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functional analysis of insect molting fluid proteins on the protection and regulation of ecdysis.molting fluid accumulates between the old and new cuticles during periodical ecdysis in ecdysozoa. natural defects in insect ecdysis are frequently associated with melanization (an immunity response) occurring primarily in molting fluids, suggesting that molting fluid may impact immunity as well as affect ecdysis. to address this hypothesis, proteomic analysis of molting fluids from bombyx mori during three different types of ecdysis was performed. many proteins were newly identified, including ...201425368323
gene structure, cdna characterization and rnai-based functional analysis of a myeloid differentiation factor 88 homolog in tenebrio molitor larvae exposed to staphylococcus aureus infection.myeloid differentiation factor 88 (myd88), an intracellular adaptor protein involved in toll/toll-like receptor (tlr) signal processing, triggers activation of nuclear factor-kappab (nf-κb) transcription factors. in the present study, we analyzed the gene structure and biological function of myd88 in a coleopteran insect, tenebrio molitor (tmmyd88). the tmmyd88 gene was 1380 bp in length and consisted of five exons and four introns. the 5'-flanking sequence revealed several putative transcriptio ...201424755285
dsrna degradation in the pea aphid (acyrthosiphon pisum) associated with lack of response in rnai feeding and injection assay.over the past decade, rna interference (rnai), the sequence-specific suppression of gene expression, has proven very promising for molecular research in many species, including model insects as tribolium castaneum and apis mellifera. it showed its usefulness to analyze gene function and its potential to manage pest populations and reduce disease pathogens. however, in several insects, the efficiency of rnai is low or very variable at best. one of the factors that could influence rnai efficiency ...201424394433
expression of an endoglucanase from tribolium castaneum (tceg1) in saccharomyces cerevisiae.insects are a largely unexploited resource in prospecting for novel cellulolytic enzymes to improve the production of ethanol fuel from lignocellulosic biomass. the cost of lignocellulosic ethanol production is expected to decrease by the combination of cellulose degradation (saccharification) and fermentation of the resulting glucose to ethanol in a single process, catalyzed by the yeast saccharomyces cerevisiae transformed to express efficient cellulases. while s. cerevisiae is an established ...201424318365
insecticidal activity of ageratum conyzoides l., coleus aromaticus benth. and hyptis suaveolens (l.) poit essential oils as fumigant against storage grain insect tribolium castaneum herbst.essential oils (eos) from ageratum conyzoides l., coleus aromaticus benth. and hyptis suaveolens (l.) poit were extracted and tested against tribolium castaneum herbst, the storage grain insect. the eos were found effective against tribolium castaneum during in vitro as well as in vivo fumigant testing. the eos of h. suaveolens and a. conyzoides showed 100 % mortality of test insect at 250 ppm while c. aromaticus at 350 ppm. during in vivo fumigant testing of wheat samples against tribolium cast ...201425190885
unexpected functional diversity in the fatty acid desaturases of the flour beetle tribolium castaneum and identification of key residues determining activity.desaturases catalyse modifications to fatty acids which are essential to homeostasis and for pheromone and defensive chemical production. all desaturases of the flour beetle tribolium castaneum were investigated via query of the sequenced genome which yielded 15 putative acyl-coenzyme a genes. eleven desaturase mrna were obtained in full length and functionally expressed in yeast. phylogenetic analysis separated the desaturases into 4 distinct clades; one clade contained conserved beetle δ9 desa ...201424880119
the mekre93 (methoprene tolerant-krüppel homolog 1-e93) pathway in the regulation of insect metamorphosis, and the homology of the pupal stage.recent studies on transcription factor e93 revealed that it triggers adult morphogenesis in blattella germanica, tribolium castaneum and drosophila melanogaster. moreover, we show here that krüppel homolog 1 (kr-h1), a transducer of the antimetamorphic action of juvenile hormone (jh), represses e93 expression. kr-h1 is upstream of e93, and upstream of kr-h1 is methoprene-tolerant (met), the latter being the jh receptor in hemimetabolan and holometabolan species. as such, the met - kr-h1 - e93 pa ...201425008785
transcription factor e93 specifies adult metamorphosis in hemimetabolous and holometabolous insects.all immature animals undergo remarkable morphological and physiological changes to become mature adults. in winged insects, metamorphic changes either are limited to a few tissues (hemimetaboly) or involve a complete reorganization of most tissues and organs (holometaboly). despite the differences, the genetic switch between immature and adult forms in both types of insects relies on the disappearance of the antimetamorphic juvenile hormone (jh) and the transcription factors krüppel-homolog 1 (k ...201424778249
characterization of horizontally transferred β-fructofuranosidase (scrb) genes in agrilus planipennis.the emerald ash borer (agrilus planipennis) is an important invasive insect pest of fraxinus spp. that feeds on host tissues containing high levels of sucrose. however, little is known about how it digests sucrose. here, using larval midgut transcriptome data and preliminary genome sequence efforts, two β-fructofuranosidase-encoding scrb genes, aplascrb-1 and aplascrb-2, were identified, and proved to reside within the a. planipennis genome. homology and phylogenetic analysis revealed that they ...201425224649
antimicrobial, insecticidal and phytotoxic activities of cotinus coggyria scop. essential oil (anacardiaceae).the essential oil of cotinus coggyria scop.' leaves was found to be rich in α-pinene (43.1%), limonene (21.3%) and β-myrcene (8.5%). in the antimicrobial screening, essential oil was notably active on staphylococcus aureus atcc 29213, s. aureus atcc baa-977, candida albicans atcc 14053 and c. parapsilosis atcc 22019 using the disc diffusion and volatilisation assays. the fumigant assay of the essential oil caused 70% and 100% mortality on the two pest adults of acanthoscelides obtectus and tribo ...201424980636
genomic organization, sequence characterization and expression analysis of tenebrio molitor apolipophorin-iii in response to an intracellular pathogen, listeria monocytogenes.apolipophorin iii (apolp-iii) is a well-known hemolymph protein having a functional role in lipid transport and immune response of insects. we cloned full-length cdna encoding putative apolp-iii from larvae of the coleopteran beetle, tenebrio molitor (tmapolp-iii), by identification of clones corresponding to the partial sequence of tmapolp-iii, subsequently followed with full length sequencing by a clone-by-clone primer walking method. the complete cdna consists of 890 nucleotides, including an ...201424200961
characterization of the distal-less gene homologue, nldll, in the brown planthopper, nilaparvata lugens (stål).the brown planthopper, nilaparvata lugens (stål), is a globally devastating insect pest of rice, particularly in eastern asia. distal-less or dll is a highly conserved and well studied transcription factor required for limb formation in invertebrates and vertebrates. we have identified a homologue of this gene, nldll, and demonstrated that it is expressed in all life stages of n. lugens, particularly in adult brachypterous females. when we compared between specific adult tissues it was expressed ...201424321689
parasitization by scleroderma guani influences expression of superoxide dismutase genes in tenebrio molitor.superoxide dismutase (sod) is an antioxidant enzyme involved in detoxifying reactive oxygen species. in this study, we identified genes encoding the extracellular and intracellular copper-zinc sods (eccuznsod and iccuznsod) and a manganese sod (mnsod) in the yellow mealworm beetle, tenebrio molitor. the cdnas for eccuznsod, iccuznsod, and mnsod, respectively, encode 24.55, 15.81, and 23.14 kda polypeptides, which possess structural features typical of other insect sods. they showed 20-94% identi ...201425042129
different effects of paternal trans-generational immune priming on survival and immunity in step and genetic offspring.paternal trans-generational immune priming, whereby fathers provide immune protection to offspring, has been demonstrated in the red flour beetle tribolium castaneum exposed to the insect pathogen bacillus thuringiensis. it is currently unclear how such protection is transferred, as in contrast to mothers, fathers do not directly provide offspring with a large amount of substances. in addition to sperm, male flour beetles transfer seminal fluids in a spermatophore to females during copulation. d ...201425355479
increased survival in the red flour beetle after oral priming with bacteria-conditioned media.immune priming is defined as enhanced protection upon secondary exposure to a pathogen. such enhanced resistance after prior exposure has been demonstrated for a number of insect species including the red flour beetle, tribolium castaneum. in testing this phenomenon, the majority of studies have focused on introducing the pathogen into the insect's hemocoel via septic wounding through the cuticle. although such septic injury can occur in nature, many pathogens enter their hosts via the oral rout ...201424216503
identification and characterization of the sudanese bacillus thuringiensis and related bacterial strains for their efficacy against helicoverpa armigera and tribolium castaneum.forty-four isolates of bacillus thuringiensis like bacteria from various sources in different locations from sudan were tested for their insecticidal activity. the toxicity of these isolates ranged from 6.6 to 70% to the neonates of cotton bollworm, helicoverpa armigera at 10 ppm concentration. the most effective ones are kb-29, st-6 and wh-1 comparable with hd-1. toxicity of isolates to larvae of the red flour beetle, tribolium castaneum ranged from 20 to 100%. isolates st-2 and st-23 gave 100% ...201424956895
satellite dna as a driver of population divergence in the red flour beetle tribolium castaneum.tandemly repeated satellite dnas are among most rapidly evolving sequences in eukaryotic genome, usually differing significantly among closely related species. by inducing changes in heterochromatin and/or centromere, satellite dnas are expected to drive population and species divergence. however, despite high evolutionary dynamics, divergence of satellite dna profiles at the level of natural population which precedes and possibly triggers speciation process is not readily detected. here, we cha ...201425527837
naturally occurring entomopathogenic fungi infecting stored grain insect species in punjab, pakistan.the occurrence of entomopathogenic fungi isolated from stored grain insect pests sampled from various geographical regions of punjab, pakistan, was investigated. in total, 25,720 insects from six different species were evaluated, and 195 isolates from 24 different fungal species were recovered. these included the ascomycetes beauveria bassiana sensu lato (balsamo) vuillemin (hypocreales: clavicipitaceae), metarhizium anisopliae sensu lato (metschnikoff) sorokin (hypocreales: clavicipitaceae), pu ...201425480970
common transcriptional mechanisms for visual photoreceptor cell differentiation among pancrustaceans.a hallmark of visual rhabdomeric photoreceptors is the expression of a rhabdomeric opsin and uniquely associated phototransduction molecules, which are incorporated into a specialized expanded apical membrane, the rhabdomere. given the extensive utilization of rhabdomeric photoreceptors in the eyes of protostomes, here we address whether a common transcriptional mechanism exists for the differentiation of rhabdomeric photoreceptors. in drosophila, the transcription factors pph13 and orthodenticl ...201424991928
role of methoprene-tolerant (met) in adult morphogenesis and in adult ecdysis of blattella germanica.juvenile hormone (jh) represses metamorphosis of young instars in insects. one of the main players in hormonal signalling is methoprene-tolerant (met), which plays the role of jh receptor. using the polyneopteran insect blattella germanica as the model and rnai for transcript depletion, we have confirmed that met transduces the antimetamorphic signal of jh in young nymphs and plays a role in the last nymphal instar moult in this species. previously, the function of met as the jh receptor had bee ...201425072526
the lethal giant larvae gene in tribolium castaneum: molecular properties and roles in larval and pupal development as revealed by rna interference.we identified and characterized the tclgl gene putatively encoding lethal giant larvae (lgl) protein from the red flour beetle (tribolium castaneum). analyses of developmental stage and tissue-specific expression patterns revealed that tclgl was constitutively expressed. to examine the role of tclgl in insect development, rna interference was performed in early (1-day) larvae, late (20-day) larvae, and early (1-day) pupae. the early larvae injected with double-stranded rna of tclgl (dstclgl) at ...201424758930
signaling properties and pharmacological analysis of two sulfakinin receptors from the red flour beetle, tribolium castaneum.sulfakinin is an insect neuropeptide that constitutes an important component of the complex network of hormonal and neural factors that regulate feeding and digestion. the key modulating functions of sulfakinin are mediated by binding and signaling via g-protein coupled receptors. although a substantial amount of functional data have already been reported on sulfakinins in different insect species, only little information is known regarding the properties of their respective receptors. in this s ...201424718573
comparative characterization of two intracellular ca²⁺-release channels from the red flour beetle, tribolium castaneum.ryanodine receptors (ryrs) and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (ip3rs) are members of a family of tetrameric intracellular ca(2+)-release channels (crcs). while it is well known in mammals that ryrs and ip3rs modulate multiple physiological processes, the roles of these two crcs in the development and physiology of insects remain poorly understood. in this study, we cloned and functionally characterized ryr and ip3r cdnas (named tcryr and tcip3r) from the red flour beetle, tribolium casta ...201425330781
cloning, phylogeny, and expression analysis of the broad-complex gene in the longicorn beetle psacothea hilaris.seven isoforms of broad-complex (phbr-c), in which the sequence of the zinc finger domain differed (referred to as z1, z2, z3, z2/z3, z4, z5/z6, and z6, respectively), were cloned from the yellow-spotted longicorn beetle psacothea hilaris. the z1-z4 sequences were highly conserved among insect species. the z5/z6 isoform was aberrant in that it contained a premature stop codon. z6 had previously only been detected in a hemimetabola, the german cockroach blattella germanica. the presence of z6 in ...201425279330
infection routes matter in population-specific responses of the red flour beetle to the entomopathogen bacillus thuringiensis.pathogens can infect their hosts through different routes. for studying the consequences for host resistance, we here used the entomopathogen bacillus thuringiensis and the red flour beetle tribolium castaneum for oral and systemic (i. e. pricking the cuticle) experimental infection. in order to characterize the molecular mechanisms underpinning the two different infection routes, the transcriptomes of beetles of two different t. castaneum populations--one recently collected population (cro1) an ...201424908078
sequence conservation, phylogenetic relationships, and expression profiles of nondigestive serine proteases and serine protease homologs in manduca sexta.serine protease (sp) and serine protease homolog (sph) genes in insects encode a large family of proteins involved in digestion, development, immunity, and other processes. while 68 digestive sps and their close homologs are reported in a companion paper (kuwar et al., in preparation), we have identified 125 other sps/sphs in manduca sexta and studied their structure, evolution, and expression. fifty-two of them contain cystine-stabilized structures for molecular recognition, including clip, ldl ...201425530503
tissue-specific transcriptomics, chromosomal localization, and phylogeny of chemosensory and odorant binding proteins from the red flour beetle tribolium castaneum reveal subgroup specificities for olfaction or more general functions.chemoreception is based on the senses of smell and taste that are crucial for animals to find new food sources, shelter, and mates. the initial step in olfaction involves the translocation of odorants from the periphery through the aqueous lymph of the olfactory sensilla to the odorant receptors most likely by chemosensory proteins (csps) or odorant binding proteins (obps).201425523483
functional characterization of five different prxamide receptors of the red flour beetle tribolium castaneum with peptidomimetics and identification of agonists and antagonists.the neuropeptidergic system in insects is an excellent target for pest control strategies. one promising biorational approach is the use of peptidomimetics modified from endogenous ligands to enhance biostability and bioavailability. in this study, we functionally characterized five different g protein-coupled receptors in a phylogenetic cluster, containing receptors for prxamide in the red flour beetle tribolium castaneum, by evaluating a series of 70 different peptides and peptidomimetics. thr ...201425447413
a role for taiman in insect metamorphosis.recent studies in vitro have reported that the methoprene-tolerant (met) and taiman (tai) complex is the functional receptor of juvenile hormone (jh). experiments in vivo of met depletion have confirmed this factor's role in jh signal transduction, however, there is no equivalent data regarding tai because its depletion in larval or nymphal stages of the beetle tribolium castaneum and the bug pyrrhocoris apterus results in 100% mortality. we have discovered that the cockroach blattella germanica ...201425356827
calponin-like chd64 is partly disordered.20-hydroxyecdysone (20e) and juvenile hormone (jh) signaling pathways interact to regulate insect development. recently, two proteins, a calponin-like chd64 and immunophilin fkbp39 have been found to play a pivotal role in the cross-talk between 20e and jh, although the molecular basis of interaction remains unknown. the aim of this work was to identify the structural features that would provide understanding of the role of chd64 in multiple and dynamic complex that cross-links the signaling pat ...201424805353
a multicopper oxidase-related protein is essential for insect viability, longevity and ovary development.typical multicopper oxidases (mcos) have ten conserved histidines and one conserved cysteine that coordinate four copper atoms. these copper ions are required for oxidase activity. during our studies of insect mcos, we discovered a gene that we named multicopper oxidase-related protein (mcorp). mcorps share sequence similarity with mcos, but lack many of the copper-coordinating residues. we identified mcorp orthologs in many insect species, but not in other invertebrates or vertebrates. we predi ...201425330116
insulin receptor-like ectodomain genes and splice variants are found in both arthropods and human brain cdna.truncated receptor ectodomains have been described for several classes of cell surface receptors, including those that bind to growth factors, cytokines, immunoglobulins, and adhesion molecules. soluble receptor isoforms are typically generated by proteolytic cleavage of the cell surface receptor or by alternative splicing of rna transcripts arising from the same gene encoding the full-length receptor. both the epidermal growth factor receptor (egfr) and the insulin receptor (insr) families prod ...201327375681
glycogen and glucose metabolism are essential for early embryonic development of the red flour beetle tribolium castaneum.control of energy metabolism is an essential process for life. in insects, egg formation (oogenesis) and embryogenesis is dependent on stored molecules deposited by the mother or transcribed later by the zygote. in oviparous insects the egg becomes an isolated system after egg laying with all energy conversion taking place during embryogenesis. previous studies in a few vector species showed a strong correlation of key morphogenetic events and changes in glucose metabolism. here, we investigate ...201323750237
transcriptome analysis in cotton boll weevil (anthonomus grandis) and rna interference in insect pests.cotton plants are subjected to the attack of several insect pests. in brazil, the cotton boll weevil, anthonomus grandis, is the most important cotton pest. the use of insecticidal proteins and gene silencing by interference rna (rnai) as techniques for insect control are promising strategies, which has been applied in the last few years. for this insect, there are not much available molecular information on databases. using 454-pyrosequencing methodology, the transcriptome of all developmental ...201324386449
the extraembryonic serosa protects the insect egg against desiccation.insects have been extraordinarily successful in occupying terrestrial habitats, in contrast to their mostly aquatic sister group, the crustaceans. this success is typically attributed to adult traits such as flight, whereas little attention has been paid to adaptation of the egg. an evolutionary novelty of insect eggs is the serosa, an extraembryonic membrane that enfolds the embryo and secretes a cuticle. to experimentally test the protective function of the serosa, we exploit an exceptional po ...201323782888
odoriferous defensive stink gland transcriptome to identify novel genes necessary for quinone synthesis in the red flour beetle, tribolium castaneum.chemical defense is one of the most important traits, which endow insects the ability to conquer a most diverse set of ecological environments. chemical secretions are used for defense against anything from vertebrate or invertebrate predators to prokaryotic or eukaryotic parasites or food competitors. tenebrionid beetles are especially prolific in this category, producing several varieties of substituted benzoquinone compounds. in order to get a better understanding of the genetic and molecular ...201323874211
accessory gland as a site for prothoracicotropic hormone controlled ecdysone synthesis in adult male insects.insect steroid hormones (ecdysteroids) are important for female reproduction in many insect species and are required for the initiation and coordination of vital developmental processes. ecdysteroids are also important for adult male physiology and behavior, but their exact function and site of synthesis remains unclear, although previous studies suggest that the reproductive system may be their source. we have examined expression profiles of the ecdysteroidogenic halloween genes, during develop ...201323383307
proteome response of tribolium castaneum larvae to bacillus thuringiensis toxin producing strains.susceptibility of tribolium castaneum (tc) larvae was determined against spore-crystal mixtures of five coleopteran specific and one lepidopteran specific bacillus thuringiensis cry toxin producing strains and those containing the structurally unrelated cry3ba and cry23aa/cry37aa proteins were found toxic (lc(50) values 13.53 and 6.30 µg spore-crystal mixture/µl flour disc, respectively). using itraq combined with lc-ms/ms allowed the discovery of seven novel differentially expressed proteins in ...201323372850
fine-scale analysis of parasite resistance genes in the red flour beetle, tribolium castaneum.parasite infection impacts population dynamics through effects on fitness and fecundity of the individual host. in addition to the known roles of environmental factors, host susceptibility to parasites has a genetic basis that has not been well characterized. we previously mapped quantitative trait loci (qtl) for susceptibility to rat tapeworm (hymenolepis diminuta) infection in tribolium castaneum using dominant aflp markers; however, the resistance genes were not identified. here, we refined t ...201323770699
retroactive maintains cuticle integrity by promoting the trafficking of knickkopf into the procuticle of tribolium castaneum.molting, or the replacement of the old exoskeleton with a new cuticle, is a complex developmental process that all insects must undergo to allow unhindered growth and development. prior to each molt, the developing new cuticle must resist the actions of potent chitinolytic enzymes that degrade the overlying old cuticle. we recently disproved the classical dogma that a physical barrier prevents chitinases from accessing the new cuticle and showed that the chitin-binding protein knickkopf (knk) pr ...201323382702
structure, evolution and function of the bi-directionally transcribed iab-4/iab-8 microrna locus in arthropods.in drosophila melanogaster, the iab-4/iab-8 locus encodes bi-directionally transcribed micrornas that regulate the function of flanking hox transcription factors. we show that bi-directional transcription, temporal and spatial expression patterns and hox regulatory function of the iab-4/iab-8 locus are conserved between fly and the beetle tribolium castaneum. computational predictions suggest iab-4 and iab-8 micrornas can target common sites, and cell-culture assays confirm that iab-4 and iab-8 ...201323335784
juvenile hormone and insulin regulate trehalose homeostasis in the red flour beetle, tribolium castaneum.insulin/igf-1 signaling (iis) has been well studied for its role in the control of life span extension and resistance to a variety of stresses. the drosophila melanogaster insulin-like receptor (inr) mutant showed extended life span due to reduced juvenile hormone (jh) levels. however, little is known about the mechanism of cross talk between iis and jh in regulation of life span extension and resistance to starvation. in the current study, we investigated the role of iis and jh signaling in reg ...201323754959
antennal transcriptome analysis of the chemosensory gene families in the tree killing bark beetles, ips typographus and dendroctonus ponderosae (coleoptera: curculionidae: scolytinae).the european spruce bark beetle, ips typographus, and the north american mountain pine beetle, dendroctonus ponderosae (coleoptera: curculionidae: scolytinae), are severe pests of coniferous forests. both bark beetle species utilize aggregation pheromones to coordinate mass-attacks on host trees, while odorants from host and non-host trees modulate the pheromone response. thus, the bark beetle olfactory sense is of utmost importance for fitness. however, information on the genes underlying olfac ...201323517120
integrated analysis of cytochrome p450 gene superfamily in the red flour beetle, tribolium castaneum.the functional and evolutionary diversification of insect cytochrome p450s (cyps) shaped the success of insects. cyps constitute one of the largest and oldest gene superfamilies that are found in virtually all aerobic organisms. because of the availability of whole genome sequence and well functioning rna interference (rnai), the red flour beetle, tribolium castaneum serves as an ideal insect model for conducting functional genomics studies. although several t. castaneum cyps had been functional ...201323497158
first evidence of dna methylation in insect tribolium castaneum: environmental regulation of dna methylation within heterochromatin.dna methylation has been studied in many eukaryotic organisms, in particular vertebrates, and was implicated in developmental and phenotypic variations. little is known about the role of dna methylation in invertebrates, although insects are considered as excellent models for studying the evolution of dna methylation. in the red flour beetle, tribolium castaneum (tenebrionidae, coleoptera), no evidence of dna methylation has been found till now. in this paper, a cytosine methylation in tribolium ...201323644818
functional analysis of the atp-binding cassette (abc) transporter gene family of tribolium castaneum.the atp-binding cassette (abc) transporters belong to a large superfamily of proteins that have important physiological functions in all living organisms. most are integral membrane proteins that transport a broad spectrum of substrates across lipid membranes. in insects, abc transporters are of special interest because of their role in insecticide resistance.201323324493
natalisin, a tachykinin-like signaling system, regulates sexual activity and fecundity in insects.an arthropod-specific peptidergic system, the neuropeptide designated here as natalisin and its receptor, was identified and investigated in three holometabolous insect species: drosophila melanogaster, tribolium castaneum, and bombyx mori. in all three species, natalisin expression was observed in 3-4 pairs of the brain neurons: the anterior dorso-lateral interneurons, inferior contralateral interneurons, and small pars intercerebralis neurons. in b. mori, natalisin also was expressed in two ad ...201323980168
identification and biochemical characterization of protein phosphatase 5 from the cantharidin-producing blister beetle, epicauta chinensis.protein phosphatase 5 (pp5) is a unique member of serine/threonine phosphatases which has been recognized in regulation of diverse cellular processes. a cdna fragment encoding pp5 (ecpp5) was cloned and characterized from the cantharidin-producing blister beetle, e. chinensis. ecpp5 contains an open reading frame of 1500 bp that encodes a protein of 56.89 kda. the deduced amino acid sequence shares 88% and 68% identities to the pp5 of tribolium castaneum and humans, respectively. analysis of the ...201324351830
tribolium castaneum apolipophorin-iii acts as an immune response protein against bacillus thuringiensis cry3ba toxic activity.in this study, a 2.1-fold apolipophorin-iii mrna up-regulation was found in tribolium castaneum larvae challenged with bacillus thuringiensis cry3ba spore-crystal mixture. knockdown of apolipophorin-iii by rnai resulted in increased t. castaneum larvae susceptibility following cry3ba spore-crystal treatment, demonstrating apolipophorin-iii involvement in insect defense against b. thuringiensis. we showed that apolipophorin-iii participates in t. castaneum immune response to b. thuringiensis acti ...201323602900
identification and expression analysis of dicer2 in black tiger shrimp (penaeus monodon) responses to immune challenges.dicer is a key initiative protein of the rna interference (rnai) pathway that produces small interfering rnas (sirnas) or micro rnas (mirna), which then leads to rna-directed gene regulation or viral immunity. in the present study, we identified and characterized a dicer2 cdna from black tiger shrimp penaeus monodon (designated as pmdcr2). the full length cdna of pmdcr2 contains a 5' untranslated region (utr) of 109 bp, an open reading frame (orf) of 4509 bp and a 3' utr of 842 bp. the molecular ...201323583958
the genome of romanomermis culicivorax: revealing fundamental changes in the core developmental genetic toolkit in nematoda.the genetics of development in the nematode caenorhabditis elegans has been described in exquisite detail. the phylum nematoda has two classes: chromadorea (which includes c. elegans) and the enoplea. while the development of many chromadorean species resembles closely that of c. elegans, enoplean nematodes show markedly different patterns of early cell division and cell fate assignment. embryogenesis of the enoplean romanomermis culicivorax has been studied in detail, but the genetic circuitry ...201324373391
screening and identification of a bacillus thuringiensis strain s1/4 with large and efficient insecticidal activities.the bacterium bacillus thuringiensis was recognized for its entomopathogenic activities related to cry and cyt proteins forming the δ-endotoxins and some extracellular activities like the vegetative insecticidal proteins (vip) and cry1i. these activities may act specifically against diverse organisms and some of them typically characterize each strain. here, we screened a set of 212 b. thuringiensis strains to search the higher insecticidal activities. these strains had bipyramidal and cubic cry ...201322915162
comparative genomic analysis and evolution of family-b g protein-coupled receptors from six model insect species.family-b g protein-coupled receptors (gpcr-bs) play vital roles in many biological processes, including growth, development and reproduction. however, the evolution and function of gpcr-bs have been poorly understood in insects. we have identified 87 gpcr-bs from six model insect species, 20 from tribolium castaneum, 9 from apis mellifera, 11 from bombyx mori, 9 from acyrthosiphon pisum, 14 from anopheles gambiae and 24 from drosophila melanogaster. 22 of them were reported in this study for the ...201323428791
identification and characterisation of a functional aquaporin water channel (anomala cuprea drip) in a coleopteran insect.water transport across the plasma membrane depends on the presence of the water channel aquaporin (aqp), which mediates the bulk movement of water through osmotic and pressure gradients. in terrestrial insects, which are solid and/or plant feeders, the entrance and exit of water is primarily executed along the alimentary tract, where the hindgut, particularly the rectum, is the major site of water conservation. a cdna encoding the homologue of the water-specific drosophila aqp [drosophila integr ...201323531819
identification of g protein-coupled receptors in the pea aphid, acyrthosiphon pisum.gpcrs play crucial roles in the growth, development and reproduction of organisms. in insects, a large number of gpcrs have been reported for holometabola but not hemimetabola. the recently sequenced pea aphid genome provides us with the opportunity to analyze the evolution and potential functions of gpcrs in hemimetabola. 82 gpcrs were identified from the representative model hemimetabolous insect acyrthosiphon pisum, 37 of which have ests evidence, and 73 are annotated for the first time. a st ...201323792713
identification and expression analysis of a novel r-type lectin from the coleopteran beetle, tenebrio molitor.we have identified novel ricin-type (r-type) lectin by sequencing of random clones from cdna library of the coleopteran beetle, tenebrio molitor. the cdna sequence is comprised of 495 bp encoding a protein of 164 amino acid residues and shows 49% identity with galectin of tribolium castaneum. bioinformatics analysis shows that the amino acid residues from 35 to 162 belong to ricin-type beta-trefoil structure. the transcript was significantly upregulated after early hours of injection with peptid ...201323962621
the red flour beetle as a model for bacterial oral infections.experimental infection systems are important for studying antagonistic interactions and coevolution between hosts and their pathogens. the red flour beetle tribolium castaneum and the spore-forming bacterial insect pathogen bacillus thuringiensis (bt) are widely used and tractable model organisms. however, they have not been employed yet as an efficient experimental system to study host-pathogen interactions. we used a high throughput oral infection protocol to infect t. castaneum insects with c ...201323737991
sodium solute symporter and cadherin proteins act as bacillus thuringiensis cry3ba toxin functional receptors in tribolium castaneum.understanding how bacillus thuringiensis (bt) toxins interact with proteins in the midgut of susceptible coleopteran insects is crucial to fully explain the molecular bases of bt specificity and insecticidal action. in this work, aminopeptidase n (tcapn-i), e-cadherin (tccad1), and sodium solute symporter (tcsss) have been identified by ligand blot as putative cry3ba toxin-binding proteins in tribolium castaneum (tc) larvae. rna interference knockdown of tccad1 or tcsss proteins resulted in decr ...201323645668
two types of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in drosophila and other arthropods.muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (machrs) play a central role in the mammalian nervous system. these receptors are g protein-coupled receptors (gpcrs), which are activated by the agonists acetylcholine and muscarine, and blocked by a variety of antagonists. mammals have five machrs (m1-m5). in this study, we cloned two structurally related gpcrs from the fruit fly drosophila melanogaster, which, after expression in chinese hamster ovary cells, proved to be muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. o ...201323604020
evaluation of repellency of some chinese medicinal herbs essential oils against liposcelis bostrychophila (psocoptera: liposcelidae) and tribolium castaneum (coleoptera: tenebrionidae).the screening for repellency against the booklouse, liposcelis bostrychophila (badonnel), and the red flour beetle, tribolium castaneum (herbst), from 14 chinese medicinal herbs showed that the essential oils of curcuma longa l., epimedium pubescens maximouwicz, lindera aggregate (sims) kostermans, nardostachys chinensis battandier, schizonepeta tenuifolia briquet, zanthoxylum schinifolium sieber et zuccarini, and z. officinale roscoe exhibited strong repellency against l. bostrychophila and t. ...201323448068
transcription profiling of immune genes during parasite infection in susceptible and resistant strains of the flour beetles (tribolium castaneum).the flour beetle, tribolium castaneum, is an intermediate host for the tapeworm hymenolepis diminuta and has become an important genetic model to explore immune responses to parasite infection in insect hosts. the present study examined the immune responses to tapeworm infection in resistant (tiw1) and susceptible (csm) strains of the red flour beetle, t. castaneum, using real-time quantitative reverse transcription pcr on 29 immunity-related genes that exhibit antimicrobial properties. thirteen ...201323380036
characterization of non-ltr retrotransposable tras elements in the aphids acyrthosiphon pisum and myzus persicae (aphididae, hemiptera).a non-ltr tras retrotransposon (identified as trasap1) has been amplified in the pea aphid acyrthosiphon pisum and its presence has been assessed also in the peach potato aphid myzus persicae. this tras element possesses 2 overlapping orfs (a gag-orf1 and a pol-orf2 containing the reverse transcriptase and the endonuclease domains) that show a similarity ranging from 40% to 48% to proteins coded by other tras elements identified in insects (including the beetle tribolium castaneum and the moth b ...201323530141
the evolving role of the orphan nuclear receptor ftz-f1, a pair-rule segmentation gene.segmentation is a critical developmental process that occurs by different mechanisms in diverse taxa. in insects, there are three common modes of embryogenesis-short-, intermediate-, and long-germ development-which differ in the number of segments specified at the blastoderm stage. while genes involved in segmentation have been extensively studied in the long-germ insect drosophila melanogaster (dm), it has been found that their expression and function in segmentation in short- and intermediate- ...201324261442
sizing up arthropod genomes: an evaluation of the impact of environmental variation on genome size estimates by flow cytometry and the use of qpcr as a method of estimation.a study was undertaken to evaluate both a pre-existing method and a newly proposed approach for the estimation of nuclear genome sizes in arthropods. first, concerns regarding the reliability of the well-established method of flow cytometry relating to impacts of rearing conditions on genome size estimates were examined. contrary to previous reports, a more carefully controlled test found negligible environmental effects on genome size estimates in the fly drosophila melanogaster. second, a more ...201324168671
sirna machinery in whitefly (bemisia tabaci).rna interference has been emerged as an utmost tool for the control of sap sucking insect pests. systemic response is necessary to control them in field condition. whitefly is observed to be more prone to sirna in recent studies, however the sirna machinery and mechanism is not well established.201324391810
electroporation-mediated somatic transgenesis for rapid functional analysis in insects.transgenesis is a powerful technique for determining gene function; however, it is time-consuming. it is virtually impossible to carry out in non-model insects in which egg manipulation and screening are difficult. we have established a rapid genetic functional analysis system for non-model insects using a low-cost electroporator (costing under us$200) designed for somatic transformation with the piggybac transposon. using this system, we successfully generated somatic transgenic cell clones in ...201323250219
efficacy of a combination of beta-cyfluthrin and imidacloprid and beta-cyfluthrin alone for control of stored-product insects on concrete.the insecticidal effect of temprid, a formulation that contains beta-cyfluthrin and imidacloprid, was tested on concrete for control of seven stored-product insect species: the rusty grain beetle, cryptolestes ferrugineus (stephens); the sawtoothed grain beetle, oryzaephilus surinamensis (l.); the red flour beetle, tribolium castaneum (herbst); the confused flour beetle, t. confusum jacquelin du val; the hide beetle, dermestes maculatus (degeer); and the psocids liposcelis bostrychophila badonne ...201323786102
determining host suitability of pecan for stored-product insects.a no-choice test was performed to determine survival and reproductive capacity of stored-product insect pests on pecan, carya illinoensis (wangenheim) koch. insects used were indianmeal moth, plodia interpunctella (hübner) (lepidoptera: pyralidae); sawtoothed grain beetle, oryzaephilus surinamensis (l.) (coleoptera: cucujidae); red flour beetle, tribolium castaneum (herbst) (coleoptera: tenebrionidae); lesser grain borer, rhyzopertha dominica (f.) (coleoptera: bostrichidae); and rusty grain beet ...201323786103
limitations of rnai of α6 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunits for assessing the in vivo sensitivity to spinosad.spinosad is a widely used insecticide that exerts its toxic effect primarily through interactions with the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. the α6 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit is involved in spinosad toxicity as demonstrated by the high levels of resistance observed in strains lacking α6. rnai was performed against the dα6 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit in drosophila melanogaster using the gal4-uas system to examine if rnai would yield results similar to those of dα6 null ...201323955830
genome-wide screening for components of small interfering rna (sirna) and micro-rna (mirna) pathways in the brown planthopper, nilaparvata lugens (hemiptera: delphacidae).the brown planthopper (bph), nilaparvata lugens, is a major rice pest in asia, and accumulated evidence indicates that this species is susceptible to rna interference (rnai); however, the mechanism underlying rnai and parental rnai has not yet been determined. we comprehensively investigated the repertoire of core genes involved in small interfering rna (sirna) and micro-rna (mirna) pathways in the bph by comparing its newly assembled transcriptome and genome with those of drosophila melanogaste ...201323937246
the red flour beetle tribolium castaneum as a model to monitor food safety and functionality.: food quality is a fundamental issue all over the world. there are two major requirements to provide the highest quality of food: having the lowest reachable concentrations of health-threatening ingredients or contaminants and having the optimal concentrations of health-improving functional ingredients. often, the boundaries of both requirements are blurred, as might be best exemplified by nutraceuticals (enriched food products invented to prevent or even treat diseases), for which undesirable ...201323748350
immune competence in insect eggs depends on the extraembryonic serosa.innate immunity is common to all metazoans and serves as a first line of defense against pathogens. although the immune response of adult and larval insects has been well characterized, it remains unknown whether the insect egg is able to mount an immune response. contrary to drosophila, tribolium eggs develop an extraembryonic epithelium, the serosa. epithelia are well known for their ability to fight infection, so the serosa has the potential to protect the embryo against pathogens. to test th ...201323732406
changes in anterior head patterning underlie the evolution of long germ embryogenesis.early embryonic stages differ significantly among related animal taxa while subsequent development converges at the conserved phylotypic stage before again diverging. although this phenomenon has long been observed, its underlying genetic mechanisms remain enigmatic. the dipteran drosophila melanogaster develops as a long germ embryo where the head anlagen form a cap at the anterior pole of the blastoderm. consequently, the anterior and terminal maternal systems give crucial input for head patte ...201323201022
the skeletomuscular system of the larva of drosophila melanogaster (drosophilidae, diptera): a contribution to the morphology of a model organism.the morphological features of the third instar larva of the most important insect model, drosophila melanogaster, are documented for the first time using a broad spectrum of modern morphological techniques. external structures of the body wall, the cephaloskeleton, and the musculature are described and illustrated. additional information about other internal organs is provided. the systematic implications of the findings are discussed briefly. internal apomorphic features of brachycera and cyclo ...201323010508
egfr signaling regulates distal as well as medial fate in the embryonic leg of tribolium castaneum.the evolution of a mechanism to generate a proximal-distal axis perpendicular to the anterior-posterior body axis was a key event in arthropod evolution and facilitated the formation of multi-functional limbs. the study of proximodistal limb patterning in extant arthropods can provide insight into the origin and evolution of the proximal-distal axis. in drosophila melanogaster, proximal-distal patterning is mainly organized by wg/dpp signaling. egfr signaling is also involved, but is restricted ...201222921411
heat shock-mediated misexpression of genes in the beetle tribolium castaneum.insect gene function has mainly been studied in the fruit fly drosophila melanogaster because in this species many techniques and resources are available for gene knock down and the ectopic activation of gene function. however, in order to study biological aspects that are not represented by the drosophila model, and in order to test to what degree gene functions are conserved within insects and what changes in gene function accompanied the evolution of novel traits, the establishment of respect ...201222890852
extent with modification: leg patterning in the beetle tribolium castaneum and the evolution of serial homologs.serial homologs are similar structures that develop at different positions within a body plan. these structures share some, but not all, aspects of developmental patterning, and their evolution is thought to be constrained by shared, pleiotropic gene functions. here we describe the functions of 17 developmental genes during metamorphic development of the legs in the red flour beetle, tribolium castaneum. this study provides informative comparisons between appendage development in drosophila mela ...201222384402
oenocyte development in the red flour beetle tribolium castaneum.oenocytes are a specialized cell type required for lipid processing, pheromone secretion, and developmental signaling. their development has been well characterized in drosophila melanogaster, but it remains unknown whether the developmental program is conserved in other insect species. in this study, we compare and contrast the specification and development of larval oenocytes between drosophila and the red flour beetle, tribolium castaneum. first, we identify several useful reagents to label l ...201222382810
identification of maternally-loaded rna transcripts in unfertilized eggs of tribolium castaneum.maternal rnas play a critical role in early development. variation in the diversity and levels of maternally derived gene transcripts may be central to the origin of phenotypic novelty -- a longstanding problem in evolution and development. by studying maternal transcriptomes within and between divergent species, a better understanding of the evolutionary forces acting on maternal rna allocation is possible.201223181844
cap'n'collar differentiates the mandible from the maxilla in the beetle tribolium castaneum. 201223114106
constructing and random sequencing analysis of normalized cdna library of testis tissue from oriental river prawn (macrobrachium nipponense).the oriental river prawn, macrobrachium nipponense, is an important aquaculture species in china. sexual precocity is a serious problem because of genetic retrogression, which has negative effects on product quality and dramatically affects price. culture of all-male populations of this species would be economically advantageous, as the males grow faster and reach a much larger size than females. developing such a culture scheme will require discovery of sex- or reproduction-related genes that a ...201222632994
a major facilitator superfamily protein participates in the reddish brown pigmentation in bombyx mori.muck is a member of the major facilitator super family (mfs) and is within a subgroup involved in the uptake of organic acids. here, we provide the first evidence that muck is required for normal body color pattern in insect larvae. in the cts mutant strain of bombyx mori (linnaeus), the larval anal plates, prothoracic tergum, and the head are reddish brown, as opposed to the white color found in the wild type. positional cloning of the cts gene was carried out and it was mapped within 90kb on t ...201222885739
identification of the bombyx red egg gene reveals involvement of a novel transporter family gene in late steps of the insect ommochrome biosynthesis pathway.ommochromes are one of the major pigments involved in coloration of eggs, eyes, and body surface of insects. however, the molecular mechanisms of the final steps of ommochrome pigment synthesis have been largely unknown. the eggs of the silkworm bombyx mori contain a mixture of ommochrome pigments, and exhibit a brownish lilac color. the recessive homozygous of egg and eye color mutant, red egg (re), whose eggs display a pale orange color instead of normal dark coloration, has been long suggeste ...201222474291
sex chromosomes evolved from independent ancestral linkage groups in winged insects.the evolution of a pair of chromosomes that differ in appearance between males and females (heteromorphic sex chromosomes) has occurred repeatedly across plants and animals. recent work has shown that the male heterogametic (xy) and female heterogametic (zw) sex chromosomes evolved independently from different pairs of homomorphic autosomes in the common ancestor of birds and mammals but also that x and z chromosomes share many convergent molecular features. however, little is known about how of ...201222319158
how does juvenile hormone control insect metamorphosis and reproduction?in insects juvenile hormone (jh) regulates both metamorphosis and reproduction. this lecture focuses on our current understanding of jh action at the molecular level in both of these processes based primarily on studies in the tobacco hornworm manduca sexta, the flour beetle tribolium castaneum, the mosquito aedes aegypti, and the fruit fly drosophila melanogaster. the roles of the jh receptor complex and the transcription factors that it regulates during larval molting and metamorphosis are sum ...201222728566
annotation and evolution of the antioxidant genes in the silkworm, bombyx mori.antioxidant system, which is composed of multiple gene families, plays a major role in reducing oxidative damage and xenobiotic detoxification in all living organisms. we identified 50 silkworm antioxidant genes from nine gene families based on the assembled genome sequence. a comparative analysis of the antioxidant genes of the silkworm with other order insects anopheles gambiae, apis mellifera, drosophila melanogaster, and tribolium castaneum, was performed. we found that most of the antioxida ...201222392770
gender- and stressor-specific microrna expression in tribolium castaneum.micrornas (mirnas) are small non-coding rnas mediating post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes. addressing their role in regulation of physiological adaptations to environmental stress in insects, we selected the red flour beetle tribolium castaneum as a model. beetles were fed with the bacterial entomopathogen pseudomonas entomophila (to mimic natural infection), injected with peptidoglycan (experimental setting of strong immune responses) or subjected to either mild he ...201222628099
high toxicity and specificity of the saponin 3-glca-28-ararhaxyl-medicagenate, from medicago truncatula seeds, for sitophilus oryzae.because of the increasingly concern of consumers and public policy about problems for environment and for public health due to chemical pesticides, the search for molecules more safe is currently of great importance. particularly, plants are able to fight the pathogens as insects, bacteria or fungi; so that plants could represent a valuable source of new molecules.201222536832
discovery of defense- and neuropeptides in social ants by genome-mining.natural peptides of great number and diversity occur in all organisms, but analyzing their peptidome is often difficult. with natural product drug discovery in mind, we devised a genome-mining approach to identify defense- and neuropeptides in the genomes of social ants from atta cephalotes (leaf-cutter ant), camponotus floridanus (carpenter ant) and harpegnathos saltator (basal genus). numerous peptide-encoding genes of defense peptides, in particular defensins, and neuropeptides or regulatory ...201222448224
formation of rigid, non-flight forewings (elytra) of a beetle requires two major cuticular proteins.insect cuticle is composed primarily of chitin and structural proteins. to study the function of structural cuticular proteins, we focused on the proteins present in elytra (modified forewings that become highly sclerotized and pigmented covers for the hindwings) of the red flour beetle, tribolium castaneum. we identified two highly abundant proteins, tccpr27 (10 kda) and tccpr18 (20 kda), which are also present in pronotum and ventral abdominal cuticles. both are members of the rebers and riddi ...201222570623
sex determination in beetles: production of all male progeny by parental rnai knockdown of transformer.sex in insects is determined by a cascade of regulators ultimately controlling sex-specific splicing of a transcription factor, doublesex (dsx). we recently identified homolog of dsx in the red flour beetle, tribolium castaneum (tcdsx). here, we report on the identification and characterization of a regulator of tcdsx splicing in t. castaneum. two male-specific and one female-specific isoforms of t. castaneum transformer (tctra) were identified. rna interference-aided knockdown of tctra in pupa ...201222924109
complex adaptive responses during antagonistic coevolution between tribolium castaneum and its natural parasite nosema whitei revealed by multiple fitness components.host-parasite coevolution can lead to local adaptation of either parasite or host if there is specificity (gxg interactions) and asymmetric evolutionary potential between host and parasite. this has been demonstrated both experimentally and in field studies, but a substantial proportion of studies fail to detect such clear-cut patterns. one explanation for this is that adaptation can be masked by counter-adaptation by the antagonist. additionally, genetic architecture underlying the interaction ...201222280468
cholinergic and non-cholinergic functions of two acetylcholinesterase genes revealed by gene-silencing in tribolium castaneum.we compared biological functions of two acetylcholinesterase genes (tcace1 and tcace2) in tribolium castaneum, a globally distributed major pest of stored grain products and an emerging model organism, by using rna interference. although both genes expressed at all developmental stages and mainly in the brain, the transcript level of tcace1 was 1.2- to 8.7-fold higher than that of tcace2, depending on developmental stages. silencing tcace1 in 20-day larvae led to 100% mortality within two weeks ...201222371826
comparative analysis of the recently discovered hat transposon tcbuster in human cells.transposons are useful tools for creating transgenic organisms, insertional mutagenesis, and genome engineering. tcbuster, a novel hat-family transposon system derived from the red flour beetle tribolium castaneum, was shown to be highly active in previous studies in insect embryoes.201223166581
a resurrected mammalian hat transposable element and a closely related insect element are highly active in human cell culture.chromosome structure and function are influenced by transposable elements, which are mobile dna segments that can move from place to place. hat elements are a superfamily of dna cut and paste elements that move by excision and integration. we have characterized two hat elements, tcbuster and space invaders (spin), that are members of a recently described subfamily of hat elements called buster elements. we show that tcbuster, from the red flour beetle tribolium castaneum, is highly active in hum ...201223091042
doublesex target genes in the red flour beetle, tribolium castaneum.sex determination cascade in insects terminates with the production of sex-specific protein, doublesex (dsx). we identified the dsx homolog (tcdsx) in tribolium castaneum. the pre-mrna of tcdsx is sex-specifically spliced into three female (tcdsxf1, tcdsxf2 and tcdsxf3) and one male-specific (tcdsxm) isoforms. cis-regulatory elements potentially involved in sex-specific splicing of the tcdsx pre-mrna were identified in the female-specific exon and the adjoining intronic sequences. all the three ...201223230513
gene families of cuticular proteins analogous to peritrophins (cpaps) in tribolium castaneum have diverse functions.the functional characterization of an entire class of 17 genes from the red flour beetle, tribolium castaneum, which encode two families of cuticular proteins analogous to peritrophins (cpaps) has been carried out. cpap genes in t. castaneum are expressed exclusively in cuticle-forming tissues and have been classified into two families, cpap1 and cpap3, based on whether the proteins contain either one (cpap1), or three copies (cpap3) of the chitin-binding domain, chtbd2, with its six characteris ...201223185457
genome organization, phylogenies, expression patterns, and three-dimensional protein models of two acetylcholinesterase genes from the red flour beetle.since the report of a paralogous acetylcholinesterase (ache, ec3.1.1.7) gene in the greenbug (schizaphis graminum) in 2002, two different ache genes (ace1 and ace2) have been identified in each of at least 27 insect species. however, the gene models of ace1 and ace2, and their molecular properties have not yet been comprehensively analyzed in any insect species. in this study, we sequenced the full-length cdnas, computationally predicted the corresponding three-dimensional protein models, and pr ...201222359679
slit/robo-mediated axon guidance in tribolium and drosophila: divergent genetic programs build insect nervous systems.as the complexity of animal nervous systems has increased during evolution, developmental control of neuronal connectivity has become increasingly refined. how has functional diversification within related axon guidance molecules contributed to the evolution of nervous systems? to address this question, we explore the evolution of functional diversity within the roundabout (robo) family of axon guidance receptors. in drosophila, robo and robo2 promote midline repulsion, while robo2 and robo3 spe ...201222245052
antimicrobial peptide gene induction, involvement of toll and imd pathways and defense against bacteria in the red flour beetle, tribolium castaneum.using tribolium castaneum, we quantitatively investigated the induction of nine antimicrobial peptide (amp) genes by live gram-negative bacteria (escherichia coli and enterobacter cloacae), gram-positive bacteria (micrococcus luteus and bacillus subtilis) and the budding yeast (saccharomyces cerevisiae). then, five representative amp genes were selected, and the involvement of the toll and imd pathways in their induction by e. coli, m. luteus and s. cerevisiae was examined by utilizing rna inter ...201224371569
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