivia stellata petit et al., 1990 was described in the giant toad bufo marinus and the tick amblyomma rotondatum, also from pará state, and in view of the fact that a. ameiva and bufo marinus share the same habitat and are both comm ... | 2007 | 18225421 |
| reid's paradox revisited: the evolution of dispersal kernels during range expansion. | current approaches to modeling range advance assume that the distribution describing dispersal distances in the population (the "dispersal kernel") is a static entity. we argue here that dispersal kernels are in fact highly dynamic during periods of range advance because density effects and spatial assortment by dispersal ability ("spatial selection") drive the evolution of increased dispersal on the expanding front. using a spatially explicit individual-based model, we demonstrate this effect u ... | 2008 | 18554142 |
| helminth parasites in chaunus marinus and cranopis valliceps (anura: bufonidae) from lagunas yalahau, yucatan, mexico. | eight helminth taxa were found parasitizing chaunus marinus (n = 40) and cranopsis valliceps (n = 40) from the parque estatal lagunas yalahau, yucatan, mexico. seven taxa (2 digeneans: langeronia macrocirra, mesocoelium monas; 1 acanthocephalan: oncicola sp.; 3 nematodes: rhabdias füleborni, aplectana itzocanensis, cruzia morleyi; and a nematode larva) were found in c. marinus, while 4 taxa (all nematodes: rhabdias fuelleborni, aplectana itzocanensis, ozwaldocruzia sp., and a nematode larva) wer ... | 2008 | 18605789 |
| origin of the parasites of an invading species, the australian cane toad (bufo marinus): are the lungworms australian or american? | phylogeographical analyses that identify the geographical origin of parasites in invading species can clarify the parasites' potential for biological control of the invader and the risks posed by the parasite to native species. our data on nuclear and mitochondrial genetic sequences show that the nematode lungworms (rhabdias spp.) in invasive australian populations of cane toads (bufo marinus) are rhabdias pseudosphaerocephala, a south american species. we did not find this lungworm species in a ... | 2008 | 18803593 |
| fatal attraction: adaptations to prey on native frogs imperil snakes after invasion of toxic toads. | adaptations that enhance fitness in one situation can become liabilities if circumstances change. in tropical australia, native snake species are vulnerable to the invasion of toxic cane toads. death adders (acanthophis praelongus) are ambush foragers that (i) attract vertebrate prey by caudal luring and (ii) handle anuran prey by killing the frog then waiting until the frog's chemical defences degrade before ingesting it. these tactics render death adders vulnerable to toxic cane toads (bufo ma ... | 2009 | 19419984 |
| rhabdias pseudosphaerocephala infection in bufo marinus: lung nematodes reduce viability of metamorph cane toads. | cane toads (bufo marinus) were introduced to australia in 1935 and have since spread widely over the continent, generating concern regarding ecological impacts on native predators. most australian cane toad populations are infected with lung nematodes rhabdias pseudosphaerocephala, a parasite endemic to new world (native-range) cane toad populations; presumably introduced to australia with its toad host. considering the high intensities and prevalence reached by this parasite in australian toad ... | 2009 | 19523249 |
| the evolution of growth rates on an expanding range edge. | individuals in the vanguard of a species invasion face altered selective conditions when compared with conspecifics behind the invasion front. assortment by dispersal ability on the expanding front, for example, drives the evolution of increased dispersal, which, in turn, leads to accelerated rates of invasion. here i propose an additional evolutionary mechanism to explain accelerating invasions: shifts in population growth rate (r). because individuals in the vanguard face lower population dens ... | 2009 | 19605384 |
| [not available]. | | 1948 | 18908105 |
| genotypic analysis of mucor from the platypus in australia. | mucor amphibiorum is the only pathogen known to cause significant morbidity and mortality in the free-living platypus (ornithorhynchus anatinus) in tasmania. infection has also been reported in free-ranging cane toads (bufo marinus) and green tree frogs (litoria caerulea) from mainland australia but has not been confirmed in platypuses from the mainland. to date, there has been little genotyping specifically conducted on m. amphibiorum. a collection of 21 mucor isolates representing isolates fro ... | 2010 | 20090018 |
| pseudoacanthocephalus lutzi (hamann, 1891) comb. n. (acanthocephala: echinorhynchidae) for acanthocephalus lutzi (hamann, 1891), parasite of south american amphibians. | acanthocephalus lutzi (hamann, 1891) is proposed to be transferred to the genus pseudoacanthocephalus petrochenko, 1956 based on the type material from rhinella marina (l.) from brazil and recently collected material from r. arenarum (hensel) from argentina. pseudoacanthocephalus is characterised by the following features: a cylindrical trunk without spines, a cylindrical proboscis, testes in tandem, a compact cluster of cement glands, a nearly terminal male genital pore, a ventral and sub-termi ... | 2009 | 20128242 |
| renal pathologies in giant toads (bufo marinus) vary with land use. | a variety of human land uses involve the release of toxins into the environment. wildlife live alongside humans across this array of land uses and thus, are exposed to varying chemical milieus. kidneys are the principle excretory organs for vertebrates and excessive or chronic exposure to exogenous toxins can lead to renal pathology and renal failure. although studies have linked chemical exposure to specific renal diseases across diverse taxa, none compare renal lesions occurring in wildlife li ... | 2008 | 18947857 |
| museum material reveals a frog parasite emergence after the invasion of the cane toad in australia. | abstract: | 2010 | 20537137 |
| bohle iridovirus as a vector for heterologous gene expression. | the large double-stranded dna (ds dna) viruses were among the first to be used to construct recombinant viruses, but to date this has not been achieved with any members of the ds dna virus family, iridoviridae. we identified a non-essential gene, the viral homologue of eukaryotic initiation factor 2alpha (eif-2alpha), in bohle iridovirus (biv, genus ranavirus). a recombinant biv was constructed with the neomycin resistance gene and the bufo marinus (cane toad) adult globin gene inserted into the ... | 2007 | 17904650 |
| checklist of helminth parasites of the cane toad bufo marinus (anura: bufonidae) from mexico. | thirty-four adult cane toads bufo marinus l. (12 males and 22 females) collected from 2 localities in mexico (cerro de oro and temascal dams, oaxaca) in september 2003 were examined for helminth parasites. in total, 14,749 helminths belonging to 14 taxa were collected. included were 2 adult digeneans (choledocystus hepaticus, mesocoelium monas); 1 larval cestode (an unidentified pseudophyllidean); and 11 nematodes, including 3 species of larvae (contracaecum sp., physaloptera sp., physocephalus ... | 2007 | 17918380 |
| locomotor performance in an invasive species: cane toads from the invasion front have greater endurance, but not speed, compared to conspecifics from a long-colonised area. | cane toads (bufo marinus) are now moving about 5 times faster through tropical australia than they did a half-century ago, during the early phases of toad invasion. radio-tracking has revealed higher daily rates of displacement by toads at the invasion front compared to those from long-colonised areas: toads from frontal populations follow straighter paths, move more often, and move further per displacement than do toads from older (long-established) populations. are these higher movement rates ... | 2010 | 19841946 |
| the physical movement of urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder and bladder compliance in two anurans. | urine movement from the ureters to the bladder was accomplished by a combination of gravity and pressures resulting from lung inflation, buccal pumping, and smooth-muscle contraction. urine movement from the cloaca to the urinary bladder was the result of pressure generated by cloacal smooth-muscle contraction and opposed by urinary bladder pressure, resulting from compliance, lung inflation, and buccal movements. the frequency of cloacal smooth-muscle contraction measured in chaunus marinus (4. ... | 2009 | 19199556 |
| invasion, stress, and spinal arthritis in cane toads. | the impact of invasive species on biodiversity has attracted considerable study, but impacts of the invasion process on the invaders themselves remain less clear. invading species encounter conditions different from those in their ancestral habitats and are subject to intense selection for rapid dispersal. the end result may be significant stress on individual organisms, with consequent health problems. our studies on invasive cane toads in australia reveal severe spinal arthritis in approximate ... | 2007 | 17951431 |
| the ecological impact of invasive cane toads (bufo marinus) in australia. | although invasive species are viewed as major threats to ecosystems worldwide, few such species have been studied in enough detail to identify the pathways, magnitudes, and timescales of their impact on native fauna. one of the most intensively studied invasive taxa in this respect is the cane toad (bufo marinus), which was introduced to australia in 1935. a review of these studies suggests that a single pathway-lethal toxic ingestion of toads by frog-eating predators-is the major mechanism of i ... | 2010 | 20919631 |
| parasites and pathogens lag behind their host during periods of host range advance. | the process of rapid range expansion (as seen in many invasive species, and in taxa responding to climate change) may substantially disrupt host-parasite dynamics. parasites and pathogens can have strong regulatory effects on their host population and, in doing so, exert selection pressure on host life history. we construct a simple individual-based model of host-parasite dynamics during range expansion. this model shows that the parasites and pathogens of a range-expanding host are likely to be ... | 2010 | 20426344 |
| multiple-organ toxicity resulting from cylindrospermopsin exposure in tadpoles of the cane toad (bufo marinus). | histological examinations were made of cane toad (bufo marinus) tadpoles after exposure to freeze-thawed cylindrospermopsis raciborskii whole cell extracts and live c. raciborskii cultures containing sublethal concentrations of the blue-green algal toxin, cylindrospermopsin (cyn). toxin exposure resulted in tissue injuries to multiple organs, with particular severity noted in the liver, intestine, nephric ducts and gill epithelia. the extent of cellular damage was similar across trials exposing ... | 2007 | 18000853 |
| nematode larvae (order spirurida) in gastric tissues of australian anurans: a comparison between the introduced cane toad and sympatric native frogs. | the outcomes of host-parasite interactions depend heavily on the host's immune response, which, in turn, is governed by previous interactions between the host and parasite, both over the host's life time and over evolutionary time. in the case of species introductions, such as the cane toad (bufo marinus) to australia, parasites that are benign to native species of the introduced range may present a major challenge to the introduced species. stomachs of introduced cane toads and seven species of ... | 2010 | 20966264 |
| infection dynamics of the lungworm rhabdias pseudosphaerocephala in its natural host, the cane toad (bufo marinus), and in novel hosts (native australian frogs). | host-parasite systems have often evolved over time, such that infection dynamics may become greatly modified from the time of initial contact of the host with the parasite. biological invasions may be useful to clarify processes in the initial contact of hosts with parasites, and allow us to compare parasite uptake between the ancestral (coevolved) host and novel (noncoevolved) hosts. cane toads (bufo marinus) are spreading rapidly through tropical australia, carrying with them a nematode lungwo ... | 2010 | 20966266 |
| influence of lung parasites on the growth rates of free-ranging and captive adult cane toads. | many parasites affect the viability of their hosts, but detailed studies combining empirical data from both the field and the laboratory are limited. consequently, the nature and magnitude of such effects are poorly known for many important host-parasite systems, including macroparasites of amphibians. we examined the effects of lungworm (rhabdias pseudosphaerocephala) infections in cane toads (bufo marinus) within their invasive australian range. the host-specificity of this parasite suggests t ... | 2010 | 21076965 |
| spinal arthropathy associated with ochrobactrum anthropi in free-ranging cane toads (chaunus [bufo] marinus) in australia. | inflammatory or degenerative pathology involving the vertebral bodies and/or ventral intervertebral joints has been described in numerous species, both captive and free ranging, including mammals, birds, and snakes, although never in amphibians. we described 15 cases of a newly recognized spinal arthropathy in adult cane toads (chaunus [bufo] marinus), an invasive species in australia. grossly appreciable lesions consisted primarily of ventral proliferation of bone and cartilage that resulted in ... | 2008 | 18192584 |
| evolutionarily accelerated invasions: the rate of dispersal evolves upwards during the range advance of cane toads. | human activities are changing habitats and climates and causing species' ranges to shift. range expansion brings into play a set of powerful evolutionary forces at the expanding range edge that act to increase dispersal rates. one likely consequence of these forces is accelerating rates of range advance because of evolved increases in dispersal on the range edge. in northern australia, cane toads have increased their rate of spread fivefold in the last 70 years. our breeding trials with toads fr ... | 2010 | 20939838 |
| posterior lymph heart function in two species of anurans: analysis based on both in vivo pressure-volume relationships by conductance manometry and ultrasound. | rhinella marina and lithobates catesbeianus have known differences in the capacity to mobilize lymph to stabilize blood volume following dehydration and hemorrhage. the purpose of these experiments was to assess whether there are interspecific differences in basic lymph heart functions. the end diastolic volumes of posterior lymph hearts averaged 10.8 μl kg⁻¹ in r. marina and 7.9-10.8 μl kg⁻¹ in l. catesbeianus by conductance manometry, and 9-32 μl kg⁻¹ in r. marina by ultrasound techniques, whi ... | 2010 | 20952620 |
| behavioral responses to immune-system activation in an anuran (the cane toad, bufo marinus): field and laboratory studies. | the challenges posed by parasites and pathogens evoke behavioral as well as physiological responses. such behavioral responses are poorly understood for most ectothermic species, including anuran amphibians. we quantified effects of simulated infection (via injection of bacterial lipopolysaccharide [lps]) on feeding, activity, and thermoregulation of cane toads bufo marinus within their invasive range in tropical australia. lps injection reduced feeding rates in laboratory trials. for toads in o ... | 2011 | 21128787 |
| modeling the consequences of thermal trait variation for the cane toad invasion of australia. | mechanistic species distribution models (sdms) are ideally suited for predicting the nonnative distributions of invasive species, but require accurate parameterization of key functional traits. importantly, any ability of the invader to acclimate or adapt rapidly to local conditions must be incorporated. our field and laboratory studies measured phenotypic variation and tested for plasticity in the thermal sensitivity of locomotor performance and low-temperature tolerance of adult cane toads buf ... | 2010 | 21265457 |
| interspecific comparisons of lymph volume and lymphatic fluxes: do lymph reserves and lymph mobilization capacities vary in anurans from different environments? | abstract the femoral lymph sac volumes and lymph mobilization capacity were compared in three anuran species that span a range of environments, dehydration tolerance, ability to maintain blood volume with dehydration, and degrees of development of skeletal muscles putatively involved in moving lymph vertically to the posterior lymph hearts. the femoral lymph sac volume determined by evans blue injection and dilution in the femoral lymph sac varied interspecifically. the semiaquatic species, lith ... | 2011 | 21527817 |
| the effects of experimentally infecting australian tree frogs with lungworms (rhabdias pseudosphaerocephala) from invasive cane toads. | invasive species may transmit novel pathogens to native taxa, and lacking a history of coevolutionary interactions with the pathogen, the new hosts may be severely affected. cane toads (bufo marinus) were introduced to australia in 1935, bringing with them a lungworm (rhabdias pseudosphaerocephala) not found in australian frogs. previous studies suggest that most frog species are unaffected by this parasite, but one tree-frog (litoria caerulea) can harbour high numbers of lungworm. more detailed ... | 2011 | 21624371 |
| percutaneous malathion absorption by anuran skin in flow-through diffusion cells. | there is increased concern about the sublethal effects of organophosphorous (op) compounds on human and animal health, including the potential role of op compounds in the global decline of amphibian populations. malathion is one of the most widely used op pesticides with numerous agricultural and therapeutic applications, and exposure to environmentally applied malathion can lead to adverse systemic effects in anurans. cutaneous absorption is considered a potentially important route of environme ... | 2006 | 21783718 |
| assessment of virally vectored autoimmunity as a biocontrol strategy for cane toads. | the cane toad, bufo (chaunus) marinus, is one of the most notorious vertebrate pests introduced into australia over the last 200 years and, so far, efforts to identify a naturally occurring b. marinus-specific pathogen for use as a biological control agent have been unsuccessful. we explored an alternative approach that entailed genetically modifying a pathogen with broad host specificity so that it no longer caused disease, but carried a gene to disrupt the cane toad life cycle in a species spe ... | 2011 | 21283623 |
| pulmonary compliance and lung volume varies with ecomorphology in anuran amphibians: implications for ventilatory-assisted lymph flux. | vertical movement of lymph from ventral regions to the dorsally located lymph hearts in anurans is accomplished by specialized skeletal muscles working in concert with lung ventilation. we hypothesize that more terrestrial species with greater lymph mobilization capacities and higher lymph flux rates will have larger lung volumes and higher pulmonary compliance than more semi-aquatic or aquatic species. we measured in situ mean and maximal compliance (δvolume/δpressure), distensibility (%δvolume ... | 2011 | 21900475 |
| physiology of invasion: cane toads are constrained by thermal effects on physiological mechanisms that support locomotor performance. | understanding the mechanisms that constrain the invasiveness of introduced animals is essential for managing invasions and for predicting their limits. in most vertebrate species, the capacity for invasion relies upon the physiological systems that support locomotion, and oxygen transport and metabolism may become limiting as environmental temperatures increase as predicted by the oxygen limitation hypothesis. here we test the oxygen limitation hypothesis and propose the alternative hypothesis t ... | 2011 | 21490252 |
| excluding access to invasion hubs can contain the spread of an invasive vertebrate. | many biological invasions do not occur as a gradual expansion along a continuous front, but result from the expansion of satellite populations that become established at 'invasion hubs'. although theoretical studies indicate that targeting control efforts at invasion hubs can effectively contain the spread of invasions, few studies have demonstrated this in practice. in arid landscapes worldwide, humans have increased the availability of surface water by creating artificial water points (awps) s ... | 2011 | 21345870 |
| comparison of toad venoms from different bufo species by hplc and lc-dad-ms/ms. | toad venom, called chansu in china, has been widely used for the treatment of heart failure, sores, pains, and various cancers for a long time in clinic. | 2010 | 20637273 |
| lueheia inscripta (westrumb, 1821) (acanthocephala: plagiorhynchidae) in anurans (leptodactylidae: bufonidae) from mexico. | juveniles of lueheia inscripta (westrumb, 1821 travassos, 1919 (acanthocephala: plagiorhynchidae), an acanthocephalan with six lemnisci, are reported and described from mesenteries of frogs leptodactylus fragilis brochi, 1877 and a toad bufo marinus (linnaeus, 1758) from morelos state, mexico. these are new host records extending the known geographical distribution of this species from brazil and puerto rico to mexico. | 2010 | 20597444 |
| changes in cutaneous microbial abundance with sloughing: possible implications for infection and disease in amphibians. | the emergence of disease as a significant global threat to amphibian diversity has generated considerable interest in amphibian defenses against cutaneous microbial infection and disease. to date, however, the influence of sloughing on the susceptibility of amphibians to infection and disease has been largely overlooked. to investigate the potential for sloughing to regulate topical microbial loads, the abundance of cultivable cutaneous bacteria and fungi in the cane toad rhinella marina were co ... | 2012 | 23324420 |
| [occurrence of giardia species and genotypes in humans and animals in wielkopolska region, poland]. | giardia is the most common intestinal protozoan parasite found in humans and animals worldwide. although it has been known for three hundred years, the nomenclature, taxonomy, host specificity, and pathogenicity of giardia still arouse numerous controversies and ambiguities. giardia is classified into six species, that are characterised by various ranges of hosts. the most dubious species is g. intestinalis, which includes a dozen or so genotypes, and only two of them (genotype a and b) have wid ... | 2009 | 20209826 |
| Prevalence and multilocus genotyping of Giardia from animals at the zoo of Poznan, Poland. | In this study total of 266 fecal samples from 242 animals belonging to 113 species kept in the Poznan Zoological Garden were examined for Giardia. The cysts of Giardia were found only in five samples of feces collected from a giant toad (Bufo marinus), tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla) and three individuals of cactus mouse (Peromyscus eremicus). Fragments of beta-giardin (bg), triose phosphate isomerase (tpi) and glutamate dehydrogenase (gdh) genes were successfully amplified only from the Giardi ... | 2011 | 22165739 |
| using combined morphological, allometric and molecular approaches to identify species of the genus raillietiella (pentastomida). | taxonomic studies of parasites can be severely compromised if the host species affects parasite morphology; an uncritical analysis might recognize multiple taxa simply because of phenotypically plastic responses of parasite morphology to host physiology. pentastomids of the genus raillietiella are endoparasitic crustaceans primarily infecting the respiratory system of carnivorous reptiles, but also recorded from bufonid anurans. the delineation of pentastomids at the generic level is clear, but ... | 2011 | 21949796 |
| cane toads lack physiological enhancements for dispersal at the invasive front in northern australia. | many invasive species have evolved behavioural and morphological characteristics that facilitate their dispersal into new areas, but it is unclear how selection on this level of the phenotype filters through to the underlying physiology. cane toads have been dispersing westward across northern tropical australia for more than 70 years. previous studies of cane toads at the invasive front have identified several behavioural, morphological and locomotory characteristics that have evolved to facili ... | 2011 | 23213366 |
| reversible inhibition by lanthanum of the hydrosmotic response to serosal hypertonicity in toad urinary bladder. | in the urinary bladder of amphibia, hypertonicity of the serosal bath (sh) evokes an increase in transepithelial water permeability, the characteristics of which resemble the response to antidiuretic hormone (adh). the ionic dependency, in particular for ca2+, appears very similar for sh- and adh-induced water fluxes. in the present experiments la3+ was used as a probe to study the ca2+-dependency of the hydrosmotic response to sh in isolated urinary bladder of the toad bufo marinus. addition of ... | 2001 | 114663 |
| the water-absorption region of ventral skin of several semiterrestrial and aquatic anuran amphibians identified by aquaporins. | regions of specialization for water absorption across the skin of bufonid and ranid anurans were identified by immunohistochemistry and western blot analysis, using antibodies raised against arginine vasotocin (avt)-stimulated aquaporins (aqps) that are specific to absorbing regions of hyla japonica. in bufo marinus, labeling for hyla urinary bladder-type aqp (aqp-h2), which is also localized in the urinary bladder, occurred in the ventral surface of the hindlimb, pelvic, and pectoral regions. a ... | 2010 | 20811008 |
| cyclic nucleotide levels of the photosensitive irises of bufo marinus and lophius. | the sphincter pupillae muscle of several species contracts autonomously after light directly strikes the iris. the response is initiated by isomerization of rhodopsin in the sarcolemma. light-induced release of ca2+ from internal stores is one step in the transduction process. the levels of cyclic amp and cyclic gmp were measured after irises were stimulated by light. stimulation by light does not produce measurable or consistent changes in the levels of either cyclic amp or cyclic gmp within th ... | 2011 | 3026826 |
| intracellular potentials of toad urinary bladder. | short-circuited urinary bladders of bufo marinus were impaled with microelectrodes. intracellular potentials in the order of -80 mv were recorded. on inhibition of apical na entry they hyperpolarized by about 15 mv and the fractional resistance of the apical membrane increased to near 1.0. these patterns are similar to those of other tight na transporting amphibian epithelia. on two occasions, stable recordings from a single cell were obtained before and after oxytocin. intracellular potential a ... | 2007 | 2516305 |
| time course of isotonic contraction in single cells and muscle strips from bufo marinus stomach. | | 2014 | 4215325 |
| visibility of photoreceptors in the intact living cane toad eye. | photoreceptors are invisible under the usual conditions of viewing the fundus; light reflected from other structures obscures them. individual photoreceptors are shown to be visible in the intact living eye of the cane toad when viewed with intense oblique illumination from one side. the photoreceptors act like optical waveguides in channelling light from the sclera to the observer. if the retinal mosaic were so fine as to oversample the image, the optical system would not be able to resolve a s ... | 2011 | 3927588 |
| histochemistry of the aldosterone-stimulated urinary bladder of the toad, bufo marinus. | | 2014 | 4097734 |
| innervation and cytochemistry of the neuroepithelial bodies in the ciliated epithelium of the toad lung (bufo marinus). | neuroepithelial bodies (neb) were identified in the lung of bufo marinus. the characteristics of the cells and their innervation were studied with electron and fluorescence microscopy before and after close vagosympathetic denervation. the bodies consist of low columnar cells which rest on the epithelial basal lamina. the majority of the cells do not reach the lumen of the lung (basal cells); the few which do (apical cells) are bordered by microvilli and possess a single cilium. the neuroepithel ... | 1999 | 103623 |
| fine structural and cytochemical study of the innervation of smooth muscle in an amphibian (bufo marinus) lung before and after denervation. | the innervation of the toad (bufo marinus) lung was studied with transmission electron microscopy and fluorescence techniques, both before and after 12 or 20 days close vagosympathetic denervation. four cytologically distinct types of neuronal processes were recognised, in relation to the visceral muscles of the lung. these were described as cholinergic, adrenergic, non-adrenergic/non-cholinergic (nanc) and sensory on the basis of the characteristics of their vesicular content and cytochemical r ... | 1999 | 103621 |
| an autoradiographic evaluation of the regeneration of corneal epithelium in bufo marinus. | epithelial regeneration following scraping of a central portion of corneal epithelium of the toad, bufo marinus, was studied. wound closure occurred by migration of a single layer of epithelial cells from adjacent noninjured areas. autoradiography indicated that following wound closure at two days after scraping, dna synthesis began in these epithelial cells covering the former scraped area, and was even more pronounced three days after scraping. at four days the former denuded area was covered ... | 1975 | 415113 |
| the morphology and distribution of photoreceptors in the retina of bufo marinus. | the number, cell morphology and retinal distribution of rods and cones were determined in the retina of the toad, bufo marinus. adult animals were sacrificed, both eyes were removed and prepared for either tangential section across the outer segments of the photoreceptor layer, or transverse section across the whole retina. cone densities increased from an average of 7000/mm2 in the peripheral to a maximum of 25,000/mm2 in the central retina. the high cone densities extended across the naso-temp ... | 1998 | 1905114 |
| the innervation and fine structure of paraneuronic cells in an amphibian pulmonary artery. | the pulmonary artery of bufo marinus contains large numbers of bipolar cells situated in the tunica adventitia and in the outer layers of the media. these cells show a bright green-yellow fluorescence (emission spectra 485 nm) after formaldehyde pre-treatment suggesting that they contain a primary monoamine. the most characteristic fine-structural feature of these cells is the presence of numerous dense-cored vesicles (80--300 nm diameter) in their cytopalsm. the cells are in close contact (20 n ... | 1999 | 103624 |
| photoreceptor coupling in retina of the toad, bufo marinus. i. anatomy. | 1. red rod photoreceptors in the toad retina, which are known to be physiologically coupled, were examined for interreceptor contacts. 2. a dense network of large gap junctions was found between the inner segments of red rods, this being the only specialized site of contact that was observed between rods. each red rod contacts an average of about four neighboring red rods with a junctional area of approximately 0.75 micrometer2. from freeze-fracture micrographs, the density of junctional particl ... | 1998 | 107280 |
| direct visualization of epithelial morphology in the living amphibian urinary bladder. | differential interference-contrast microscopy has been applied to the study of amphibian urinary bladders, in vitro. it is demonstrated that well-resolved images can be obtained with little loss of tissue viability. direct observations have been made on the structure of microvilli, the distribution of mitochondria in the mitochondria-rich cells, and the patency of lateral intercellular spaces. it is noted that the effective viscosity of cytoplasm is very high--that it is apparently a gel in whic ... | 1999 | 104042 |
| rapid light-induced changes in near infrared transmission of rods in bufo marinus. | rapid transient changes in axial transmission of near infrared light through the outer segments of retinal rods of bufo marinus are induced by illumination. the reasons for these changes are not clear. the changes in optical transmission may be useful in the study of photoreceptor function. however, the study of photoreceptor functions through the use of indicator dyes may be confounded by the intrinsic light-induced changes of optical properties of the photoreceptor cells. | 2000 | 102035 |
| effects of 3'deoxyadenosine and actinomycin d on rna synthesis in toad bladder: analysis of response to aldosterone. | previous studies have shown that aldosterone increases transepithelial active na+ transport after a latent period of about 60 min and incorporation of 3h-uridine into polyadenylated rna (poly(a)(+)rna) (putatively poly(a)(+)mrna) as early as 30 min after aldosterone addition. to assess the physiological importance of this pathway, the effects of 3'deoxyadenosine and actinomycin d were compared in studies on the urinary bladder of the toad bufo marinus. 3'deoxyadenosine (30 microgram/ml) only par ... | 2000 | 97386 |
| cellular cl content and concentration of amphibian skeletal and heart muscle. | toads (bufo marinus) and frogs (rana pipiens pipiens) were given intraperitoneal injections of na36cl and na235so4. after in vivo equilibration for 20--180 min, the animals were pithed, and their ventricular and semitendinosus muscles were excised. measurements of total cl (by titrimetry) and 36cl (by radioassay) showed that specific radioactivities of plasma and mus les approached equality within 1 h after injection for toad skeletal and heart muscle and frog ventricles, indicating complete exc ... | 2001 | 100012 |
| sympathetic innervation of the spleen of the cane toad, bufo marinus. | | 2001 | 30569 |
| the effect of aldosterone on the accumulation of adenosine 3':5'-cyclic monophosphate in toad bladder epithelial cells in response to vasopressin and theophylline. | vasopressin and theophylline both increase the content of adenosine 3':5'-cyclic monophosphate (camp) in epithelial cells of the urinary bladder of toads (bufo marinus). incubation of the tissue with 0.2 mum aldosterone markedly increases this response to the two agents; incubation for a similar time without steroid reduces the response. the permeability responses (sodium transport and water flow) of the intact tissue to vasopressin, theophylline, and exogenous camp are also considerably greater ... | 2015 | 4337239 |
| receptor occupancy vs. induction of na+-k+-atpase and na+ transport by aldosterone. | in the urinary bladder of the toad bufo marinus aldosterone (between 0.8 and 100 nm) stimulates na+ transport [half-maximal induction concentration (k1/2) = 6.5 nm]. at low hormone concentrations (0.8-8 nm), the increase of na+ transport between 0.75 and 2.5 h is accompanied by a fall in transepithelial resistance (r). higher hormone concentrations (30-800 nm) induce an additional resistance-independent fraction of na+ transport within 2.5-8 h. from 6 h on, aldosterone (between 0.2 and 20 nm) st ... | 2010 | 2981474 |
| influence of prostaglandins on electrical and mechanical activities of gastric muscles of bufo marinus. | 1. study was performed to compare the role of prostaglandins in regulating gastric contractile activity in an amphibian model, bufo marinus, with mammalian models. 2. the prostaglandin synthesis inhibitor, indomethacin, had little effect on spontaneous mechanical activity, but increased the force and frequency of contractions stimulated by acetylcholine. 3. pge2 reversed the effects of indomethacin and reduced the force and frequency of contractions. these effects were concentration-dependent. 4 ... | 2010 | 2902993 |
| photoreceptor coupling in retina of the toad, bufo marinus. ii. physiology. | 1. intracellular recordings were made from red rods in the isolated toad retina in order to measure the extent of the rod coupling. 2. the network space constant, lambda, was determined from edge-response profile measurements on single cells (lambda = 19 +/- 7 micrometer). 3. the network input resistance was estimated to be between 45 and 100 m omega. 4. both discrete and continuous resistance networks, which were based on the anatomical observations, were analyzed. for lambda/d greater than 1, ... | 1998 | 107281 |
| comparative study of host response to chytridiomycosis in a susceptible and a resistant toad species. | in the past century, recently emerged infectious diseases have become major drivers of species decline and extinction. the fungal disease chytridiomycosis has devastated many amphibian populations and exacerbated the amphibian conservation crisis. biologists are beginning to understand what host traits contribute to disease susceptibility, but more work is needed to determine why some species succumb to chytridiomycosis while others do not. we conducted an integrative laboratory experiment to ex ... | 2016 | 27696594 |
| host-parasite interactions during a biological invasion: the fate of lungworms (rhabdias spp.) inside native and novel anuran hosts. | the cane toad invasion in australia provides a robust opportunity to clarify the infection process in co-evolved versus de novo host-parasite interactions. we investigated these infection dynamics through histological examination following experimental infections of metamorphs of native frogs (cyclorana australis) and cane toads (rhinella marina) with rhabdias hylae (the lungworm found in native frogs) and rhabdias pseudosphaerocephala (the lungworm found in cane toads). cane toads reared under ... | 2015 | 25973392 |
| quantifying anuran microhabitat use to infer the potential for parasite transmission between invasive cane toads and two species of australian native frogs. | parasites that are carried by invasive species can infect native taxa, with devastating consequences. in australia, invading cane toads (rhinella marina) carry lungworm parasites (rhabdias pseudosphaerocephala) that (based on previous laboratory studies) can infect native treefrogs (litoria caerulea and l. splendida). to assess the potential of parasite transmission from the invader to the native species (and from one infected native frog to another), we used surveys and radiotelemetry to quanti ... | 2014 | 25188421 |
| seasonal dynamics of the lungworm, rhabdias pseudosphaerocephala, in recently colonised cane toad (rhinella marina) populations in tropical australia. | the impact of parasites on host populations depend upon parasite prevalence and intensity. understanding how infection dynamics change through time following a host population's initial exposure to the parasite is fundamental to host-parasite biology. we studied an invasive host (the cane toad, rhinella marina) currently undergoing range expansion - a process through which this host's range is expanding faster than that of its lung parasites (the nematode, rhabdias pseudosphaerocephala), such th ... | 2013 | 23747925 |
| thermal regulation of the immune response in south american toads (bufo marinus). | | 2015 | 4631060 |
| cyclic gmp injected into retinal rod outer segments increases latency and amplitude of response to illumination. | we have injected cyclic gmp intracellularly by iontophoresis through the recording electrode into single rod outer segments of the isolated superfused retina of the toad. bufo marinus. the two most marked effects of the injection are: (i) the latency of the hyperpolarizing membrane-potential change caused by illumination is increased from 5 to 50 times normal, the increase in latency being inversely proportional to the light stimulus intensity; and (ii) the amplitude of the hyperpolarizing recep ... | 1981 | 217019 |
| immune response varies with rate of dispersal in invasive cane toads (rhinella marina). | what level of immunocompetence should an animal maintain while undertaking long-distance dispersal? immune function (surveillance and response) might be down-regulated during prolonged physical exertion due to energy depletion, and/or to avoid autoimmune reactions arising from damaged tissue. on the other hand, heightened immune vigilance might be favored if the organism encounters novel pathogens as it enters novel environments. we assessed the links between immune defense and long-distance mov ... | 2014 | 24936876 |
| host-parasite relationships during a biologic invasion: 75 years postinvasion, cane toads and sympatric australian frogs retain separate lungworm faunas. | invasive species may carry with them parasites from their native range, differing from parasite taxa found in the invaded range. host switching by parasites (either from the invader to native fauna or from native fauna to the invader) may have important consequences for the viability of either type of host (e.g., their survivorship, fecundity, dispersal ability, or geographic distribution). rhabdias pseudosphaerocephala (nematoda) is a common parasite of cane toads (rhinella marina) in the toad' ... | 2012 | 23060496 |
| corticosterone-immune interactions during captive stress in invading australian cane toads (rhinella marina). | vertebrates cope with physiological challenges using two major mechanisms: the immune system and the hypothalamic pituitary-adrenal axis (e.g., the glucocorticoid stress response). because the two systems are tightly integrated, we need simultaneous studies of both systems, in a range of species, to understand how vertebrates respond to novel challenges. to clarify how glucocorticoids modulate the amphibian immune system, we measured three immune parameters and plasma corticosterone (cort), befo ... | 2012 | 22713726 |
| cardiac performance correlates of relative heart ventricle mass in amphibians. | this study used an in situ heart preparation to analyze the power output and stroke work of spontaneously beating hearts of four anurans (rhinella marina, lithobates catesbeianus, xenopus laevis, pyxicephalus edulis) and three urodeles (necturus maculosus, ambystoma tigrinum, amphiuma tridactylum) that span a representative range of relative ventricle mass (rvm) found in amphibians. previous research has documented that rvm correlates with dehydration tolerance and maximal aerobic capacity in am ... | 2013 | 23619575 |
| the spatio-temporal course of wallerian degeneration within the cns of toads (bufo marinus) as defined by the nauta silver method. | | 2014 | 4116202 |
| neuroepithelial bodies and solitary neuroendocrine cells in the lungs of amphibia. | in the lungs of 12 species of amphibia investigated so far, solitary neuroendocrine (ne) cells, as well as groups of these cells called "neuroepithelial bodies" (neb), are observed. they occur in the position strategic to monitoring gas composition, mainly in the ciliated epithelium of the apical part of the septa. a great diversity in the structure of neb is observed. the ne cells and neb in amphibia are predominantly of the "closed type," separated from the air space by a thin cytoplasmic laye ... | 1997 | 9144619 |
| the initial burst of impulses in responses of toad muscle spindles during stretch. | the responses of muscle spindles in the iliofibularis muscle of the cane toad bufo marinus were examined during constant velocity stretch of the passive muscle. spindles were found to show an 'initial burst' of high frequency impulses at the onset of stretch. associated with the initial burst was a steep passive tension rise in the whole muscle, the short-range elastic component (hill, 1968), called here the passive stiffness. the size of the initial burst was found to depend on muscle length in ... | 2010 | 2934546 |
| cellular changes in the toad urinary bladder in response to metabolic acidosis. | the urinary bladder of bufo marinus excretes h+ and nh+4, and the h+ excretion is increased when the animal is placed in metabolic acidosis. the mitochondria-rich (mr) cells mediate the h+ excretion by the bladder. the purpose of this study was to determine if there is a change in mr cells of the bladder during metabolic acidosis. bladders from normal toads and from toads that had been placed in metabolic acidosis were used. the bladders were mounted between plastic chambers and h+ excretion mea ... | 1999 | 96269 |