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a glycosylphosphatidylinositol-based treatment alleviates trypanosomiasis-associated immunopathology.the gpi-anchored trypanosome variant surface glycoprotein (vsg) triggers macrophages to produce tnf, involved in trypanosomiasis-associated inflammation and the clinical manifestation of sleeping sickness. aiming at inhibiting immunopathology during experimental trypanosoma brucei infections, a vsg-derived gpi-based treatment approach was developed. to achieve this, mice were exposed to the gpi before an infectious trypanosome challenge. this gpi-based strategy resulted in a significant prolonge ...200717785839
critical thermal limits depend on methodological context.a full-factorial study of the effects of rates of temperature change and start temperatures was undertaken for both upper and lower critical thermal limits (ctls) using the tsetse fly, glossina pallidipes. results show that rates of temperature change and start temperatures have highly significant effects on ctls, although the duration of the experiment also has a major effect. contrary to a widely held expectation, slower rates of temperature change (i.e. longer experimental duration) resulted ...200717878142
age prevalence of trypanosomal infections in female glossina morsitans morsitans (diptera: glossinidae) on the plateau area of eastern zambia.trypanosomal infections in female glossina morsitans morsitans were investigated in an area in the eastern province of zambia between 1992 and 1994. a total of 4416 flies were captured, aged using the ovarian ageing method and screened for trypanosomal infections in both the mouthparts, salivary glands and the midgut. congolense-type infections were identified in 4.8% of the flies. vivax-type and immature infections were identified in 1.8% and 6.8% of the flies, respectively. the prevalence of c ...200717933364
less is more: restricted application of insecticide to cattle to improve the cost and efficacy of tsetse control.studies were carried out in zimbabwe of the responses of tsetse to cattle treated with deltamethrin applied to the parts of the body where most tsetse were shown to land. large proportions of glossina pallidipes austen (diptera: glossinidae) landed on the belly ( approximately 25%) and legs ( approximately 70%), particularly the front legs ( approximately 50%). substantial proportions of glossina morsitans morsitans westwood landed on the legs ( approximately 50%) and belly (25%), with the remai ...200717373947
evaluation of the cost-effectiveness of pyramidal, modified pyramidal and monoscreen traps for the control of the tsetse fly, glossina fuscipes fuscipes, in uganda.several trap designs have been used for sampling and control of the tsetse fly, glossina fuscipes fuscipes, newstead (diptera: glossinidae) based on preferences of individual researchers and program managers with little understanding of the comparative efficiency and cost-effectiveness of trap designs. this study was carried out to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of four commonly used trap designs: monoscreen, modified pyramidal and pyramidal, relative to the standard biconical trap. the study w ...200720345292
trypanosoma brucei brucei induces alteration in the head proteome of the tsetse fly vector glossina palpalis gambiensis.parasitic manipulations of host behaviour are known from a wide range of host-parasite associations. however, the understanding of these phenomena is far from complete and detailed investigation of their proximate causes is needed. many studies report behavioural modifications, such as altered feeding rates in tsetse fly (glossina) infected with the mature transmissible stage (i.e. metacyclic) of the trypanosomes. here, bidimensional (2d) gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry were employed t ...200718092995
patterns of genetic diversity and differentiation in the tsetse fly glossina morsitans morsitans westwood populations in east and southern africa.genetic diversity and differentiation within and among nine g. morsitans morsitans populations from east and southern africa was assessed by examining variation at seven microsatellite loci and a mitochondrial locus, cytochrome oxidase (coi). mean coi diversity within populations was 0.63+/-0.33 and 0.81 taken over all populations. diversities averaged over microsatellite loci were high (mean number of alleles/locus>or=7.4; mean he>or=65%) in all populations. diversities averaged across populati ...200716897444
the comparative role of cattle, goats and pigs in the epidemiology of livestock trypanosomiasis on the plateau of eastern zambia.to determine and compare the prevalence of trypanosome infections in different livestock species (cattle, pigs and goats) in areas where game animals are scarce and livestock constitute the main food source of tsetse, a survey was conducted on the plateau of the eastern province of zambia in katete and petauke districts where glossina morsitans morsitans is the only tsetse species present. blood was collected from a total of 734 cattle, 333 goats and 324 pigs originating from 59 villages in both ...200717493757
dynamics of infection and competition between two strains of trypanosoma brucei brucei in the tsetse fly observed using fluorescent markers.genetic exchange occurs between trypanosoma brucei strains during the complex developmental cycle in the tsetse vector, probably within the salivary glands. successful mating will depend on the dynamics of co-infection with multiple strains, particularly if intraspecific competition occurs. we have previously used t. brucei expressing green fluorescent protein to study parasite development in the vector, enabling even one trypanosome to be visualized. here we have used two different trypanosome ...200717553128
the tsetse fly glossina palpalis palpalis is composed of several genetically differentiated small populations in the sleeping sickness focus of bonon, côte d'ivoire.glossina palpalis is the main vector of human african trypanosomosis (hat, or sleeping sickness) that dramatically affects human health in sub-saharan africa. because of the implications of genetic structuring of vector populations for the design and efficacy of control campaigns, g. palpalis palpalis in the most active focus of sleeping sickness in côte d'ivoire was studied to determine whether this taxon is genetically structured. high and statistically significant levels of within population ...200716890499
depletion of the thioredoxin homologue tryparedoxin impairs antioxidative defence in african trypanosomes.in trypanosomes, the thioredoxin-type protein txn (tryparedoxin) is a multi-purpose oxidoreductase that is involved in the detoxification of hydroperoxides, the synthesis of dna precursors and the replication of the kinetoplastid dna. african trypanosomes possess two isoforms that are localized in the cytosol and in the mitochondrion of the parasites respectively. here we report on the biological significance of the ctxn (cytosolic txn) of trypanosoma brucei for hydroperoxide detoxification. dep ...200717040206
tsetse control in cattle from pyrethroid footbaths.in burkina faso, we assessed the efficacy of treating cattle with a footbath containing aqueous formulations of pyrethroids to control two tsetse-fly species, glossina tachinoides westwood, 1850 (diptera, glossinidae) and glossina palpalis gambiensis vanderplank 1949. legs were the most targeted parts of the body for tsetse-fly blood meals: 81% (95% ci: 73, 89) for g. tachinoides and 88% (81, 95) for g. palpalis. the in-stable efficacy of footbath treatments was compared with manual full sprayin ...200717126431
gis and multiple-criteria evaluation for the optimisation of tsetse fly eradication programmes.tsetse flies are the vectors of trypanosomes, the causal agent of trypanosomiasis, a widespread disease of livestock and people in africa. control of tsetse may open vast areas of land to livestock-keeping, with the associated benefits of developing mixed crop-livestock production systems. however, as well as possible positive impacts there are also risks: bush clearing would accelerate and cattle numbers would rise, leading to a reduction of vegetation cover, and an increase in runoff and erosi ...200717058018
dynamics of reductive genome evolution in mitochondria and obligate intracellular microbes.reductive evolution in mitochondria and obligate intracellular microbes has led to a significant reduction in their genome size and guanine plus cytosine content (gc). we show that genome shrinkage during reductive evolution in prokaryotes follows an exponential decay pattern and provide a method to predict the extent of this decay on an evolutionary timescale. we validated predictions by comparison with estimated extents of genome reduction known to have occurred in mitochondria and buchnera ap ...200717108184
molecular aspects of transferrin expression in the tsetse fly (glossina morsitans morsitans).iron is an essential element for metabolic processes intrinsic to life, and yet the properties that make iron a necessity also make it potentially deleterious. to avoid harm, iron homeostasis is achieved via proteins involved in transport and storage of iron, one of which is transferrin. we describe the temporal and spatial aspects of transferrin (gmmtsf) expression and its transcriptional regulation in tsetse where both the male and female are strictly hematophagous. using northern, western and ...200717498733
replication of flock house virus in three genera of medically important insects.flock house virus (family nodaviridae, genus alphanodavirus, fhv) was originally isolated from grass grubs costelytra zealandica (white) (coleoptera: scarabaeidae) in new zealand and belongs to a family of divided genome, plus-sense rna insect viruses. fhv replicates in insects, a nematode, plants, and yeast. we previously reported replication of fhv in four genera of mosquitoes and expression of green fluorescent protein in aedes aegypti (l.) produced by an fhv-based vector. we report here that ...200717294927
factors affecting trypanosome maturation in tsetse flies.trypanosoma brucei brucei infections which establish successfully in the tsetse fly midgut may subsequently mature into mammalian infective trypanosomes in the salivary glands. this maturation is not automatic and the control of these events is complex. utilising direct in vivo feeding experiments, we report maturation of t. b. brucei infections in tsetse is regulated by antioxidants as well as environmental stimuli. dissection of the maturation process provides opportunities to develop transmis ...200717318257
characterization of the role of the receptors pex5 and pex7 in the import of proteins into glycosomes of trypanosoma brucei.peroxins 5 and 7 are receptors for protein import into the peroxisomal matrix. we studied the involvement of these peroxins in the biogenesis of glycosomes in the protozoan parasite trypanosoma brucei. glycosomes are peroxisome-like organelles in which a major part of the glycolytic pathway is sequestered. we here report the characterization of the t. brucei homologue of pex7 and provide several data strongly suggesting that it can bind to pex5. depletion of pex5 or pex7 by rna interference had ...200717320990
turnover of glycosomes during life-cycle differentiation of trypanosoma brucei.protozoan kinetoplastida, a group that comprises the pathogenic trypanosoma brucei, compartmentalize several metabolic systems such as the major part of the glycolytic pathway, in multiple peroxisome-like organelles, designated glycosomes. trypanosomes have a complicated life cycle, involving two major, distinct stages living in the mammalian bloodstream and several stages inhabiting different body parts of the tsetse fly. previous studies on non-differentiating trypanosomes have shown that the ...200818365344
an insect symbiosis is influenced by bacterium-specific polymorphisms in outer-membrane protein a.beneficial bacterial symbioses are ubiquitous in nature. however, the functional and molecular basis of host tolerance to resident symbiotic microbes, in contrast to resistance to closely related bacteria that are recognized as foreign, remain largely unknown. we used the tsetse fly (glossina morsitans), which depends on symbiotic flora for fecundity and has limited exposure to foreign microbes, to investigate the tolerance phenomenon exhibited during symbiosis. we examined the potential role of ...200818815366
trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense transmitted by a single tsetse fly bite in vervet monkeys as a model of human african trypanosomiasis.we have investigated the pathogenicity of tsetse (glossina pallidipes)-transmitted cloned strains of trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense in vervet monkeys. tsetse flies were confirmed to have mature trypanosome infections by xenodiagnosis, after which nine monkeys were infected via the bite of a single infected fly. chancres developed in five of the nine (55.6%) monkeys within 4 to 8 days post infection (dpi). all nine individuals were successfully infected, with a median pre-patent period of 4 (rang ...200818846231
repellent properties of delta-octalactone against the tsetse fly, glossina morsitans morsitans.delta-octalactone, produced by several bovidae, has been suggested as a potential repellant of tsetse fly attack. racemic delta-octalactone was synthesized via an abbreviated route. the product was assayed against 3-day old starved teneral female tsetse flies, glossina morsitans morsitans wiedemann (diptera: glossinidae), in a choice wind tunnel and found to be a potent tsetse repellent at doses >or=0.05 mg in 200 microl of paraffin oil (0.05 >p >0.01).200820298116
investigations on the transmissibility of trypanosoma congolense by the tsetse fly glossina morsitans morsitans during its development in a mammalian host.experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of the developmental stage of a monomorphic t. congolense il1180 strain, in a vertebrate host, on its transmissibility by the tsetse fly glossina morsitans morsitans westwood (diptera: glossinidae). batches of 160 male teneral tsetse flies were given a single bloodmeal on mice infected with this t. congolense strain 4, 5, 6, 7 or 10 days post-infection. the proportion of infected flies in each of those batches showed that the stage of developm ...200818485324
adaptations of trypanosoma brucei to gradual loss of kinetoplast dna: trypanosoma equiperdum and trypanosoma evansi are petite mutants of t. brucei.trypanosoma brucei is a kinetoplastid flagellate, the agent of human sleeping sickness and ruminant nagana in africa. kinetoplastid flagellates contain their eponym kinetoplast dna (kdna), consisting of two types of interlocked circular dna molecules: scores of maxicircles and thousands of minicircles. maxicircles have typical mitochondrial genes, most of which are translatable only after rna editing. minicircles encode guide rnas, required for decrypting the maxicircle transcripts. the life cyc ...200818245376
n-acetyl d-glucosamine stimulates growth in procyclic forms of trypanosoma brucei by inducing a metabolic shift.summarythe lectin-inhibitory sugars d-glucosamine (glcn) and n-acetyl d-glucosamine (glcnac) are known to enhance susceptibility of the tsetse fly vector to infection with trypanosoma brucei. glcnac also stimulates trypanosome growth in vitro in the absence of any factor derived from the fly. here, we show that glcnac cannot be used as a direct energy source, nor is it internalized by trypanosomes. it does, however, inhibit glucose uptake by binding to the hexose transporter. deprivation of d-gl ...200818371239
seasonal distribution and abundance of tsetse flies (glossina spp.) in the faro and deo division of the adamaoua plateau in cameroon.ten years after the large-scale tsetse control campaigns in the important cattle rearing areas of the faro and deo division of the adamaoua plateau in cameroon, the seasonal distribution and abundance of tsetse flies (glossina spp.) were determined. during a period of 12 consecutive months (january-december 2005), the tsetse population was monitored along four trap transects consisting of a total of 32 traps and two flyround transects traversing the study area, which comprised the tsetse-infeste ...200818380651
a novel, high-throughput technique for species identification reveals a new species of tsetse-transmitted trypanosome related to the trypanosoma brucei subgenus, trypanozoon.we describe a novel method of species identification, fluorescent fragment length barcoding, based on length variation in regions of the 18s and 28salpha ribosomal dna. fluorescently tagged primers, designed in conserved regions of the 18s and 28salpha ribosomal dna, were used to amplify fragments with inter-species size variation, and sizes determined accurately using an automated dna sequencer. by using multiple regions and different fluorochromes, a barcode unique to each species was generate ...200817964224
the direct route: a simplified pathway for protein import into the mitochondrion of trypanosomes.trypanosoma brucei is a unicellular eukaryote that causes the deadly human african trypanosomiasis ('sleeping sickness') in humans. the parasite has a complicated lifestyle, it developmentally changes aspects of its mitochondrial function as it alternates from forms in the tsetse fly to forms adapted for life in the human bloodstream. the single mitochondrion found in each trypanosome has to be duplicated precisely in each round of the cell cycle in order for parasites to replicate, and this dep ...200818068984
health management of horses under high challenge from trypanosomes: a case study from serengeti, tanzania.horses kept for recreational riding purposes by a wildlife tourism company in a heavily tsetse fly-infested region of north-western tanzania were systematically monitored to investigate the occurrence, presentation and management of tsetse-transmitted trypanosomosis. during a 23-month period, 18 clinical cases were diagnosed (trypanosoma brucei or trypanosoma congolense were identified) and treated and trypanosomes were implicated of involvement in four deaths. pyrexia consistently aided early d ...200818450381
the use of yellow fluorescent hybrids to indicate mating in trypanosoma brucei.abstract:200818298832
differential expression of fat body genes in glossina morsitans morsitans following infection with trypanosoma brucei brucei.to determine which fat body genes were differentially expressed following infection of glossina morsitans morsitans with trypanosoma brucei brucei we generated four suppression subtractive hybridisation (ssh) libraries. we obtained 52 unique gene fragments (ssh clones) of which 30 had a known orthologue at e-05 or less. overall the characteristics of the orthologues suggest: (i) that trypanosome infection has a considerable effect on metabolism in the tsetse fly; (ii) that self-cured flies are m ...200817697681
interactions between trypanosomes and tsetse flies.african trypanosomes are insect-borne parasites that cause sleeping sickness in humans and nagana in domesticated animals. successful transmission is the outcome of crosstalk between the trypanosome and its insect vector, the tsetse fly. this enables the parasite to undergo successive rounds of differentiation, proliferation and migration, culminating in the infection of a new mammalian host. several stage- and species-specific parasite surface molecules have been identified and there are new in ...200818621142
analysis of milk gland structure and function in glossina morsitans: milk protein production, symbiont populations and fecundity.a key process in the tsetse reproductive cycle is the transfer of essential nutrients and bacterial symbionts from mother to intrauterine offspring. the tissue mediating this transfer is the milk gland. this work focuses upon the localization and function of two milk proteins (milk gland protein (gmmmgp) and transferrin (gmmtsf)) and the tsetse endosymbionts (sodalis and wigglesworthia), in the context of milk gland physiology. fluorescent in situ hybridization (fish) and immunohistochemical ana ...200818647605
complete rpob gene sequencing as a suitable supplement to dna-dna hybridization for bacterial species and genus delineation.dna-dna hybridization (ddh), the gold standard for bacterial species delineation, is a laborious method and the alternative, average nucleotide identity (ani), a genomic sequence-derived parameter, is not applicable to non-sequenced species. a universal cut-off value to delineate bacterial species does not exist, yet a ddh value <70 % and ani <95+/-0.5 % have proved useful in selected examples. we herein compare published values for ddh and ani with sequence similarity of rpob gene sequences ret ...200818676461
the role of b-cells and igm antibodies in parasitemia, anemia, and vsg switching in trypanosoma brucei-infected mice.african trypanosomes are extracellular parasitic protozoa, predominantly transmitted by the bite of the haematophagic tsetse fly. the main mechanism considered to mediate parasitemia control in a mammalian host is the continuous interaction between antibodies and the parasite surface, covered by variant-specific surface glycoproteins. early experimental studies have shown that b-cell responses can be strongly protective but are limited by their vsg-specificity. we have used b-cell (micromt) and ...200818688274
the obligate mutualist wigglesworthia glossinidia influences reproduction, digestion, and immunity processes of its host, the tsetse fly.tsetse flies (diptera: glossinidae) are vectors for trypanosome parasites, the agents of the deadly sleeping sickness disease in africa. tsetse also harbor two maternally transmitted enteric mutualist endosymbionts: the primary intracellular obligate wigglesworthia glossinidia and the secondary commensal sodalis glossinidius. both endosymbionts are transmitted to the intrauterine progeny through the milk gland secretions of the viviparous female. we administered various antibiotics either contin ...200818689507
what happens when trypanosoma brucei leaves africa.julius lukes and co-workers evaluated the evolutionary origin of trypanosoma equiperdum and trypanosoma evansi, parasites that cause horse and camel diseases. although similar to t. brucei, the sleeping-sickness parasite, these trypanosomes do not cycle through the tsetse fly and have been able to spread beyond africa. transmission occurs sexually, or via blood-sucking flies or vampire bats. they concluded that these parasites, which resemble yeast petite mutants, are t. brucei sub-species, whic ...200818715829
the continuing problem of human african trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness).human african trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness, is a neglected disease, and it continues to pose a major threat to 60 million people in 36 countries in sub-saharan africa. transmitted by the bite of the tsetse fly, the disease is caused by protozoan parasites of the genus trypanosoma and comes in two types: east african human african trypanosomiasis caused by trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense and the west african form caused by trypanosoma brucei gambiense. there is an early or hemo ...200818756506
land cover and tsetse fly distributions in sub-saharan africa.this study aims to provide trypanosomiasis-affected countries with standardized datasets and methodologies for mapping the habitat of the tsetse fly (glossina spp., the disease vector) by customizing and integrating state-of-the-art land cover maps on different spatial scales. using a combination of inductive and deductive approaches, land cover and fly distribution maps are analysed in a geographic information system (gis) to estimate the suitability of different land cover units for the three ...200818785934
an alternative approach to detect trypanosoma in glossina (diptera, glossinidae) without dissection.determining if a tsetse fly is infected by trypanosomes and thus potentially able to transmit trypanosome-related human and animal diseases is an extremely laborious and time-consuming task to perform, especially under field conditions. in this study we tested a possible alternative approach that uses the entire insect vector for dna extraction and pcr analysis to detect and identify trypanosoma spp. in field collected tsetse flies.200819736390
thermal tolerance in a south-east african population of the tsetse fly glossina pallidipes (diptera, glossinidae): implications for forecasting climate change impacts.for tsetse (glossina spp.), the vectors of human and animal trypanosomiases, the physiological mechanisms linking variation in population dynamics with changing weather conditions have not been well established. here, we investigate high- and low-temperature tolerance in terms of activity limits and survival in a natural population of adult glossina pallidipes from eastern zambia. due to increased interest in chilling flies for handling and aerial dispersal in sterile insect technique control an ...200817889900
biostraticola tofi gen. nov., spec. nov., a novel member of the family enterobacteriaceae.bacterial strain bf36t, isolated from the biofilm of a tufa deposit in a hard water rivulet, was characterized by a polyphasic taxonomic approach. cells of these organisms were gram-negative, motile, nonpigmented, rod-shaped, non-endospore-forming, and facultatively anaerobic. cells, organized in loose consortia, were coated by a massive slime layer. phylogenetic analyses using 16s rrna gene sequences showed that strain bf36t was a member of the family enterobacteriaceae, class gammaproteobacter ...200818324435
the flagellum of trypanosoma brucei: new tricks from an old dog.african trypanosomes, i.e. trypanosoma brucei and related sub-species, are devastating human and animal pathogens that cause significant human mortality and limit sustained economic development in sub-saharan africa. t. brucei is a highly motile protozoan parasite and coordinated motility is central to both disease pathogenesis in the mammalian host and parasite development in the tsetse fly vector. therefore, understanding unique aspects of the t. brucei flagellum may uncover novel targets for ...200818472102
from ubombo to mkhuzi: disease, colonial science, and the control of nagana (livestock trypanosomosis) in zululand, south africa, c. 1894-1953.this article looks at the scientific studies and debates that surrounded the control of nagana (trypanosomosis in livestock) in zululand, south africa, from the late nineteenth century until the 1950s. by 1953 the disease appeared to be contained following the use of ddt to exterminate the tsetse fly that spread the infection from immune wildlife to susceptible livestock. it argues that south africa made an important contribution to western knowledge about trypanosomosis in terms of its etiology ...200818326887
characterization of the antimicrobial peptide attacin loci from glossina morsitans.the antimicrobial peptide attacin is an immune effector molecule that can inhibit the growth of gram-negative bacteria. in glossina morsitans morsitans, which serves as the sole vectors of african trypanosomes, attacins also play a role in trypanosome resistance, and in maintaining parasite numbers at homeostatic levels in infected individuals. we characterized the attacin encoding loci from a bacterial artificial chromosome (bac) library. the attacin genes are organized into three clusters. clu ...200818477243
infections with immunogenic trypanosomes reduce tsetse reproductive fitness: potential impact of different parasite strains on vector population structure.the parasite trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense and its insect vector glossina morsitans morsitans were used to evaluate the effect of parasite clearance (resistance) as well as the cost of midgut infections on tsetse host fitness. tsetse flies are viviparous and have a low reproductive capacity, giving birth to only 6-8 progeny during their lifetime. thus, small perturbations to their reproductive fitness can have a major impact on population densities. we measured the fecundity (number of larval p ...200818335067
detection of trypanosoma brucei in field-captured tsetse flies and identification of host species fed on by the infected flies.the prevalence of trypanosome infections in tsetse flies in the chiawa area of lower zambezi in zambia, with endemic trypanosomosis, was determined by a polymerase chain reaction (pcr) method that allowed the detection of trypanosome dna and determination of the type of animal host fed on by the tsetse fly glossina pallidipes, using tsetse-derived dna extracts as templates. ninety g. pallidipes (82 females and 8 males; 18.3%) of the 492 flies captured by baited biconical traps tested positive fo ...200818399780
simple tools for assembling and searching high-density picolitre pyrophosphate sequence data.abstract:200818423012
tsetse fly host preference from sleeping sickness foci in cameroon: epidemiological implications.to determine the tsetse fly host preferences in two sleeping sickness foci of southern cameroon, four entomological surveys (two in each focus) were carried out. for the whole study, 4929 tsetse flies were caught: 3933 (79.8%) glossina palpalis palpalis, 626 (12.7%) glossina pallicera pallicera, 276 (5.6%) glossina nigrofusca and 94 (1.9%) glossina caliginea. one hundred and thirty-eight blood meals were collected and the origin of 118 (85.5%) meals was successfully identified: 38.4% from man, 2 ...200817977803
polymorphic microsatellite markers for the tsetse fly glossina fuscipes fuscipes (diptera: glossinidae), a vector of human african trypanosomiasis.our understanding of glossina fuscipes fuscipes, a major vector of sleeping sickness, has been severely constrained by a lack of genetic markers for mapping and population genetic studies. here we present 10 newly developed microsatellite loci for this tsetse species. heterozygosity levels in moyo, an ugandan population, averaged 0.57, with only two loci showing very low heterozygosity. five loci carried more than six alleles. together with five recently published microsatellite loci, this bring ...200821586090
differential expression of a protease gene family in african trypanosomes.during their life cycle african trypanosomes must quickly adapt to the different environments of the tsetse fly midgut and the mammalian bloodstream by modulating expression of many of their genes. one group of these differentially expressed genes encodes different forms of a major surface protease. using a luciferase reporter gene transiently or permanently transfected into trypanosomes, we show here that the 3'-utrs of these protease genes are responsible for their differential expression. del ...200918848586
prolonged gene knockdown in the tsetse fly glossina by feeding double stranded rna.reverse genetic studies based on rna interference (rnai) have revolutionized analysis of gene function in most insects. however the necessity of injecting double stranded rna (dsrna) inevitably compromises many investigations particularly those on immunity. additionally, injection of tsetse flies often causes significant mortality. we demonstrate, at transcript and protein level, that delivering dsrna in the bloodmeal to glossina morsitans morsitans is as effective as injection in knockdown of t ...200919016913
trypanosoma brucei brucei: effects of ferrous iron and heme on ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase activity.trypanosoma brucei brucei is the causative agent of animal african trypanosomiasis, also called nagana. procyclic vector form resides in the midgut of the tsetse fly, which feeds exclusively on blood. hemoglobin digestion occurs in the midgut resulting in an intense release of free heme. in the present study we show that the magnesium-dependent ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase (e-ntpdase) activity of procyclic t. brucei brucei is inhibited by ferrous iron and heme. the inhibition ...200919027737
the epidemiology of trypanosomiasis in rumphi district, malawi: a ten year retrospective study.human african trypanosomiasis (hat) is caused by two species of the tsetse fly vectored protozoan hemoflagellates belonging to trypanosma brucei, namely t.b gambiense which predominates in western africa and follows a chronic disease course and t.b rhodensiense which is more prevalent in southern and eastern africa, malawi included, and follows a more acute and aggressive disease course. previous studies in the democratic republic of congo, angola, uganda and sudan have demonstrated that the pre ...200919780474
establishment of an in vitro transgene expression system in epimastigotes of trypanosoma congolense.trypanosoma congolense epimastigote forms (emfs) adhere to the tsetse fly proboscis, proliferate, and differentiate into animal-infective metacyclic forms (mcfs). this differentiation step, called metacyclogenesis, is indispensable for the cyclical transmission of the parasite. although an in vitro metacyclogenesis culture system was established several decades ago, few genetic tools have been utilized to investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying t. congolense metacyclogenesis. this study ...200919135170
differential trypanosome surface coat regulation by a ccch protein that co-associates with procyclin mrna cis-elements.the genome of trypanosoma brucei is unusual in being regulated almost entirely at the post-transcriptional level. in terms of regulation, the best-studied genes are procyclins, which encode a family of major surface gpi-anchored glycoproteins (ep1, ep2, ep3, gpeet) that show differential expression in the parasite's tsetse-fly vector. although procyclin mrna cis-regulatory sequences have provided the paradigm for post-transcriptional control in kinetoplastid parasites, trans-acting regulators of ...200919247446
experimental modifications imply a stimulatory function for male tsetse fly genitalia, supporting cryptic female choice theory.one of the most sweeping of all patterns in morphological evolution is that animal genitalia tend to diverge more rapidly than do other structures. abundant indirect evidence supports the cryptic female choice (cfc) explanation of this pattern, which supposes that male genitalia often function to court females during copulation; but direct experimental demonstrations of a stimulatory function have been lacking. in this study, we altered the form of two male genital structures that squeeze the fe ...200919467130
identification of a functional antigen5-related allergen in the saliva of a blood feeding insect, the tsetse fly.our previous screening of a glossina morsitans morsitans lamdagt11 salivary gland expression library with serum of a tsetse fly exposed rabbit identified a cdna encoding tsetse antigen5 (tag5, 28.9 kda), a homologue of antigen5 sting venom allergens. recombinant tag5 was produced in sf9 cells in order to assess its immunogenic properties in humans. plasma from a patient that previously exhibited anaphylactic reactions against tsetse fly bites contained circulating anti-tag5 and anti-saliva iges. ...200919507303
the population structure of glossina palpalis gambiensis from island and continental locations in coastal guinea.we undertook a population genetics analysis of the tsetse fly glossina palpalis gambiensis, a major vector of sleeping sickness in west africa, using microsatellite and mitochondrial dna markers. our aims were to estimate effective population size and the degree of isolation between coastal sites on the mainland of guinea and loos islands. the sampling locations encompassed dubréka, the area with the highest human african trypanosomosis (hat) prevalence in west africa, mangrove and savannah site ...200919290038
searching for novel cell cycle regulators in trypanosoma brucei with an rna interference screen.the protozoan parasite, trypanosoma brucei, is spread by the tsetse fly and causes human african trypanosomiasis. its cell cycle is complex and not fully understood at the molecular level. the t. brucei genome contains over 6000 protein coding genes with >50% having no predicted function. a small scale rna interference (rnai) screen was carried out in trypanosoma brucei to evaluate the prospects for identifying novel cycle regulators.200919309510
a surface transporter family conveys the trypanosome differentiation signal.microbial pathogens use environmental cues to trigger the developmental events needed to infect mammalian hosts or transmit to disease vectors. the parasites causing african sleeping sickness respond to citrate or cis-aconitate (cca) to initiate life-cycle development when transmitted to their tsetse fly vector. this requires hypersensitization of the parasites to cca by exposure to low temperature, conditions encountered after tsetse fly feeding at dusk or dawn. here we identify a carboxylate-t ...200919444208
nutritional stress of adult female tsetse flies (diptera: glossinidae) affects the susceptibility of their offspring to trypanosomal infections.the epidemiology of tsetse-transmitted trypanosomiasis depends, among other factors, on the proportion of infected flies in a tsetse population. a wide range of intrinsic and extrinsic factors seem to determine the ability of a tsetse fly to become infected and to transmit the parasite. in this paper, we investigated the effect of nutritional stress of reproducing female glossina morsitans morsitans on the susceptibility of their offspring to trypanosomal infections. adult female flies that were ...200919445895
olfactory and behavioural responses of tsetse flies, glossina spp., to rumen metabolites.herbivores provide tsetse flies with a blood meal, and both wild and domesticated ruminants dominate as hosts. as volatile metabolites from the rumen are regularly eructed with rumen gas, these products could serve tsetse flies during host searching. to test this, we first established that the odour of rumen fluid is attractive to hungry glossina pallidipes in a wind tunnel. we then made antennogram recordings from three tsetse species (g. pallidipes morsitans group, g. fuscipes palpalis group a ...200919626328
the impact of habitat fragmentation on tsetse abundance on the plateau of eastern zambia.tsetse-transmitted human or livestock trypanosomiasis is one of the major constraints to rural development in sub-saharan africa. the epidemiology of the disease is determined largely by tsetse fly density. a major factor, contributing to tsetse population density is the availability of suitable habitat. in large parts of africa, encroachment of people and their livestock resulted in a destruction and fragmentation of such suitable habitat. to determine the effect of habitat change on tsetse den ...200919523702
hytrosaviridae: a proposal for classification and nomenclature of a new insect virus family.salivary gland hypertrophy viruses (sghvs) have been identified from different dipteran species, such as the tsetse fly glossina pallidipes (gpsghv), the housefly musca domestica (mdsghv) and the narcissus bulbfly merodon equestris (mesghv). these viruses share the following characteristics: (i) they produce non-occluded, enveloped, rod-shaped virions that measure 500-1,000 nm in length and 50-100 nm in diameter; (ii) they possess a large circular double-stranded dna (dsdna) genome ranging in si ...200919458899
transcriptional profiling of cattle infected with trypanosoma congolense highlights gene expression signatures underlying trypanotolerance and trypanosusceptibility.african animal trypanosomiasis (aat) caused by tsetse fly-transmitted protozoa of the genus trypanosoma is a major constraint on livestock and agricultural production in africa and is among the top ten global cattle diseases impacting on the poor. here we show that a functional genomics approach can be used to identify temporal changes in host peripheral blood mononuclear cell (pbmc) gene expression due to disease progression. we also show that major gene expression differences exist between cat ...200919409086
have tsetse flies disappeared from brazzaville town?from 1980 to 1985, the zoological park of brazzaville was the only tsetse resting site located in downtown which supplied others temporary sites. the last trapping survey carried out in this area in 1987 showed that there were no more tsetse flies. knowing that areas free of tsetse used to be reinvaded many years later, we have carried out an entomological survey in the area with the aim to verify what has happened more than twenty years later; given that suitable environmental conditions for gl ...200921532712
[eco-distribution and trypanosoma infection of glossina palpalis palpalis in the banco forest of and its relics, abidjan (côte d'ivoire)].in order to implement an anti-vector programme in the suburb of abidjan (côte d'ivoire), investigations were conducted to assess the tsetse fly densities as well as infection with trypanosomes. catches were carried out during the rainy season and dry season with vavoua traps laid during four consecutive days in different sites (banco forest, abidjan zoological park, area of the university of abobo-adjamé). one species of tsetse fly (glossina polpalis palpalis) and two species of trypanosomes (tr ...200920092060
distribution and density of tsetse flies (glossinidae: diptera) at the game/people/livestock interface of the nkhotakota game reserve human sleeping sickness focus in malawi.in large parts sub-saharan africa, tsetse flies, the vectors of african human or animal trypanosomiasis, are, or will in the foreseeable future, be confined to protected areas such as game or national parks. challenge of people and livestock is likely to occur at the game/livestock/people interface of such infested areas. since tsetse control in protected areas is difficult, management of trypanosomiasis in people and/or livestock requires a good understanding of tsetse population dynamics along ...200919924484
maturation of a trypanosoma brucei infection to the infectious metacyclic stage is enhanced in nutritionally stressed tsetse flies.we report on the effect of tsetse fly starvation on the maturation of an established trypanosoma brucei brucei midgut infection, i.e., the development of procyclic infection into the infectious metacyclic parasites in the tsetse fly salivary glands. glossina morsitans morsitans flies were nutritionally stressed 10 d after the uptake of a t. b. brucei-infected bloodmeal by depriving these flies from feeding for seven consecutive days, whereas the control fly group (nonstarved group) continued to ...200919960695
tsetse and trypanosomosis in africa: the challenges, the opportunities.tsetse-fly and the disease it transmits, trypanosomosis, remain an enormous disease challenge in the 37 countries of sub-saharan africa where the impact continues to be manifest in disease burden, increased level of poverty and decreased agricultural productivity. the impact also extends over an estimated 10 million km2 (a third of the african continent) of land area, a third of which contains some well-watered part of the continent, thus denying humans and livestock of potentially rich arable a ...200919967926
population sizes and dispersal pattern of tsetse flies: rolling on the river?the west african trypanosomoses are mostly transmitted by riverine species of tsetse fly. in this study, we estimate the dispersal and population size of tsetse populations located along the mouhoun river in burkina faso where tsetse habitats are experiencing increasing fragmentation caused by human encroachment. dispersal estimated through direct (mark and recapture) and indirect (genetic isolation by distance) methods appeared consistent with one another. in these fragmented landscapes, tsetse ...200919457176
phenotypic plasticity of desiccation resistance in glossina puparia: are there ecotype constraints on acclimation responses?phenotypic plasticity allows organisms to cope with environmental variation and may aid in the evolution of novel traits. however, whether phenotypic plasticity is beneficial, or if acclimation responses might be constrained to particular ecotypes is generally poorly explored. here we test the beneficial acclimation hypothesis (bah) and its alternatives for desiccation resistance to atmospheric moisture in mesic- and xeric-adapted glossina species. highly significant interactions among acclimati ...200919522729
adaptations in the glucose metabolism of procyclic trypanosoma brucei isolates from tsetse flies and during differentiation of bloodstream forms.procyclic forms of trypanosoma brucei isolated from the midguts of infected tsetse flies, or freshly transformed from a strain that is close to field isolates, do not use a complete krebs cycle. furthermore, short stumpy bloodstream forms produce acetate and are apparently metabolically preadapted to adequate functioning in the tsetse fly.200919542311
optimum land cover products for use in a glossina-morsitans habitat model of kenya.tsetse flies are the primary vector for african trypanosomiasis, a disease that affects both humans and livestock across the continent of africa. in 1973 tsetse flies were estimated to inhabit 22% of kenya; by 1996 that number had risen to roughly 34%. efforts to control the disease were hampered by a lack of information and costs associated with the identification of infested areas. given changing spatial and demographic factors, a model that can predict suitable tsetse fly habitat based on lan ...200919563674
hearing in tsetse flies? morphology and mechanics of a putative auditory organ.tympanal hearing organs are widely used by insects to detect sound pressure. such ears are relatively uncommon in the order diptera, having only been reported in two families thus far. this study describes the general anatomical organization and experimentally examines the mechanical resonant properties of an unusual membranous structure situated on the ventral prothorax of the tsetse fly, glossina morsitans (diptera: glossinidae). anatomically, the prosternal membrane is backed by an air filled ...200918954491
the trypanosoma brucei flagellum: moving parasites in new directions.african trypanosomes are devastating human and animal pathogens. trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense and t. b. gambiense subspecies cause the fatal human disease known as african sleeping sickness. it is estimated that several hundred thousand new infections occur annually and the disease is fatal if untreated. t. brucei is transmitted by the tsetse fly and alternates between bloodstream-form and insect-form life cycle stages that are adapted to survive in the mammalian host and the insect vector, re ...200919575562
improving the cost-effectiveness of artificial visual baits for controlling the tsetse fly glossina fuscipes fuscipes.tsetse flies, which transmit sleeping sickness to humans and nagana to cattle, are commonly controlled by stationary artificial baits consisting of traps or insecticide-treated screens known as targets. in kenya the use of electrocuting sampling devices showed that the numbers of glossina fuscipes fuscipes (newstead) visiting a biconical trap were nearly double those visiting a black target of 100 cm x 100 cm. however, only 40% of the males and 21% of the females entered the trap, whereas 71% an ...200919582138
first isolation of enterobacter, enterococcus, and acinetobacter spp. as inhabitants of the tsetse fly (glossina palpalis palpalis) midgut.this paper reports the first evidence of the presence of bacteria, other than the three previously described as symbionts, wigglesworthia glossinidia, wolbachia, and sodalis glossinidius, in the midgut of glossina palpalis palpalis, the tsetse fly, a vector of the chronic form of human african trypanosomiasis in sub-saharan african countries. based on the morphological, nutritional, physiological, and phylogenetic results, we identified enterobacter, enterococcus, and acinetobacter spp. as inhab ...200919800031
transcriptome analysis of differentiating trypanosomes reveals the existence of multiple post-transcriptional regulons.trypanosome gene expression is regulated almost exclusively at the post-transcriptional level, with mrna degradation playing a decisive role. when trypanosomes are transferred from the blood of a mammal to the midgut of a tsetse fly, they transform to procyclic forms: gene expression is reprogrammed, changing the cell surface and switching the mode of energy metabolism. within the blood, trypanosomes can pre-adapt for tsetse transmission, becoming growth-arrested stumpy forms. we describe here t ...200919857263
alanine aminotransferase of trypanosoma brucei--a key role in proline metabolism in procyclic life forms.african trypanosomes possess high levels of alanine aminotransferase (ec 2.6.1.2), although the function of their activity remains enigmatic, especially in slender bloodstream forms where the metabolism of ketoacids does not occur. therefore, the gene for alanine aminotransferase enzyme in trypanosoma brucei (tbaat) was characterized and its function assessed using a combination of rna interference and gene knockout approaches. surprisingly, as much as 95% or more of the activity appears to be u ...200919895576
a model of pupal water loss in glossina.the results of a long-established investigation into pupal transpiration are used as a rudimentary data set. these data are then generalised to all temperatures and humidities by invoking the property of multiplicative separability, as well as by converting established relationships in terms of constant humidity at fixed temperature, to alternatives in terms of a calculated water loss. in this way a formulation which is a series of very simple, first order, ordinary differential equations is dev ...200919527739
[distribution and ecology of the savannah human african trypanosomiasis vectors in disturbed forest zone in south cameroon: about case in the doumé forest].vector control through trapping in the foci of humid forest areas is rather difficult because of the wide spreading of tsetse flies and transmission sites of human african trypanosomiasis. in fact, traps should be a priori set up everywhere to stop the transmission. the identification of the disease transmission sites enables efficient trapping through localisation of dangerous tsetse flies habitats needing vector control measures. the study of adult tsetse flies and teneral tsetse flies spatial ...200919583032
experimental demonstration of possible cryptic female choice on male tsetse fly genitalia.a possible explanation for one of the most general trends in animal evolution - rapid divergent evolution of animal genitalia - is that male genitalia are used as courtship devices that influence cryptic female choice. but experimental demonstrations of stimulatory effects of male genitalia on female reproductive processes have generally been lacking. previous studies of female reproductive physiology in the tsetse fly glossina morsitans suggested that stimulation during copulation triggers ovul ...200919607835
evidence for a discrete evolutionary lineage within equatorial guinea suggests that the tsetse fly glossina palpalis palpalis exists as a species complex.tsetse flies of the palpalis group are major vectors of human african trypanosomiasis in africa. accurate knowledge of species identity is essential for vector control. here, we combine ribosomal internal transcribed spacer 1 (its1), mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase 1 (coi) and microsatellites to determine the population structure and phylogenetic relations of glossina p. palpalis in equatorial guinea. co1 sequence data suggest that g. p. palpalis in equatorial guinea is a distinct subspecies fr ...200919619197
nutritional stress affects the tsetse fly's immune gene expression.tsetse-transmitted trypanosomiasis poses a serious threat to human and animal health in sub-saharan africa. the majority of tsetse flies (glossina spp.) in a natural population will not develop a mature infection of either trypanosoma congolense or trypanosoma brucei sp. because of refractoriness, a phenomenon that is affected by different factors, including the tsetse fly's immune defence. starvation of tsetse flies significantly increases their susceptibility to the establishment of a trypanos ...200919712150
monitoring the pleomorphism of trypanosoma brucei gambiense isolates in mouse: impact on its transmissibility to glossina palpalis gambiensis.substantial differences have been observed between the cyclical transmission of three trypanosoma brucei gambiense field isolates in glossina palpalis gambiensis (ravel et al., 2006). differences in the pleomorphism of these isolates in rodent used to provide the infective feed to glossina, could explain such results, since stumpy forms are preadapted for differentiation to procyclic forms when taken up in a tsetse bloodmeal. to assess this possibility, mice were immunosuppressed and inoculated ...200919720159
trypanosoma brucei amp-activated kinase subunit homologs influence surface molecule expression.the african trypanosome, trypanosoma brucei, can gauge its environment by sensing nutrient availability. for example, procyclic form (pf) trypanosomes monitor changes in glucose levels to regulate surface molecule expression, which is important for survival in the tsetse fly vector. the molecular connection between glycolysis and surface molecule expression is unknown. here we partially characterize t. brucei homologs of the beta and gamma subunits of the amp-activated protein kinase (ampk), and ...200919647733
the heart of darkness: growth and form of trypanosoma brucei in the tsetse fly.the first description of african trypanosomes was made over a century ago. the importance of the tsetse in transmission and cyclic development of trypanosomes was discovered soon afterwards, and has been the focus of numerous studies since. however, investigation of trypanosomes in tsetse flies requires high resource investment and unusual patience; hence, many facets of trypanosome biology in the tsetse remain to be characterised despite the long history of research. here, current knowledge and ...200919747880
transmissibility, by glossina morsitans morsitans, of trypanosoma congolense strains during the acute and chronic phases of infection.in order to verify whether chronic trypanosomal infections can affect the transmissibility of trypanosoma congolense by tsetse flies, batches of glossina morsitans morsitans were fed on mice infected with the same level of parasitemia (10(8.1)trypanosomes/ml of blood) of two cloned low virulent t. congolense strains during the acute and the chronic phases of infection. results showed that the proportions of procyclic infections in flies that were fed during the acute phase (32.6% and 45.4% for i ...201019765543
identification of a tsetse fly salivary protein with dual inhibitory action on human platelet aggregation.tsetse flies (glossina sp.), the african trypanosome vectors, rely on anti-hemostatic compounds for efficient blood feeding. despite their medical importance, very few salivary proteins have been characterized and functionally annotated.201020351782
an insight into the sialome of glossina morsitans morsitans.blood feeding evolved independently in worms, arthropods and mammals. among the adaptations to this peculiar diet, these animals developed an armament of salivary molecules that disarm their host's anti-bleeding defenses (hemostasis), inflammatory and immune reactions. recent sialotranscriptome analyses (from the greek sialo = saliva) of blood feeding insects and ticks have revealed that the saliva contains hundreds of polypeptides, many unique to their genus or family. adult tsetse flies feed e ...201020353571
a landscape and climate data logistic model of tsetse distribution in kenya.trypanosoma spp, biologically transmitted by the tsetse fly in africa, are a major cause of illness resulting in both high morbidity and mortality among humans, cattle, wild ungulates, and other species. however, tsetse fly distributions change rapidly due to environmental changes, and fine-scale distribution maps are few. due to data scarcity, most presence/absence estimates in kenya prior to 2000 are a combination of local reports, entomological knowledge, and topographic information. the avai ...201020676406
tripartite interactions between tsetse flies, sodalis glossinidius and trypanosomes--an epidemiological approach in two historical human african trypanosomiasis foci in cameroon.epidemiological surveys were conducted in two historical human african trypanosomiasis foci in south cameroon, bipindi and campo. in each focus, three sampling areas were defined. in bipindi, only glossina palpalis was identified, whereas four species were identified in campo, g. palpalis being highly predominant (93%). for further analyses, 75 flies were randomly chosen among the flies trapped in each of the six villages. large and statistically significant differences were recorded between bot ...201019879380
molecular characterization of the key switch f provides a basis for understanding the rapid divergence of the sex-determining pathway in the housefly.the housefly, musca domestica, is an excellent model system to study the diversification of the pathway that specifies the sexual fate. a number of different mechanisms have been described in the housefly, which reflects in part the broad diversity of sex-determining strategies used in insects. in this study we present the molecular identification and characterization of f, which acts as the master switch in the housefly pathway. we provide evidence that f corresponds to the transformer ortholog ...201019841093
a trk/hkt-type k+ transporter from trypanosoma brucei.the molecular mechanisms of k(+) homeostasis are only poorly understood for protozoan parasites. trypanosoma brucei subsp. parasites, the causative agents of human sleeping sickness and nagana, are strictly extracellular and need to actively concentrate k(+) from their hosts' body fluids. the t. brucei genome contains two putative k(+) channel genes, yet the trypanosomes are insensitive to k(+) antagonists and k(+) channel-blocking agents, and they do not spontaneously depolarize in response to ...201020190075
serratia glossinae sp. nov., isolated from the midgut of the tsetse fly glossina palpalis gambiensis.we report the isolation of a novel bacterium, strain c1(t), from the midgut of the tsetse fly glossina palpalis gambiensis, one of the vector insects responsible for transmission of the trypanosomes that cause sleeping sickness in sub-saharan african countries. strain c1(t) is a motile, facultatively anaerobic, rod-like bacterium (0.8-1.0 microm in diameter; 2-6 microm long) that grows as single cells or in chains. optimum growth occurred at 25-35 degrees c, at ph 6.7-8.4 and in medium containin ...201019667382
transcriptome analysis of reproductive tissue and intrauterine developmental stages of the tsetse fly (glossina morsitans morsitans).tsetse flies, vectors of african trypanosomes, undergo viviparous reproduction (the deposition of live offspring). this reproductive strategy results in a large maternal investment and the deposition of a small number of progeny during a female's lifespan. the reproductive biology of tsetse has been studied on a physiological level; however the molecular analysis of tsetse reproduction requires deeper investigation. to build a foundation from which to base molecular studies of tsetse reproductio ...201020214793
tsetse ep protein protects the fly midgut from trypanosome establishment.african trypanosomes undergo a complex developmental process in their tsetse fly vector before transmission back to a vertebrate host. typically, 90% of fly infections fail, most during initial establishment of the parasite in the fly midgut. the specific mechanism(s) underpinning this failure are unknown. we have previously shown that a glossina-specific, immunoresponsive molecule, tsetse ep protein, is up regulated by the fly in response to gram-negative microbial challenge. here we show by kn ...201020221444
molecular characterization of two novel milk proteins in the tsetse fly (glossina morsitans morsitans).milk proteins are an essential component of viviparous reproduction in the tsetse fly. milk proteins are synthesized in and secreted from the milk gland tissue and constitute 50% of the secretions from which the intrauterine larva derives its nourishment. to understand milk protein function and regulation during viviparous reproduction, milk proteins need to be identified and characterized.201020136662
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