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identification of a tsetse fly salivary protein with dual inhibitory action on human platelet aggregation.tsetse flies (glossina sp.), the african trypanosome vectors, rely on anti-hemostatic compounds for efficient blood feeding. despite their medical importance, very few salivary proteins have been characterized and functionally annotated.201020351782
an insight into the sialome of glossina morsitans morsitans.blood feeding evolved independently in worms, arthropods and mammals. among the adaptations to this peculiar diet, these animals developed an armament of salivary molecules that disarm their host's anti-bleeding defenses (hemostasis), inflammatory and immune reactions. recent sialotranscriptome analyses (from the greek sialo = saliva) of blood feeding insects and ticks have revealed that the saliva contains hundreds of polypeptides, many unique to their genus or family. adult tsetse flies feed e ...201020353571
nutrient provisioning facilitates homeostasis between tsetse fly (diptera: glossinidae) symbionts.host-associated microbial interactions may involve genome complementation, driving-enhanced communal efficiency and stability. the tsetse fly (diptera: glossinidae), the obligate vector of african trypanosomes (trypanosoma brucei subspp.), harbours two enteric gammaproteobacteria symbionts: wigglesworthia glossinidia and sodalis glossinidius. host coevolution has streamlined the wigglesworthia genome to complement the exclusively sanguivorous tsetse lifestyle. comparative genomics reveal that th ...201020356887
effects of flow rate and temperature on cyclic gas exchange in tsetse flies (diptera, glossinidae).air flow rates may confound the investigation and classification of insect gas exchange patterns. here we report the effects of flow rates (50, 100, 200, 400 ml min(-1)) on gas exchange patterns in wild-caught glossina morsitans morsitans from zambia. at rest, g. m. morsitans generally showed continuous or cyclic gas exchange (cge) but no evidence of discontinuous gas exchange (dge). flow rates had little influence on the ability to detect cge in tsetse, at least in the present experimental setu ...201020399350
the trypanosoma brucei life cycle switch tbptp1 is structurally conserved and dephosphorylates the nucleolar protein nopp44/46.trypanosoma brucei adapts to changing environments as it cycles through arrested and proliferating stages in the human and tsetse fly hosts. changes in protein tyrosine phosphorylation of several proteins, including nopp44/46, accompany t. brucei development. moreover, inactivation of t. brucei protein-tyrosine phosphatase 1 (tbptp1) triggers differentiation of bloodstream stumpy forms into tsetse procyclic forms through unknown downstream effects. here, we link these events by showing that nopp ...201020444707
sleeping sickness in southeastern uganda: a spatio-temporal analysis of disease risk, 1970-2003.sleeping sickness is a major threat to human health in sub-saharan africa. southeastern uganda has experienced a number of significant epidemics in the past 100 years, most recently from 1976 to 1989. recent and continued spread of the disease has highlighted gaps in the ability of current research to explain and predict the distribution of infection. vegetation cover and changes in vegetation may be important determinants of transmission and disease risk because of the habitat preferences of th ...201020482341
regulation of high-affinity iron acquisition homologues in the tsetse fly symbiont sodalis glossinidius.sodalis glossinidius is a facultative intracellular bacterium that is a secondary symbiont of the tsetse fly (diptera: glossinidae). since studies with other facultative intracellular bacteria have shown that high-affinity iron acquisition genes are upregulated in vivo, we investigated the regulation of several sodalis genes that encode putative iron acquisition systems. these genes, sg1538 (hemt) and sg1516 (sita), are homologous to genes encoding periplasmic heme and iron/manganese transporter ...201020494987
amplified fragment length polymorphism (aflp) analysis of closely related wild and captive tsetse fly (glossina morsitans morsitans) populations.abstract:201020504326
spatial clustering and associations of two savannah tsetse species, glossina morsitans submorsitans and glossina pallidipes (diptera: glossinidae), for guiding interventions in an adaptive cattle health management framework.the paper deals with tsetse (family glossinidae) control and aims at improving the methodology for precision targeting interventions in an adaptive pest management system. the spatio-temporal distribution of glossina morsitans submorsitans newstead, and glossina pallidipes austen, at ethiopia's keto pilot site, is analyzed with the spatial analysis by distance indices (sadie) methodology that focus on clustering and spatial associations between species and between sexes. both species displayed a ...201020504383
tsetse fly blood meal modification and trypanosome identification in two sleeping sickness foci in the forest of southern cameroon.the blood meal origins of 222 tsetse flies (213 glossina palpalis palpalis, 7 glossina pallicera pallicera, one glossina nigrofusca and one glossina caliginea) caught in 2008 in two human african trypanosomiasis foci (bipindi and campo) of south cameroon were investigated. 88.7% of tsetse flies blood meals were identified using the heteroduplex method and the origin of the remaining blood meals (11.3%) was identified by sequencing the cytochrome b gene. most of the meals were from humans (45.9%) ...201020541513
landmarks in the evolution of technologies for identifying trypanosomes in tsetse flies.understanding what the trypanosome pathogens are, their vectors and mode of transmission underpin efforts to control the disease they cause in both humans and livestock. the risk of transmission is estimated by determining what proportion of the vector population is carrying the infectious pathogens. this risk also depends on the infectivity of the trypanosomes to humans and livestock. most livestock pathogens are not infective to humans, whereas the two sub-species that infect humans also infec ...201020542733
a novel phosphatase cascade regulates differentiation in trypanosoma brucei via a glycosomal signaling pathway.in the mammalian bloodstream, the sleeping sickness parasite trypanosoma brucei is held poised for transmission by the activity of a tyrosine phosphatase, tbptp1. this prevents differentiation of the transmissible "stumpy forms" until entry into the tsetse fly, whereupon tbptp1 is inactivated and major changes in parasite physiology are initiated to allow colonization of the arthropod vector. using a substrate-trapping approach, we identified the downstream step in this developmental signaling p ...201020551176
bovine trypanosomosis and its vectors in two districts of bench maji zone, south western ethiopia.a cross-sectional study was carried out from november 2008 to february 2009 in guraferda and sheko districts of bench maji zone, south western ethiopia. the objective of the study was to determine the prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis and the density of its vectors. an overall prevalence of trypanosome infection in the study area was 4.4%. trypanosoma congolense (36.36%) was the dominant trypanosome species followed by trypanosoma vivax (18.18%) and trypanosoma brucei (9.09%). mean packed cell ...201020577803
mobile genetic element proliferation and gene inactivation impact over the genome structure and metabolic capabilities of sodalis glossinidius, the secondary endosymbiont of tsetse flies.genome reduction is a common evolutionary process in symbiotic and pathogenic bacteria. this process has been extensively characterized in bacterial endosymbionts of insects, where primary mutualistic bacteria represent the most extreme cases of genome reduction consequence of a massive process of gene inactivation and loss during their evolution from free-living ancestors. sodalis glossinidius, the secondary endosymbiont of tsetse flies, contains one of the few complete genomes of bacteria at t ...201020649993
a landscape and climate data logistic model of tsetse distribution in kenya.trypanosoma spp, biologically transmitted by the tsetse fly in africa, are a major cause of illness resulting in both high morbidity and mortality among humans, cattle, wild ungulates, and other species. however, tsetse fly distributions change rapidly due to environmental changes, and fine-scale distribution maps are few. due to data scarcity, most presence/absence estimates in kenya prior to 2000 are a combination of local reports, entomological knowledge, and topographic information. the avai ...201020676406
effects of ethidium (homidium bromide) on female reproductive performance of laboratory-reared tsetse flies, glossina morsitans morsitans westwood (diptera: glossinidae).ethidium (homidium bromide) is a trypanocide likely to be encountered as a violative residue in blood collected from abattoirs for feeding laboratory tsetse flies. we investigated its effect on female reproduction of glossina morsitans morsitans. one-milligram homidium per kilogram body weight was intra-muscularly administered to four steers and blood aseptically collected from them between 15 and 30 min post-treatment, analysed for homidium levels and processed for tsetse feeding. two hundred t ...201020678462
bottlenecks and the maintenance of minor genotypes during the life cycle of trypanosoma brucei.african trypanosomes are digenetic parasites that undergo part of their developmental cycle in mammals and part in tsetse flies. we established a novel technique to monitor the population dynamics of trypanosoma brucei throughout its life cycle while minimising the confounding factors of strain differences or variation in fitness. clones derived from a single trypanosome were tagged with short synthetic dna sequences in a non-transcribed region of the genome. infections were initiated with mixtu ...201020686656
proteomic analysis of glossina pallidipes salivary gland hypertrophy virus virions for immune intervention in tsetse fly colonies.many species of tsetse flies (diptera: glossinidae) can be infected by a virus that causes salivary gland hypertrophy (sgh). the genomes of viruses isolated from glossina pallidipes (gpsghv) and musca domestica (mdsghv) have recently been sequenced. tsetse flies with sgh have reduced fecundity and fertility which cause a serious problem for mass rearing in the frame of sterile insect technique (sit) programmes to control and eradicate tsetse populations in the wild. a potential intervention stra ...201020719992
discovery and verification of osteopontin and beta-2-microglobulin as promising markers for staging human african trypanosomiasis.human african trypanosomiasis, or sleeping sickness, is a parasitic disease endemic in sub-saharan africa, transmitted to humans through the bite of a tsetse fly. the first or hemolymphatic stage of the disease is associated with presence of parasites in the bloodstream, lymphatic system, and body tissues. if patients are left untreated, parasites cross the blood-brain barrier and invade the cerebrospinal fluid and the brain parenchyma, giving rise to the second or meningoencephalitic stage. sta ...201020724469
functional analysis of the twin-arginine translocation pathway in sodalis glossinidius, a bacterial symbiont of the tsetse fly.this study demonstrates a functional twin-arginine (tat) translocation pathway present in the tsetse fly symbiont sodalis glossinidius and its potential to export active heterologous proteins to the periplasm. functionality was demonstrated using green fluorescent protein (gfp) fused to the tat signal peptide of escherichia coli trimethylamine n-oxide reductase (tora).201021148698
fine structure of the female reproductive system in a viviparous insect, glossina morsitans morsitans (diptera, glossinidae).the female reproductive system of the tsetse fly glossina morsitans morsitans is analysed by scanning electron microscopy (sem). the study focuses in particular on the choriothete, a peculiar uterine structure involved in the viviparous mode of reproduction of glossina morsitans morsitans. under light microscopy, the choriothete appears formed by numerous tongue-like folds projecting towards the uterine lumen and lined by a thin cuticle. sem analysis highlights for the first time a distinctive n ...201021094964
tsetse fly control and trypanosomiasis in africa, quo vadis?national and international efforts to eradicate tsetse fly-borne human and animal trypanosomiasis are critically evaluated, and possible reasons for their failure in many cases are discussed. some formerly performed campaigns in specific areas with positive results cannot be taken as examples to solve the main problems. in future, a significant reduction of trypanosomiasis cases will be possible to achieve only if a concerted long-term pan-african approach, based on financial security, the conti ...201021104211
the transformer gene of ceratitis capitata: a paradigm for a conserved epigenetic master regulator of sex determination in insects.the transformer gene in ceratitis capitata (cctra(ep)) is the founding member of a family of related sr genes that appear to act as the master epigenetic switch in sex determination in insects. a functional protein seems to be produced only in individuals with a female xx karyotype where it is required to maintain the productive mode of expression through a positive feedback loop and to direct female development by instructing the downstream target genes accordingly. when zygotic activation of t ...201020890720
universal primers for rapid detection of hytrosaviruses.hytrosaviridae is a proposed virus family encompassing viruses that cause salivary gland hypertrophy (sgh) syndrome in infected insects and reduce the fertility in their dipteran insect hosts. they contain a large, double stranded dna genome of 120-190 kbp. to date, these viruses have been detected only in adult diptera. these include hytrosaviruses detected in various tsetse fly species (glossina spp.), the narcissus bulb fly merodon equestris and the house fly musca domestica. the limited numb ...201020923688
evolutionary genomics of glossina morsitans immune-related clip domain serine proteases and serine protease inhibitors.several species of haematophagous tsetse flies (genus glossina) are vectors for trypanosomes, the parasitic protozoans that cause human african trypanosomiasis (hat). although there was a reduced incidence of hat in the mid 1960s, decreased disease surveillance has led to a resurgence of hat in sub-saharan africa. despite being efficient vectors for hat transmission, the prevalence of g. morsitans infection by trypanosomes in the wild is surprisingly minimal. the precise mechanisms by which g. m ...201021055483
theoretical levels of control as a function of mean temperature and spray efficacy in the aerial spraying of tsetse fly.the hypothetical impact of aerial spraying on tsetse fly populations is investigated. spray cycles are scheduled at intervals two days short of the first interlarval period and halted once the last of the female flies that originated from pre-spray-deposited pupae have been sprayed twice. the effect of temperature on the aerial spraying of tsetse, through its reproductive cycle and general population dynamics, is of particular interest, given that cooler weather is preferred for the settling of ...201021087595
serratia glossinae sp. nov., isolated from the midgut of the tsetse fly glossina palpalis gambiensis.we report the isolation of a novel bacterium, strain c1(t), from the midgut of the tsetse fly glossina palpalis gambiensis, one of the vector insects responsible for transmission of the trypanosomes that cause sleeping sickness in sub-saharan african countries. strain c1(t) is a motile, facultatively anaerobic, rod-like bacterium (0.8-1.0 microm in diameter; 2-6 microm long) that grows as single cells or in chains. optimum growth occurred at 25-35 degrees c, at ph 6.7-8.4 and in medium containin ...201019667382
characterisations of odorant-binding proteins in the tsetse fly glossina morsitans morsitans.odorant-binding proteins (obps) play an important role in insect olfaction by mediating interactions between odorants and odorant receptors. we report for the first time 20 obp genes in the tsetse fly glossina morsitans morsitans. qrt-pcr revealed that 8 of these genes were highly transcribed in the antennae. the transcription of these genes in the antennae was significantly lower in males than in females and there was a clear correlation between obp gene transcription and feeding status. starva ...201020012146
evaluation of deltamethrin applications in the control of tsetse and trypanosomosis in the southern rift valley areas of ethiopia.a study aimed at evaluating the efficacy of deltamethrin (0.4% impregnated targets and 1% pour-on formulation) in controlling tsetse and trypanosomosis was carried out in two selected 10km x 10km universal transverse mercator grids of the southern tsetse eradication project (step) area in the southern rift valley of ethiopia. the grids selected were h3 (site i) and g5 (site ii) in two districts of the wolaita zone. the trial was underway from september 2003 to april 2004. the strategy followed t ...201020060647
diversity and spatial distribution of vectors and hosts of t. brucei gambiense in forest zones of, southern cameroon: epidemiological implications.host and vector distribution of trypanosoma brucei gambiense was studied in relation to habitat types and seasons. six (19.35%) of the 31 mammal species recorded in bipindi were reservoir hosts. cercopithecus nictitans was confined to the undisturbed forest and the low intensive shifting cultivation zones, while cephalophus monticola, cephalophus dorsalis, cricetomys gambianus, atherurus africanus and nandinia binotata occurred in all the habitat types. as for vectors of human african trypanosom ...201020067756
molecular characterization of the key switch f provides a basis for understanding the rapid divergence of the sex-determining pathway in the housefly.the housefly, musca domestica, is an excellent model system to study the diversification of the pathway that specifies the sexual fate. a number of different mechanisms have been described in the housefly, which reflects in part the broad diversity of sex-determining strategies used in insects. in this study we present the molecular identification and characterization of f, which acts as the master switch in the housefly pathway. we provide evidence that f corresponds to the transformer ortholog ...201019841093
transmissibility, by glossina morsitans morsitans, of trypanosoma congolense strains during the acute and chronic phases of infection.in order to verify whether chronic trypanosomal infections can affect the transmissibility of trypanosoma congolense by tsetse flies, batches of glossina morsitans morsitans were fed on mice infected with the same level of parasitemia (10(8.1)trypanosomes/ml of blood) of two cloned low virulent t. congolense strains during the acute and the chronic phases of infection. results showed that the proportions of procyclic infections in flies that were fed during the acute phase (32.6% and 45.4% for i ...201019765543
molecular bases of cytoskeleton plasticity during the trypanosoma brucei parasite cycle.african trypanosomes are flagellated protozoan parasites responsible for sleeping sickness and transmitted by tsetse flies. the accomplishment of their parasite cycle requires adaptation to highly diverse environments. these transitions take place in a strictly defined order and are accompanied by spectacular morphological modifications in cell size, shape and positioning of organelles. to understand the molecular bases of these processes, parasites isolated from different tissues of the tsetse ...201121159115
tsetse immune system maturation requires the presence of obligate symbionts in larvae.beneficial microbial symbionts serve important functions within their hosts, including dietary supplementation and maintenance of immune system homeostasis. little is known about the mechanisms that enable these bacteria to induce specific host phenotypes during development and into adulthood. here we used the tsetse fly, glossina morsitans, and its obligate mutualist, wigglesworthia glossinidia, to investigate the co-evolutionary adaptations that influence the development of host physiological ...201121655301
polyandry is a common event in wild populations of the tsetse fly glossina fuscipes fuscipes and may impact population reduction measures.glossina fuscipes fuscipes is the main vector of human and animal trypanosomiasis in africa, particularly in uganda. attempts to control/eradicate this species using biological methods require knowledge of its reproductive biology. an important aspect is the number of times a female mates in the wild as this influences the effective population size and may constitute a critical factor in determining the success of control methods. to date, polyandry in g.f. fuscipes has not been investigated in ...201121666797
population genetics of trypanosoma evansi from camel in the sudan.genetic variation of microsatellite loci is a widely used method for the analysis of population genetic structure of microorganisms. we have investigated genetic variation at 15 microsatellite loci of t. evansi isolated from camels in sudan and kenya to evaluate the genetic information partitioned within and between individuals and between sites. we detected a strong signal of isolation by distance across the area sampled. the results also indicate that either, and as expected, t. evansi is pure ...201121666799
sleeping sickness.human african trypanosomiasis (hat), or sleeping sickness, is a vector-borne disease that flourishes in impoverished, rural parts of sub-saharan africa. it is caused by infection with the protozoan parasite trypanosoma brucei and is transmitted by tsetse flies of the genus glossina. the majority of cases are caused by t. b. gambiense, which gives rise to the chronic, anthroponotic endemic disease in western and central africa. infection with t. b. rhodesiense leads to the acute, zoonotic form of ...201121722252
impact of microscopic motility on the swimming behavior of parasites: straighter trypanosomes are more directional.microorganisms, particularly parasites, have developed sophisticated swimming mechanisms to cope with a varied range of environments. african trypanosomes, causative agents of fatal illness in humans and animals, use an insect vector (the tsetse fly) to infect mammals, involving many developmental changes in which cell motility is of prime importance. our studies reveal that differences in cell body shape are correlated with a diverse range of cell behaviors contributing to the directional motio ...201121698122
post eclosion age predicts the prevalence of midgut trypanosome infections in glossina.the teneral phenomenon, as observed in glossina sp., refers to the increased susceptibility of the fly to trypanosome infection when the first bloodmeal taken is trypanosome-infected. in recent years, the term teneral has gradually become synonymous with unfed, and thus fails to consider the age of the newly emerged fly at the time the first bloodmeal is taken. furthermore, conflicting evidence exists of the effect of the age of the teneral fly post eclosion when it is given the infected first b ...201122087240
Multiple Trypanosoma infections are common amongst Glossina species in the new farming areas of Rufiji district, Tanzania.ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: Tsetse flies and trypanosomiasis are among several factors that constrain livestock development in Tanzania. Over the years Rufiji District was excluded from livestock production owing to tsetse fly infestation, however, a few years ago there was an influx of livestock following evictions aimed at conserving the Usangu wetlands. METHODS: A study was conducted to determine the efficiency of available traps for catching tsetse flies, Glossina species infesting the area, thei ...201122093363
the salivary secretome of the tsetse fly glossina pallidipes (diptera: glossinidae) infected by salivary gland hypertrophy virus.the competence of the tsetse fly glossina pallidipes (diptera; glossinidae) to acquire salivary gland hypertrophy virus (sghv), to support virus replication and successfully transmit the virus depends on complex interactions between glossina and sghv macromolecules. critical requisites to sghv transmission are its replication and secretion of mature virions into the fly's salivary gland (sg) lumen. however, secretion of host proteins is of equal importance for successful transmission and require ...201122132244
attenuation of the sensing capabilities of phoq in transition to obligate insect-bacterial association.sodalis glossinidius, a maternally inherited endosymbiont of the tsetse fly, maintains genes encoding homologues of the phop-phoq two-component regulatory system. this two-component system has been extensively studied in facultative bacterial pathogens and is known to serve as an environmental magnesium sensor and a regulator of key virulence determinants. in the current study, we show that the inactivation of the response regulator, phop, renders s. glossinidius sensitive to insect derived cati ...201122072980
wolbachia symbiont infections induce strong cytoplasmic incompatibility in the tsetse fly glossina morsitans.tsetse flies are vectors of the protozoan parasite african trypanosomes, which cause sleeping sickness disease in humans and nagana in livestock. although there are no effective vaccines and efficacious drugs against this parasite, vector reduction methods have been successful in curbing the disease, especially for nagana. potential vector control methods that do not involve use of chemicals is a genetic modification approach where flies engineered to be parasite resistant are allowed to replace ...201122174680
genetic diversity and population structure of the secondary symbiont of tsetse flies, sodalis glossinidius, in sleeping sickness foci in cameroon.previous studies have shown substantial differences in sodalis glossinidius and trypanosome infection rates between glossina palpalis palpalis populations from two cameroonian foci of human african trypanosomiasis (hat), bipindi and campo. we hypothesized that the geographical isolation of the two foci may have induced independent evolution in the two areas, resulting in the diversification of symbiont genotypes.201121886849
native microbiota shape insect vector competence for human pathogens.the resident microbiota of insect vectors can impede transmission of human pathogens. recent studies have highlighted the capacity of endogenous bacteria to decrease viral and parasitic infections in mosquito and tsetse fly vectors by activating their immune responses or directly inhibiting pathogen development. these microbes may prove effective agents for manipulating the vector competence of malaria and other important human pathogens.201122018231
alba proteins are stage regulated during trypanosome development in the tsetse fly and participate in differentiation.the protozoan parasite trypanosoma brucei is responsible for sleeping sickness and alternates between mammal and tsetse fly hosts, where it has to adapt to different environments. we investigated the role of two members of the alba family, which encodes hypothetical rna-binding proteins conserved in most eukaryotes. we show that alba3/4 proteins colocalize with the dhh1 rna-binding protein and with a subset of poly(a+) rna in stress granules upon starvation. depletion of alba3/4 proteins by rna ...201121965287
lipophorin acts as a shuttle of lipids to the milk gland during tsetse fly pregnancy.during pregnancy in the viviparous tsetse fly, lipid mobilization is essential for the production of milk to feed the developing intrauterine larva. lipophorin (lp) functions as the major lipid transport protein in insects and closely-related arthropods. in this study, we assessed the role of lp and the lipophorin receptor (lpr) in the lipid mobilization process during tsetse reproduction. we identified single gene sequences for gmmlp and gmmlpr from the genome of glossinamorsitansmorsitans, and ...201121875592
Cryptic diversity within the major trypanosomiasis vector Glossina fuscipes revealed by molecular markers.The tsetse fly Glossina fuscipes s.l. is responsible for the transmission of approximately 90% of cases of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) or sleeping sickness. Three G. fuscipes subspecies have been described, primarily based upon subtle differences in the morphology of their genitalia. Here we describe a study conducted across the range of this important vector to determine whether molecular evidence generated from nuclear DNA (microsatellites and gene sequence information), mitochondrial ...201121858237
Glycolysis in the african trypanosome: targeting enzymes and their subcellular compartments for therapeutic development.Subspecies of the African trypanosome, Trypanosoma brucei, which cause human African trypanosomiasis, are transmitted by the tsetse fly, with transmission-essential lifecycle stages occurring in both the insect vector and human host. During infection of the human host, the parasite is limited to using glycolysis of host sugar for ATP production. This dependence on glucose breakdown presents a series of targets for potential therapeutic development, many of which have been explored and validated ...201122091393
The Enhancer of split complex arose prior to the diversification of schizophoran flies and is strongly conserved between Drosophila and stalk-eyed flies (Diopsidae).ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: In Drosophila, the Enhancer of Split complex (E(spl)-C) comprises 11 bHLH and Bearded genes that function during Notch signaling to repress proneural identity in the developing peripheral nervous system. Comparison with other insects indicates that the basal state for Diptera is a single bHLH and Bearded homolog and that the expansion of the gene complex occurred in the lineage leading to Drosophila. However, comparative genomic data from other fly species that would eluci ...201122151427
Human African trypanosomiasis in endemic populations and travellers.Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) or sleeping sickness is caused by the protozoan parasites Trypanosoma brucei (T.b.) gambiense (West African form) and T.b. rhodesiense (East African form) that are transmitted by the bite of the tsetse fly, Glossina spp.. Whereas most patients in endemic populations are infected with T.b. gambiense, most tourists are infected with T.b. rhodesiense. In endemic populations, T.b. gambiense HAT is characterized by chronic and intermittent fever, headache, pruritus ...201121901632
experimental evaluation of xenodiagnosis to detect trypanosomes at low parasitaemia levels in infected hosts.in human african trypanosomosis (hat) endemic areas, there are a number of subjects that are positive to serological tests but in whom trypanosomes are difficult to detect with the available parasitological tests. in most cases and particularly in west africa, these subjects remain untreated, thus posing a fundamental problem both at the individual level (because of a possible lethal evolution of the disease) and at the epidemiological level (since they are potential reservoirs of trypanosomes). ...201122091459
the chemistry and biology of trypanosomal trans-sialidases: virulence factors in chagas disease and sleeping sickness.trans-sialidases constitute a special group of the sialidase family. they occur in some trypanosome species and, in a unique reversible reaction, transfer sialic acids from one glycosidic linkage with galactose (donor) to another galactose (acceptor), to form (α2-3)-sialyl linkages. trypanosomes cause such devastating human diseases as chagas disease in south america (trypanosoma cruzi) or sleeping sickness in africa (trypanosoma brucei). the trans-sialidases strongly contribute to the pathogeni ...201121956798
the tsetse fly glossina fuscipes fuscipes (diptera: glossina) harbours a surprising diversity of bacteria other than symbionts.three different bacterial species are regularly described from tsetse flies. however, no broad screens have been performed to investigate the existence of other bacteria in this medically and agriculturally important vector insect. utilising both culture dependent and independent methods we show that kenyan populations of glossina fuscipes fuscipes harbour a surprising diversity of bacteria. bacteria were isolated from 72% of flies with 23 different bacterial species identified. the firmicutes p ...201121203841
the phylogeny of sodalis-like symbionts as reconstructed using surface-encoding loci.phylogenetic analyses of 16s rrna support close relationships between the gammaproteobacteria sodalis glossinidius, a tsetse (diptera: glossinidae) symbiont, and bacteria infecting diverse insect orders. to further examine the evolutionary relationships of these sodalis-like symbionts, phylogenetic trees were constructed for a subset of putative surface-encoding genes (i.e. ompa, spr, slyb, rcsf, ycfm, and ompc). the ompa and ompc loci were used toward examining the intra- and interspecific dive ...201121251054
disappearance of some human african trypanosomiasis transmission foci in zambia in the absence of a tsetse fly and trypanosomiasis control program over a period of forty years.we conducted a situation analysis of human african trypanosomiasis (hat) in zambia from january 2000 to april 2007. the aim of this survey was to identify districts in zambia that were still recording cases of hat. three districts namely, mpika, chama, and chipata were found to be still reporting cases of hat and thus lay in hat transmission foci in north eastern zambia. during the period under review, 24 cases of hat were reported from these three districts. we thereafter reviewed literature on ...201121276598
progress towards the eradication of tsetse from the loos islands, guinea.the tsetse fly glossina palpalis gambiensis is the main vector of sleeping sickness (human african trypanosomiasis - hat) in west africa, in particular in littoral guinea where this disease is currently very active. the loos islands constitute a small archipelago some 5 km from mainland guinea, where g. p. gambiensis is well known as a nuisance and potential disease vector by inhabitants of the three main islands, fotoba, room, and kassa. the national control program against hat of guinea has de ...201121310074
identification of the meiotic life cycle stage of trypanosoma brucei in the tsetse fly.elucidating the mechanism of genetic exchange is fundamental for understanding how genes for such traits as virulence, disease phenotype, and drug resistance are transferred between pathogen strains. genetic exchange occurs in the parasitic protists trypanosoma brucei, t. cruzi, and leishmania major, but the precise cellular mechanisms are unknown, because the process has not been observed directly. here we exploit the identification of homologs of meiotic genes in the t. brucei genome and demon ...201121321215
microsatellite genotyping reveals diversity within populations of sodalis glossinidius, the secondary symbiont of tsetse flies.the aim of this study was to develop a pcr-based microsatellite genotyping method for identifying genetic diversity in sodalis glossinidius, a symbiont associated with tsetse fly infection by trypanosomes causing human and animal trypanosomiasis. allelic polymorphism at three loci, investigated on 40 fly gut extracts, evidenced eight alleles and the existence of five genotypes. this novel approach was shown to be efficient and suitable for routine large-scale genotyping of s. glossinidius presen ...201121334833
population vulnerability and disability in kenya's tsetse fly habitats.human african trypanosomiasis (hat), also referred to as sleeping sickness, and african animal trypanosomaisis (aat), known as nagana, are highly prevalent parasitic vector-borne diseases in sub-saharan africa. humans acquire trypanosomiasis following the bite of a tsetse fly infected with the protozoa trypanosoma brucei (t.b.) spp. -i.e., t.b. gambiense in west and central africa and t.b. rhodesiense in east and southern africa. over the last decade hat diagnostic capacity to estimate hat preva ...201121347453
the trypanosoma brucei zinc finger protein zc3h18 is involved in differentiation.in mammalian cells, the degradation of mrnas that have au-rich elements in their 3'-untranslated regions is accelerated by the binding of proteins that contain two ccch-zinc-finger-domains. three ccch zinc-finger proteins, tbzfp1, tbzfp2, and tbzfp3, have been shown to have roles in trypanosome differentiation. we here studied another protein, zc3h18, which has two ccch zinc finger domains. the zc3h18 gene is not essential in bloodstream forms, but in an in vitro model of differentiation, deplet ...201121354218
trypanosoma brucei s.l.: microsatellite markers revealed high level of multiple genotypes in the mid-guts of wild tsetse flies of the fontem sleeping sickness focus of cameroon.to identify trypanosoma brucei genotypes which are potentially transmitted in a sleeping sickness focus, microsatellite markers were used to characterize t. brucei found in the mid-guts of wild tsetse flies of the fontem sleeping sickness focus in cameroon. for this study, two entomological surveys were performed during which 2685 tsetse flies were collected and 1596 (59.2%) were dissected. microscopic examination revealed 1.19% (19/1596) mid-gut infections with trypanosomes; the pcr method iden ...201121376044
tracking the feeding patterns of tsetse flies (glossina genus) by analysis of bloodmeals using mitochondrial cytochromes genes.tsetse flies are notoriously difficult to observe in nature, particularly when populations densities are low. it is therefore difficult to observe them on their hosts in nature; hence their vertebrate species can very often only be determined indirectly by analysis of their gut contents. this knowledge is a critical component of the information on which control tactics can be developed. the objective of this study was to determine the sources of tsetse bloodmeals, hence investigate their feeding ...201121386971
responses of tsetse flies, glossina morsitans morsitans and glossina pallidipes, to baits of various size.recent studies of palpalis group tsetse [glossina fuscipes fuscipes (diptera: glossinidae) in kenya] suggest that small (0.25 × 0.25 m) insecticide-treated targets will be more cost-effective than the larger (=1.0 × 1.0 m) designs currently used to control tsetse. studies were undertaken in zimbabwe to assess whether small targets are also more cost-effective for the morsitans group tsetse, glossina morsitans morsitans and glossina pallidipes. numbers of tsetse contacting targets of 0.25 × 0.25 ...201121414020
a general model for mortality in adult tsetse (glossina spp.).tsetse exhibit a u-shaped age-mortality curve, with high losses after eclosion and a well-marked ageing process, which is particularly dramatic in males. a three-parameter (k(1) -k(3) ) model for age-dependent adult instantaneous mortality rates was constructed using mark-recapture data for the tsetse fly glossina morsitans morsitans westwood (diptera: glossinidae). mortality changed linearly with k(1) over all ages; k(2) affected only losses in roughly the first week of adult life, and k(3) con ...201121414021
permanent genetic resources added to molecular ecology resources database 1 december 2010-31 january 2011.this article documents the addition of 238 microsatellite marker loci to the molecular ecology resources database. loci were developed for the following species: alytes dickhilleni, arapaima gigas, austropotamobius italicus, blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici, cobitis lutheri, dendroctonus ponderosae, glossina morsitans morsitans, haplophilus subterraneus, kirengeshoma palmata, lysimachia japonica, macrolophus pygmaeus, microtus cabrerae, mytilus galloprovincialis, pallisentis (neosentis) celatus, ...201121457476
antimicrobial peptide killing of african trypanosomes.the diseases caused by trypanosomes are medically and economically devastating to the population of sub-saharan africa. parasites of the genus trypanosoma, infect both humans, causing african sleeping sickness, and livestock, causing nagana. the development of effective treatment strategies has suffered from the severe side effects of approved drugs, resistance and major difficulties in delivering drugs. antimicrobial peptides are ubiquitous components of immune defense and are being rigorously ...201121517904
expression of chemosensory proteins in the tsetse fly glossina morsitans morsitans is related to female host-seeking behaviour.chemosensory proteins (csps) are a class of soluble proteins present in high concentrations in the sensilla of insect antennae. it has been proposed that they play an important role in insect olfaction by mediating interactions between odorants and odorant receptors. here we report, for the first time, the presence of five csp genes in the tsetse fly glossina morsitans morsitans, a major vector transmitting nagana in livestock. real-time quantitative reverse transcription pcr showed that three o ...201122074189
transfer of inoculum of metarhizium anisopliae between adult glossina morsitans morsitans and effects of fungal infection on blood feeding and mating behaviors.the transfer of conidia of metarhizium anisopliae between tsetse flies glossina morsitans and the effects of fungal inoculation on mating and blood meal feeding behaviors were investigated in the laboratory. male or female flies were inoculated with fungal conidia ("donors") and allowed to pair with fungus-free mate of opposite sex ("recipients") at 1-day-interval up to three mates. fungus-treated male or female "donor" flies as well as their mates "recipients" died from fungal infection. howeve ...201223687485
towards an early warning system for rhodesian sleeping sickness in savannah areas: man-like traps for tsetse flies.in the savannahs of east and southern africa, tsetse flies (glossina spp.) transmit trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense which causes rhodesian sleeping sickness, the zoonotic form of human african trypanosomiasis. the flies feed mainly on wild and domestic animals and are usually repelled by humans. however, this innate aversion to humans can be undermined by environmental stresses on tsetse populations, so increasing disease risk. to monitor changes in risk, we need traps designed specifically to qu ...201223301107
insight into the transmission biology and species-specific functional capabilities of tsetse (diptera: glossinidae) obligate symbiont wigglesworthia.ancient endosymbionts have been associated with extreme genome structural stability with little differentiation in gene inventory between sister species. tsetse flies (diptera: glossinidae) harbor an obligate endosymbiont, wigglesworthia, which has coevolved with the glossina radiation. we report on the ~720-kb wigglesworthia genome and its associated plasmid from glossina morsitans morsitans and compare them to those of the symbiont from glossina brevipalpis. while there was overall high synten ...201222334516
tsetse-wolbachia symbiosis: comes of age and has great potential for pest and disease control.tsetse flies (diptera: glossinidae) are the sole vectors of african trypanosomes, the causative agent of sleeping sickness in human and nagana in animals. like most eukaryotic organisms, glossina species have established symbiotic associations with bacteria. three main symbiotic bacteria have been found in tsetse flies: wigglesworthia glossinidia, an obligate symbiotic bacterium, the secondary endosymbiont sodalis glossinidius and the reproductive symbiont wolbachia pipientis. in the present rev ...201222835476
obligate symbionts activate immune system development in the tsetse fly.many insects rely on the presence of symbiotic bacteria for proper immune system function. however, the molecular mechanisms that underlie this phenomenon are poorly understood. adult tsetse flies (glossina spp.) house three symbiotic bacteria that are vertically transmitted from mother to offspring during this insect's unique viviparous mode of reproduction. larval tsetse that undergo intrauterine development in the absence of their obligate mutualist, wigglesworthia, exhibit a compromised immu ...201222368278
detection and characterization of wolbachia infections in laboratory and natural populations of different species of tsetse flies (genus glossina).wolbachia is a genus of endosymbiotic α-proteobacteria infecting a wide range of arthropods and filarial nematodes. wolbachia is able to induce reproductive abnormalities such as cytoplasmic incompatibility (ci), thelytokous parthenogenesis, feminization and male killing, thus affecting biology, ecology and evolution of its hosts. the bacterial group has prompted research regarding its potential for the control of agricultural and medical disease vectors, including glossina spp., which transmits ...201222376025
global wolbachia prevalence, titer fluctuations and their potential of causing cytoplasmic incompatibilities in tsetse flies and hybrids of glossina morsitans subgroup species.we demonstrate the high applicability of a novel vntr-based (variable-number-tandem-repeat) molecular screening tool for fingerprinting wolbachia-infections in tsetse flies. the vntr-141 locus provides reliable and concise differentiation between wolbachia strains deriving from glossina morsitans morsitans, glossina morsitans centralis, and glossina brevipalpis. moreover, we show that certain wolbachia-infections in glossina spp. are capable of escaping standard pcr screening methods by 'hiding' ...201222516306
new rickettsia sp. in tsetse flies from senegal.tsetse flies are blood-sucking insects transmitting african trypanosomiasis. they are known to harbor also three intracellular bacteria that play important role in their lifecycle: wigglesworthia glossinidia, sodalis glossinidius and wolbachia sp. we have studied 78 glossina morsitans submorsitans collected in senegal. in all studied flies we amplified genes of bacterium phylogenetically close to obligate intracellular pathogen rickettsia felis, the agent of spotted fever in humans. we also visu ...201222277830
map kinase kinase 1 (mkk1) is essential for transmission of trypanosoma brucei by glossina morsitans.map kinase kinase 1 (mkk1) is encoded by a single copy gene in trypanosoma brucei. it has been shown recently that mkk1 is not essential for bloodstream forms [14]. to investigate the requirement for mkk1 in other life-cycle stages we generated null mutants in procyclic forms of a fly-transmissible strain. these grew normally in culture and were able to establish midgut infections in tsetse at normal rates and intensities, but were incapable of colonising the salivary glands. transformation of n ...201222985893
the influence of sex and fly species on the development of trypanosomes in tsetse flies.unlike other dipteran disease vectors, tsetse flies of both sexes feed on blood and transmit pathogenic african trypanosomes. during transmission, trypanosoma brucei undergoes a complex cycle of proliferation and development inside the tsetse vector, culminating in production of infective forms in the saliva. the insect manifests robust immune defences throughout the alimentary tract, which eliminate many trypanosome infections. previous work has shown that fly sex influences susceptibility to t ...201222348165
where, when and why do tsetse contact humans? answers from studies in a national park of zimbabwe.sleeping sickness, also called human african trypanosomiasis, is transmitted by the tsetse, a blood-sucking fly confined to sub-saharan africa. the form of the disease in west and central africa is carried mainly by species of tsetse that inhabit riverine woodland and feed avidly on humans. in contrast, the vectors for the east and southern african form of the disease are usually savannah species that feed mostly on wild and domestic animals and bite humans infrequently, mainly because the odour ...201222953013
VectorBase: improvements to a bioinformatics resource for invertebrate vector genomics.VectorBase (http://www.vectorbase.org) is a NIAID-supported bioinformatics resource for invertebrate vectors of human pathogens. It hosts data for nine genomes: mosquitoes (three Anopheles gambiae genomes, Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus), tick (Ixodes scapularis), body louse (Pediculus humanus), kissing bug (Rhodnius prolixus) and tsetse fly (Glossina morsitans). Hosted data range from genomic features and expression data to population genetics and ontologies. We describe improvements ...201222135296
a neglected aspect of the epidemiology of sleeping sickness: the propensity of the tsetse fly vector to enter houses.when taking a bloodmeal from humans, tsetse flies can transmit the trypanosomes responsible for sleeping sickness, or human african trypanosomiasis. while it is commonly assumed that humans must enter the normal woodland habitat of the tsetse in order to have much chance of contacting the flies, recent studies suggested that important contact can occur due to tsetse entering buildings. hence, we need to know more about tsetse in buildings, and to understand why, when and how they enter such plac ...201323469309
expression and characterization of cathepsin b from tsetse (glossina morsitans morsitans).digestive enzymes in tsetse fly midgut are thought to modulate the development of african trypanosome which is a causative agent of trypanosomosis in human and animal. cathepsin b is induced after the first blood meal ingestion and being higher in trypanosome infected flies. a dna fragment encoding pro-cathepsin b (930 bp) (accession no. af329480_1) was cloned and expressed in e. coli and p. pastoris protein expression systems. an active recombinant cathepsin b (rgmcathb) produced by p. pastoris ...201324404748
exposure of insect cells to ionising radiation in vivo induces persistent phosphorylation of a h2ax homologue (h2avb).the response of eukaryotic cells to ionising radiation (ir)-induced double-strand dna breaks is highly conserved and involves a dna repair mechanism characterised by the early phosphorylation of histone protein h2ax (producing the active form γh2ax). although the expression of an induced γh2ax variant has been detected in drosophila melanogaster, the expression and radiation response of a γh2ax homologue has not been reported in economically important fruit flies. we use bactrocera tryoni (dipte ...201323793612
structural characterization of the internal transcribed spacer 2 (its2) of the ribosomal dna (rdna) cluster in calyptratae (diptera: schizophora) and its implications for molecular phylogenetic analyses.the internal transcribed spacer 2 (its2) of the eukaryotic ribosomal dna (rdna) cluster plays an essential role in processing of the ribosomal rna, which is primarily accomplished by the secondary structures acquired by the molecule after transcription. two possible structural conformation models have been proposed for the its2 region, the "ring model" and the "hairpin model," and the former has been widely used in many molecular phylogenetic analyses incorporating structural information availab ...201323420176
serological responses and biomarker evaluation in mice and pigs exposed to tsetse fly bites.tsetse flies are obligate blood-feeding insects that transmit african trypanosomes responsible for human sleeping sickness and nagana in livestock. the tsetse salivary proteome contains a highly immunogenic family of the endonuclease-like tsal proteins. in this study, a recombinant version of tsal1 (rtsal1) was evaluated in an indirect elisa to quantify the contact with total glossina morsitans morsitans saliva, and thus the tsetse fly bite exposure.201424853371
the homeodomain protein ladybird late regulates synthesis of milk proteins during pregnancy in the tsetse fly (glossina morsitans).regulation of tissue and development specific gene expression patterns underlies the functional specialization of organs in multi-cellular organisms. in the viviparous tsetse fly (glossina), the female accessory gland is specialized to generate nutrients in the form of a milk-like secretion to support growth of intrauterine larva. multiple milk protein genes are expressed specifically in the female accessory gland and are tightly linked with larval development. disruption of milk protein synthes ...201424763082
evolution and structural analyses of glossina morsitans (diptera; glossinidae) tetraspanins.tetraspanins are important conserved integral membrane proteins expressed in many organisms. although there is limited knowledge about the full repertoire, evolution and structural characteristics of individual members in various organisms, data obtained so far show that tetraspanins play major roles in membrane biology, visual processing, memory, olfactory signal processing, and mechanosensory antennal inputs. thus, these proteins are potential targets for control of insect pests. here, we repo ...201426462947
odorant and gustatory receptors in the tsetse fly glossina morsitans morsitans.tsetse flies use olfactory and gustatory responses, through odorant and gustatory receptors (ors and grs), to interact with their environment. glossina morsitans morsitans genome ors and grs were annotated using homologs of these genes in drosophila melanogaster and an ab initio approach based on or and gr specific motifs in g. m. morsitans gene models coupled to gene ontology (go). phylogenetic relationships among the ors or grs and the homologs were determined using maximum likelihood estimate ...201424763191
bovine trypanosomosis and its fly vectors in three selected settlement areas of hawa-gelan district, western ethiopia.a cross-sectional study aimed at investigating the species diversity of fly vectors and estimating the prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis was carried out from october 2009 to may 2010 in selected settlement areas of the hawa-gelan district in the western wollega zone of ethiopia. standard methods of sampling and identification were employed for both entomological and parasitological examination. three species of the genus glossina (glossina pallidipes, glossina morsitans submorsitans and glossi ...201425686018
sodalis glossinidius prevalence and trypanosome presence in tsetse from luambe national park, zambia.tsetse flies are the biological vectors of african trypanosomes, the causative agents of sleeping sickness in humans and nagana in animals. the tsetse endosymbiont sodalis glossinidius has been suggested to play a role in tsetse susceptibility to infection. here we investigate the prevalence of african trypanosomes within tsetse from the luambe national park, zambia and if there is an association between s. glossinidius and presence of trypanosomes within the tsetse examined.201425138709
midgut expression of immune-related genes in glossina palpalis gambiensis challenged with trypanosoma brucei gambiense.tsetse flies from the subspecies glossina morsitans morsitans and glossina palpalis gambiensis, respectively, transmit trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense and trypanosoma brucei gambiense. the former causes the acute form of sleeping sickness, and the latter provokes the chronic form. although several articles have reported g. m. morsitans gene expression following trypanosome infection, no comparable investigation has been performed for g. p. gambiensis. this report presents results on the different ...201425426112
insights into the trypanosome-host interactions revealed through transcriptomic analysis of parasitized tsetse fly salivary glands.the agents of sleeping sickness disease, trypanosoma brucei complex parasites, are transmitted to mammalian hosts through the bite of an infected tsetse. information on tsetse-trypanosome interactions in the salivary gland (sg) tissue, and on mammalian infective metacyclic (mc) parasites present in the sg, is sparse. we performed rna-seq analyses from uninfected and t. b. brucei infected sgs of glossina morsitans morsitans. comparison of the sg transcriptomes to a whole body fly transcriptome re ...201424763140
delivery of a functional anti-trypanosome nanobody in different tsetse fly tissues via a bacterial symbiont, sodalis glossinidius.sodalis glossinidius, a vertically transmitted microbial symbiont of the tsetse fly, is currently considered as a potential delivery system for anti-trypanosomal components that reduce or eliminate the capability of the tsetse fly host to transmit parasitic trypanosomes, an approach also known as paratransgenesis. an essential step in developing paratransgenic tsetse is the stable colonization of adult flies and their progeny with recombinant sodalis bacteria, expressing trypanocidal effector mo ...201425376234
chemosensory receptors in tsetse flies provide link between chemical and behavioural ecology.tsetse flies survive in a variety of environments across tropical africa, often rising to large numbers, despite their low birth rate of one offspring every seven to nine days. they use olfactory receptors to process chemical signals in their environments to find food, escape from predators, and locate suitable larviposition sites. we discuss the identification of odorant and gustatory receptors in glossina morsitans morsitans and the role genomics could play in management of nuisance insects.201425017128
aquaporins are critical for provision of water during lactation and intrauterine progeny hydration to maintain tsetse fly reproductive success.tsetse flies undergo drastic fluctuations in their water content throughout their adult life history due to events such as blood feeding, dehydration and lactation, an essential feature of the viviparous reproductive biology of tsetse. aquaporins (aqps) are transmembrane proteins that allow water and other solutes to permeate through cellular membranes. here we identify tsetse aquaporin (aqp) genes, examine their expression patterns under different physiological conditions (blood feeding, lactat ...201424762803
an investigation into the protein composition of the teneral glossina morsitans morsitans peritrophic matrix.tsetse flies serve as biological vectors for several species of african trypanosomes. in order to survive, proliferate and establish a midgut infection, trypanosomes must cross the tsetse fly peritrophic matrix (pm), which is an acellular gut lining surrounding the blood meal. crossing of this multi-layered structure occurs at least twice during parasite migration and development, but the mechanism of how trypanosomes do so is not understood. in order to better comprehend the molecular events su ...201424763256
presence of extensive wolbachia symbiont insertions discovered in the genome of its host glossina morsitans morsitans.tsetse flies (glossina spp.) are the cyclical vectors of trypanosoma spp., which are unicellular parasites responsible for multiple diseases, including nagana in livestock and sleeping sickness in humans in africa. glossina species, including glossina morsitans morsitans (gmm), for which the whole genome sequence (wgs) is now available, have established symbiotic associations with three endosymbionts: wigglesworthia glossinidia, sodalis glossinidius and wolbachia pipientis (wolbachia). the prese ...201424763283
analysis of multiple tsetse fly populations in uganda reveals limited diversity and species-specific gut microbiota.the invertebrate microbiome contributes to multiple aspects of host physiology, including nutrient supplementation and immune maturation processes. we identified and compared gut microbial abundance and diversity in natural tsetse flies from uganda using five genetically distinct populations of glossina fuscipes fuscipes and multiple tsetse species (glossina morsitans morsitans, g. f. fuscipes, and glossina pallidipes) that occur in sympatry in one location. we used multiple approaches, includin ...201424814785
description of a nanobody-based competitive immunoassay to detect tsetse fly exposure.tsetse flies are the main vectors of human and animal african trypanosomes. the tsal proteins in tsetse fly saliva were previously identified as suitable biomarkers of bite exposure. a new competitive assay was conceived based on nanobody (nb) technology to ameliorate the detection of anti-tsal antibodies in mammalian hosts.201525658871
dopamine receptor antagonists as new mode-of-action insecticide leads for control of aedes and culex mosquito vectors.new mode-of-action insecticides are sought to provide continued control of pesticide resistant arthropod vectors of neglected tropical diseases (ntds). we previously identified antagonists of the aadop2 d1-like dopamine receptor (dar) from the yellow fever mosquito, aedes aegypti, with toxicity to ae. aegypti larvae as leads for novel insecticides. to extend dar-based insecticide discovery, we evaluated the molecular and pharmacological characteristics of an orthologous dar target, cqdop2, from ...201525793586
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