| aglycone-focused randomization of 2-difluoromethylphenyl-type sialoside suicide substrates for neuraminidases. | a selective and potent inhibitor of neuraminidases, a hydrolase that is responsible for processing sialylated glycoconjugates, is a promising drug candidate for various infective diseases. the current study demonstrates that the use of an aglycone-focused library of 2-difluoromethylphenyl α-sialosides is an effective technique to find potent and selective mechanism-based labeling reagents for neuraminidases. the focused library was constructed from a 4-azide-2-difluoromethylphenyl sialoside (2) ... | 2012 | 22410247 |
| crystal structure of a concentrative nucleoside transporter from vibrio cholerae at 2.4 å. | nucleosides are required for dna and rna synthesis, and the nucleoside adenosine has a function in a variety of signalling processes. transport of nucleosides across cell membranes provides the major source of nucleosides in many cell types and is also responsible for the termination of adenosine signalling. as a result of their hydrophilic nature, nucleosides require a specialized class of integral membrane proteins, known as nucleoside transporters (nts), for specific transport across cell mem ... | 2012 | 22407322 |
| larazotide acetate regulates epithelial tight junctions in vitro and in vivo. | tight junctions (tjs) control paracellular permeability and apical-basolateral polarity of epithelial cells, and can be regulated by exogenous and endogenous stimuli. dysregulated permeability is associated with pathological conditions, such as celiac disease and inflammatory bowel disease. herein we studied the mechanism by which larazotide acetate, an 8-mer peptide and tj regulator, inhibits the cellular changes elicited by gliadin fragments, at-1002, and cytokines. previously, we demonstrated ... | 2012 | 22401908 |
| an epidemic outbreak of vibrio cholerae el tor 01 serotype ogawa biotype in a lalpur town, jamnagar, india. | on december 19, 2010, 57 cases of gastroenteritis were reported in the community health center of lalpur town. a rapid response team was sent to investigate the outbreak on december 21, 2010. | 2015 | 22387643 |
| sequence analyses of type iv pili from vibrio cholerae, vibrio parahaemolyticus, and vibrio vulnificus. | bacterial surface structures called pili have been studied extensively for their role as possible colonization factors. most sequenced vibrio genomes predict a variety of pili genes in these organisms, including several types of type iv pili. in particular, the mannose-sensitive hemagglutinin (msha) and the pila pili, also known as the chitin-regulated pilus (chirp), are type iva pili commonly found in vibrio genomes and have been shown to play a role in the colonization of vibrio species in the ... | 2012 | 22383120 |
| characterization of vibrio cholerae o139 of an aquatic isolate in northern vietnam. | during the cholera survey in namdinh province (northern vietnam) in july, 2010, one strain of vibrio cholerae o139 was isolated from 7 environmental water samples positive for ctxa, toxr,vco139 genes and named as v. cholerae o139, nd1 strain. this strain was lysogenic harbouring a genome similar to the filamentous phage fs1. the replicative form dna of this phage (named as nd1-fs1, 6856 bp) was sequenced and compared with the other filamentous phages. the filamentous phage nd1-fs1 integrates int ... | 2012 | 22371817 |
| type vi secretion requires a dynamic contractile phage tail-like structure. | type vi secretion systems are bacterial virulence-associated nanomachines composed of proteins that are evolutionarily related to components of bacteriophage tails. here we show that protein secretion by the type vi secretion system of vibrio cholerae requires the action of a dynamic intracellular tubular structure that is structurally and functionally homologous to contractile phage tail sheath. time-lapse fluorescence light microscopy reveals that sheaths of the type vi secretion system cycle ... | 2012 | 22367545 |
| the single nqrb and nqrc subunits in the na(+)-translocating nadh: quinone oxidoreductase (na(+)-nqr) from vibrio cholerae each carry one covalently attached fmn. | the na(+)-translocating nadh:quinone oxidoreductase (na(+)-nqr) is the prototype of a novel class of flavoproteins carrying a riboflavin phosphate bound to serine or threonine by a phosphodiester bond to the ribityl side chain. this membrane-bound, respiratory complex also contains one non-covalently bound fad, one non-covalently bound riboflavin, ubiquinone-8 and a [2fe-2s] cluster. here, we report the quantitative analysis of the full set of flavin cofactors in the na(+)-nqr and characterize t ... | 2012 | 22366169 |
| a rapid and reliable species-specific identification of clinical and environmental isolates of vibrio cholerae using a three-test procedure and reca polymerase chain reaction. | vibrio cholerae, the cause of cholera, is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in many developing countries. most laboratories initially rely on biochemical tests for a presumptive identification of these strains, followed by a polymerase chain reaction (pcr)-based method to confirm their identification. the aim of this study is to establish a rapid and reliable identification scheme for v. cholerae using a minimal, but highly specific number of biochemical tests and a pcr assay. | 2012 | 22361759 |
| development and evaluation of a pcr assay for tracking the emergence and dissemination of haitian variant ctxb in vibrio cholerae o1 strains isolated from kolkata, india. | a pcr-based assay was developed to discriminate the classical, el tor, and haitian types of ctxb alleles. our retrospective study using this newly developed pcr showed that haitian ctxb first appeared in kolkata during april 2006, and 93.3% of strains isolated during 2011 carried the new allele. dendrogram analysis showed a pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (pfge) pattern of the new variant strains isolated recently that was distinct from the pfge pattern of the strains carrying classical ctxb th ... | 2012 | 22357499 |
| the vibrio cholerae pst2 phosphate transport system is upregulated in biofilms and contributes to biofilm-induced hyperinfectivity. | vibrio cholerae is the causative agent of the deadly diarrheal disease cholera. as part of its life cycle, v. cholerae persists in marine environments, where it forms surface-attached communities commonly described as biofilms. evidence indicates that these biofilms constitute the infectious form of the pathogen during outbreaks. previous work has shown that biofilm-derived v. cholerae cells, even when fully dispersed from the biofilm matrix, are vastly more infectious than planktonic (free-livi ... | 2012 | 22354023 |
| clinical characteristics and predictors of positive stool culture in adult patients with acute gastroenteritis. | to identify the presenting features and spectrum of pathogens in adult patients with acute diarrhoea and to determine the predictors of stool culture positivity. | 2012 | 22352095 |
| [intracerebral abscess after infection with non-toxigenic vibrio cholerae]. | we present the first case of intracerebral abscess after blood-borne infection with non-toxigenic vibrio cholerae (non-01). the patient was a 66 year-old woman who was infected after swimming in danish seawater during an unusually hot summer. she had predisposing haemochromatosis and a skin lesion on the ankle. we treated the patient with meropenem and ciprofloxacin for six weeks followed by ciprofloxacin for four weeks, and she recovered with hemiparesis and speech impairment. marine vibrio spe ... | 2012 | 22348672 |
| interleukin-8 gene regulation in epithelial cells by vibrio cholerae: role of multiple promoter elements, adherence and motility of bacteria and host mapks. | interleukin (il)-8 is an important mediator in neutrophil-mediated acute inflammation. we previously demonstrated that incubation of intestinal epithelial cells with vibrio cholerae o395 resulted in increased il-8 mrna expression and il-8 secretion, which was associated with the adherence and motility of bacteria. however, the mechanisms responsible for transcriptional regulation of the il-8 gene in epithelial cells during v. cholerae infections were not explored. transient transfection analysis ... | 2012 | 22348317 |
| sialic acid catabolism and transport gene clusters are lineage specific in vibrio vulnificus. | sialic or nonulosonic acids are nine-carbon alpha ketosugars that are present in all vertebrate mucous membranes. among bacteria, the ability to catabolize sialic acid as a carbon source is present mainly in pathogenic and commensal species of animals. previously, it was shown that several vibrio species carry homologues of the genes required for sialic acid transport and catabolism, which are genetically linked. in vibrio cholerae on chromosome i, these genes are carried on the vibrio pathogeni ... | 2012 | 22344665 |
| viability kinetics, induction, resuscitation and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction analyses of viable but nonculturable vibrio cholerae o1 in freshwater microcosm. | to study the induction of a viable but nonculturable (vbnc) state in vibrio cholerae o1 in freshwater, in response to cold temperatures (4°c) and starvation. | 2012 | 22324483 |
| transition state analysis of vibrio cholerae sialidase-catalyzed hydrolyses of natural substrate analogues. | a series of isotopically labeled natural substrate analogues (phenyl 5-n-acetyl-α-d-neuraminyl-(2→3)-β-d-galactopyranosyl-(1→4)-1-thio-β-d-glucopyranoside; neu5acα2,3lacβsph, and the corresponding 2→6 isomer) were prepared chemoenzymatically in order to characterize, by use of multiple kinetic isotope effect (kie) measurements, the glycosylation transition states for vibrio cholerae sialidase-catalyzed hydrolysis reactions. the derived kies for neu5acα2,3lacβsph for the ring oxygen ((18)v/k), le ... | 2012 | 22296330 |
| ligand and antagonist driven regulation of the vibrio cholerae quorum-sensing receptor cqss. | quorum sensing, a bacterial cell-cell communication process, controls biofilm formation and virulence factor production in vibrio cholerae, a human pathogen that causes the disease cholera. the major v. cholerae autoinducer is (s)-3-hydroxytridecan-4-one (cai-1). a membrane bound two-component sensor histidine kinase called cqss detects cai-1, and the cqss → luxu → luxo phosphorelay cascade transduces the information encoded in cai-1 into the cell. because the cai-1 ligand is known and because t ... | 2012 | 22295878 |
| genotypic and pfge/mlva analyses of vibrio cholerae o1: geographical spread and temporal changes during the 2007-2010 cholera outbreaks in thailand. | vibrio cholerae o1 el tor dominated the seventh cholera pandemic which occurred in the 1960s. for two decades, variants of v. cholerae o1 el tor that produce classical cholera toxin have emerged and spread globally, replacing the prototypic el tor biotype. this study aims to characterize v. cholerae o1 isolates from outbreaks in thailand with special reference to genotypic variations over time. | 2012 | 22292065 |
| connecting environment and genome plasticity in the characterization of transformation-induced sos regulation and carbon catabolite control of the vibrio cholerae integron integrase. | the human pathogen vibrio cholerae carries a chromosomal superintegron (si). the si contains an array of hundreds of gene cassettes organized in tandem which are stable under conditions when no particular stress is applied to bacteria (such as during laboratory growth). rearrangements of these cassettes are catalyzed by the activity of the associated integron integrase. understanding the regulation of integrase expression is pivotal to fully comprehending the role played by this genetic reservoi ... | 2012 | 22287520 |
| the histone-like nucleoid structuring protein (h-ns) is a repressor of vibrio cholerae exopolysaccharide biosynthesis (vps) genes. | the capacity of vibrio cholerae to form biofilms has been shown to enhance its survival in the aquatic environment and play important roles in pathogenesis and disease transmission. in this study, we demonstrated that the histone-like nucleoid structuring protein is a repressor of exopolysaccharide (vps) biosynthesis genes and biofilm formation. | 2012 | 22287003 |
| elevated levels of the norspermidine synthesis enzyme nspc enhance vibrio cholerae biofilm formation without affecting intracellular norspermidine concentrations. | biofilm formation in vibrio cholerae is in part regulated by norspermidine, a polyamine synthesized by the enzyme carboxynorspermidine decarboxylase (nspc). the absence of norspermidine in the cell leads to a marked reduction in v. cholerae biofilm formation by an unknown mechanism. in this work, we show that overexpression of nspc results in large increases in biofilm formation and vps gene expression as well as a significant decrease in motility. interestingly, increased nspc levels do not lea ... | 2012 | 22239666 |
| the "first" case of cholera in haiti: lessons for global health. | cholera is an acute watery diarrheal disease caused by infection with vibrio cholerae. the disease has a high fatality rate when untreated and outbreaks of cholera have been increasing globally in the past decade, most recently in haiti. we present the case of a 28-year-old haitian male with a history of severe untreated mental health disorder that developed acute fatal watery diarrhea in mid-october 2010 in central haiti after drinking from the local river. we believe he is the first or among t ... | 2012 | 22232448 |
| arctic actinomycetes as potential inhibitors of vibrio cholerae biofilm. | the aim of this study was to identify novel biofilm inhibitors from actinomycetes isolated from the arctic against vibrio cholerae, the causative agent of cholera. the biofilm inhibitory activity of actinomycetes was assessed using biofilm assay and was confirmed using air-liquid interphase coverslip assay. the potential isolates were identified using 16s rrna gene sequencing. of all, three isolates showed significant biofilm inhibition against v. cholerae. the results showed that 20% of the act ... | 2012 | 22231452 |
| wbet sequence typing and is1004 profiling of vibrio cholerae isolates. | to investigate the molecular basis for serotype variation in vibrio cholerae o1 and the genetic relatedness amongst different serotypes isolated from 2004 to 2008 in iran. | 2012 | 22225492 |
| real-time pcr and nasba for rapid and sensitive detection of vibrio cholerae in ballast water. | transport of ballast water is one major factor in the transmission of aquatic organisms, including pathogenic bacteria. the imo-guidelines of the convention for the control and management of ships' ballast water and sediments, states that ships are to discharge <1 cfu per 100 ml ballast water of toxigenic vibrio cholerae, emphasizing the need to establish test methods. to our knowledge, there are no methods sensitive and rapid enough available for cholera surveillance of ballast water. in this s ... | 2012 | 22221710 |
| use of rep- and eric-pcr to reveal genetic heterogeneity of vibrio cholerae from edible ice in jakarta, indonesia. | vibrio cholerae is the causative organism of waterborne disease, cholera. v. cholerae has caused many epidemics and pandemics of cholera for many years. in this study, v. cholerae recovered from edible ice were investigated for their genetic diversity using enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus (eric) pcr and repetitive extragenic palindromic (rep) pcr. isolation was done using selective medium and the presumptive isolates were confirmed through biochemical and serological assays. | 2012 | 24576322 |
| genetic screens and biochemical assays to characterize vibrio cholerae o1 biotypes: classical and el tor. | vibrio cholerae serogroup o1 has two biotypes, classical and el tor, the latter of which has displaced the prior and has been the causative agent for the ongoing seventh pandemic. however, reports since 2001 have identified clinical isolates of el tor that have classical o1 biotype genetic and phenotypic characteristics. these el tor variants have been emerging in clinical settings with increased frequency, including the 2010 cholera outbreak in haiti. the emergence of el tor variants warrants t ... | 2011 | 25419260 |
| zooplankton's role in the distributional status of autochthonous vibrio cholerae: a case study using principal component analysis. | miscellaneous statistical approaches were applied to illustrate the influence exerted by different zooplankton groups on the survival and distributional status of autochthonous vibrio cholerae in two diverse marine environments, veli and kochi, former with low nutrient loading and later with high nutrient loading. the data set has been factorised using principal component analysis (pca) for extracting linear relationships existing among a set of variables. box plots were derived from the pca dat ... | 2010 | 22312802 |
| [challenge clinical trial for evaluation of a vaccine candidate strain against cholera]. | live attenuated oral vibrio cholerae ol el tor, ogawa strain 638 has demonstrated to be well tolerated and immunogenic when administrated orally in studies carried out in healthy volunteers. | 2013 | 23437548 |
| the pre-seventh pandemic vibrio cholerae bx 330286 el tor genome: evidence for the environment as a genome reservoir. | vibrio cholerae o1 el tor bx 330286 was isolated from a water sample in australia in 1986, 9 years after an indigenous outbreak of cholera occurred in that region. this environmental strain encodes virulence factors highly similar to those of clinical strains, suggesting an ability to cause disease in humans. we demonstrate its high similarity in gene content and genome-wide nucleotide sequence to clinical v. cholerae strains, notably to pre-seventh pandemic o1 el tor strains isolated in 1910 (v ... | 2010 | 23766018 |
| diversity and distribution of cholix toxin, a novel adp-ribosylating factor from vibrio cholerae. | non-toxigenic non-o1, non-o139 vibrio cholerae strains isolated from both environmental and clinical settings carry a suite of virulence factors aside from cholera toxin. among v. cholerae strains isolated from coastal waters of southern california, this includes cholix toxin, an adp-ribosylating factor that is capable of halting protein synthesis in eukaryotic cells. the prevalence of the gene encoding cholix toxin, chxa, was assessed among a collection of 155 diverse v. cholerae strains origin ... | 2010 | 23766017 |
| temperature affects vibrio cholerae o1 el tor persistence in the aquatic environment via an enhanced expression of gbpa and msha adhesins. | vibrio cholerae o1 el tor attachment to chitin and biofilm formation on polyvinylchloride surfaces via the n-acetylglucosamine-binding protein a (gbpa) and the mannose-sensitive haemagglutinin (msha) were investigated under different temperature and salinity conditions simulating those found in the aquatic environment. in vitro tests showed that msha and gbpa defective v. cholerae n16961 strains displayed a significant reduction (p < 0.05) in attachment to chitin in comparison with the parent in ... | 2010 | 23766009 |
| environmental monitoring of vibrio cholerae using chironomids in india. | environmental vibrio cholerae strains belonging to the non-o1/non-o139 serogroups are natural inhabitants of freshwater including estuarine environments. recent findings indicated that chironomids (diptera: chironomidae), the most widely distributed insects in freshwater, serve as a natural reservoir of these bacteria. here we study the role of chironomids, particularly exuviae as carriers and as a monitoring tool for the distribution of v. cholerae in the environment. during a survey conducted ... | 2010 | 23766003 |
| sequence analysis of vibrio cholerae orfu and zot from pre-ctxφ and ctxφ reveals multiple origin of pre-ctxφ and ctxφ. | a multiplex pcr was developed to detect pre-ctxφ and ctxφ in vibrio cholerae. a total of 115 v. cholerae were tested, of which 42 v. cholerae o1 and 18 v. cholerae o139 contained ctxφ. six v. cholerae o139 contained only pre-ctxφ and three v. cholerae o1 and 23 v. cholerae o139 contained both pre-ctxφ and ctxφ. none of the v. cholerae non-o1 and non-o139 that were tested had pre-ctxφ or ctxφ. results of restriction fragment length polymorphism (rflp) analysis revealed the v. cholerae isolates po ... | 2010 | 23766000 |
| analysis of clonally related environmental vibrio cholerae o1 el tor isolated before 1992 from varanasi, india reveals origin of sxt-ices belonging to o139 and o1 serogroups. | in this study, we report the presence of sxt in environmental vibrio cholerae o1 el tor strains isolated before 1992 from varanasi, india. all isolates, except one, were resistant to tm, and/or sul, sm, fr, na and am. none contained plasmids. pcr and dna sequencing revealed the presence of sxt containing dfra1 and/or sulii, strab in six isolates and dfr18, sulii and strab in five isolates. three clinical v. cholerae o1 isolated during 1992 contained the antibiotic resistance gene cassette aada1 ... | 2010 | 23765998 |
| environmental reservoirs of vibrio cholerae and their role in cholera. | in the aquatic environment, vibrio cholerae has been reported to be associated with a variety of living organisms, including animals with an exoskeleton of chitin, aquatic plants, protozoa, bivalves, waterbirds, as well as abiotic substrates (e.g. sediments). most of these are well-known or putative environmental reservoirs for the bacterium, defined as places where the pathogen lives over time, with the potential to be released and to cause human infection. environmental reservoirs also serve a ... | 2010 | 23765995 |
| detection of toxigenic vibrio cholerae o1 in freshwater lakes of the former soviet republic of georgia. | three freshwater lakes, lisi lake, kumisi lake and tbilisi sea, near tbilisi, georgia, were studied from january 2006 to december 2007 to determine the presence of vibrio cholerae employing both bacteriological culture method and direct detection methods, namely pcr and direct fluorescent antibody (dfa). for pcr, dna extracted from water samples was tested for presence of v. cholerae and genes coding for selected virulence factors. vibrio cholerae non-o1/non-o139 was routinely isolated by cultur ... | 2010 | 23765992 |
| a case of o1 vibrio cholera bacteremia and primary peritonitis in a patient with liver cirrhosis. | vibrio cholerae are gram-negative bacteria that are differentiated into o1/o139 and non-o1/non-o139 serogroups depending on their ability to agglutinate with specific antiserum. in contrast to non-o1/non-0139 vibrio cholerae, which are more prone to invade the bloodstream, vibrio cholerae o1 is rarely the cause of bacteremia. we report a case of o1 vibrio cholera bacteremia and primary peritonitis in a patient with liver cirrhosis. the literature on the subject is also reviewed. | 2009 | 27990208 |
| characterization of vibrio cholerae from deep ground water in a cholera endemic area in central india. | a total of 8 out of 11 deep ground water samples collected from different villages in central india were found contaminated with vibrio cholerae non o1, non o139. in a multiplex pcr, isolates were found positive for ompw gene but negative for ctxab and rfbo1 genes. however, isolates from two places were positive for tcp and zot genes, indicating their intestinal colonization and toxigenic potential. antibiotic susceptibility studies revealed that all isolates were multidrug resistant. although, ... | 2009 | 23100781 |
| antimicrobial susceptibility and molecular characterization of vibrio cholerae from cholera outbreaks in chennai. | the genotype and antibiotic resistance pattern of the toxigenic vibrio cholerae strains associated with cholera outbreaks vary frequently. fifty-one v. cholerae strains isolated from cholera outbreaks in chennai (2002-2005) were screened for the presence of virulence and regulatory genes by multiplex polymerase chain reaction (pcr) assay. genotyping of the isolates was done by vc1 primers derived from enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus (eric)-related sequence in v. cholerae. all the ... | 2009 | 23100755 |
| [microbiological characterization of non-o1 vibrio cholerae isolated in cuba]. | the study of 422 non-01 vibrio cholerae strains from nine provinces, 9 of them isolated from a water-borne disease outbreak, was performed. all the strains exhibited antimicrobial susceptibility and virulence factors. the nine strains from the outbreak were subjected to a dna macrorestriction study based on the pulsed field electrophoresis technique. for the first time in cuba and the caribbean. the circulation of atypical non-01 v cholerae strains (resistent to vibriostatic compound 0129 and tr ... | 2013 | 23427461 |
| semi-nested polymerase chain reaction for detection of toxigenic vibrio cholerae from environmental water samples. | a rapid and sensitive direct cell semi-nested pcr assay was developed for the detection of viable toxigenic v. cholerae in environmental water samples. the semi-nested pcr assay amplified cholera toxin (ctxa2b) gene present in the toxigenic v. cholerae. the detection sensitivity of direct cell semi-nested pcr was 2 × 10(3) cfu of v. cholerae whereas direct cell single-step pcr could detect 2 × 10(4) cfu of v. cholerae. the performance of the assay was evaluated using environmental water samples ... | 2007 | 23100668 |
| effects of temperature and salinity on survival of toxigenicvibrio cholerae o1 in seawater. | in 1991 and 1992, the latin american epidemic strain of vibrio cholerae o1 was isolated from ballast water, bilge water, and sewage taken from cargo ships docked in mobile bay, alabama. the findings raised questions regarding the organism's ability to survive long-term aboard ships and to withstand the exchange of ballast at sea. the effects of temperature (6, 18, and 30°c) and salinity (8, 16, and 32 ppt) on survival of v. cholerae o1 strains c6706 and c6707 and a ballast water isolate in steri ... | 1996 | 24185740 |
| viable but non-culturable vibrio cholerae o1 revert to a cultivable state in the human intestine. | vibrio cholerae o1 can enter a state in which they remain viable but are non-culturable. presumably, such bacteria can be pathogenic if they retain the capacity to proliferate in the human intestine following ingestion. two groups of volunteeers were given inocula containing viable but non-culturable v. cholerae o1 of the attenuated vaccine strain cvd 101 (viable cvd 101 organisms readily colonize the human intestine). volunteers in one of the two groups excreted viable cvd 101, demonstrating th ... | 1996 | 24415083 |
| short communication: detection of non-culturable vibrio cholerae o139, by pcr and fluorescent antibody methods, in laboratory microcosms. | non-culturable vibrio cholerae o139 was detected in microcosms by pcr and fluorescent-antibody (fa) techniques. when survival of v. cholerae o139 in microcosms was assessed by viable counting on culture media, the vibrio became non-culturable after 44 days and remained non-culturable for an additional 7 weeks. | 1995 | 24414922 |
| detection of cholera (ctx) and zonula occludens (zot) toxin genes in vibrio cholerae o1, o139 and non-o1 strains. | vibrio cholerae o1 and v. cholerae non-o1 strains isolated from environmental samples collected in são paulo, brazil, during cholera epidemics and pre-epidemic periods were examined for the presence of toxin genes. v. cholerae o1 strains isolated from clinical samples in peru and mexico, and v. cholerae o139 strains from india were also examined for the presence of ctx (cholera toxin gene) and zot (zonula occludens toxin gene) by polymerase chain reaction (pcr). a modified dna-extraction method ... | 1995 | 24414916 |
| antimicrobial susceptibility of non-o1 vibrio cholerae isolated from wastewater stabilization ponds in marrakesh, morocco. | the 365 strains of vibrio cholerae, isolated in marrakesh from raw sewage and stabilization pond effluent, were all identified as non-o1 vibrio cholerae. when tested for their susceptibilities to ampicillin, amoxicillin, cephalothin, streptomycin, novobiocin, chloramphenicol, nalidixic acid and trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole, 13% of the strains from raw sewage and 20% of those from stabilization pond effluent were found to be resistant to one or more of the antibiotics. there were no significant ... | 1994 | 24420955 |
| production of n-acetylglucosamine deacetylase by vibrio cholerae non-o1. | vibrio cholerae non-o1 (1148 a) produced β-n-acetylglucosamini-dase and n-acetylglucosamine (glcnac) deacetylase intracellularly when grown in chitin or glcnac containing medium. it also secreted chitinase only in the chitin-containing medium. the partially purified glcnac deacetylase deacetylated glcnac but not chitin oligosaccharides, the dimer to hexamer of glcnac. we also detected the reaction product by capillary electrophoresis. | 1994 | 27315721 |
| vibrio mimicus are the reservoirs of the heat-stable enterotoxin gene (nag-st) among species of the genus vibrio. | using a 0.27 kb dna probe specific for the heat-stable enterotoxin gene (nag-st) of vibrio cholerae non-o1, 1109 strains representing 17 species of the genus vibrio, isolated from clinical and environmental sources were examined. the nag-st gene was preponderantly associated with strains classified as v. mimicus; 16.8% of these strains hybridized. it was more frequent in the clinical isolates (22.6%) than in the environmental isolates (13.7%). the incidence of nag-st gene-positive strains of v. ... | 1994 | 24420888 |
| vibrio cholerae in disguise-a disturbing entity. | | 1993 | 24420105 |
| detection of vibrio cholerae o1 in the aquatic environment in brazil employing direct immunofluorescence microscopy. | culturing and immunofluorescence (fa) methods for detection of vibrio cholerae o1 in samples collected from the aquatic environment at selected sites in brazil were compared. of the samples examined, 90% were positive for v. cholerae o1 by fa but none was positive by culture, although strains of v. cholerae other than o1 strains were readily isolated. evidence for v. cholerae o1 being autochthonous to the aquatic environment of brazil is presented. furthermore, fa methods are recommended for cho ... | 1993 | 24420052 |
| toxigenicity and toxin genes of vibrio cholerae 01 isolated from an artificial aquatic environment. | a simple experiment was carried out to examlne the effect of varlous physicochemical conditions on toxigenicity and toxin genes of vibrio cholerae 01 lsolated from an artificial aquatic environment. all isolated strains, tested by tissue culture assay, dna-dna hybridization and elisa, were cytotoxic to vero cells, did not lose their toxin genes and continued to produce cholera toxin. these results are consistent with the hypothesis that v. cholerae can survive in the environment without losing p ... | 1991 | 24424942 |
| factors influencing bacterial production of inducers of settlement behavior of larvae of the oystercrassostrea gigas. | dissolved chemical inducers of settlement behavior of veliger larvae of the oystercrassostrea gigas are found in supernatants of both pigmented species of bacteria (alteromonas colwelliana, vibrio cholerae strain htx) as well as nonpigmented bacteria (excherichia coli, vibrio cholerae strain 596-b). usually less than 10% of veligers exhibited settlement behavior in response to supernatants from the early bacterial growth phases, whereas 30-90% of larvae responded when exposed to supernatant from ... | 1989 | 24197287 |
| [effect of antibiotics on antigenic properties of vibrio comma]. | | 2014 | 24544827 |
| [effect of antibiotics and phage combinations on vibrio cholerae]. | | 2014 | 24544448 |
| studies in the chemotherapy of cholera. vi. protection by pteridines of mice infected with vibrio cholerae. | | 1951 | 24540875 |
| vibrio cholerae in fluid media. | | 1950 | 24539605 |
| studies in the chemotherapy of cholera. iii. the action of pteridinesulphonamide mixtures upon vibrio cholerae and upon the mouse. | | 1950 | 24538000 |
| antibacterial and antioxidant constituents of extracts of endophytic fungi isolated from ocimum basilicum var. thyrsiflora leaves. | fourteen fungal endophytes were isolated from the ocimum basilicum var. thyrsiflora leaves collected from northern thailand. eight genera were identified including aspergillus, ascochyta, nigrospora, blastomyces, colletotrichum, exidia, clitopilus, and nomuraea. the antibacterial activity of crude extracts from all endophytic fungi was tested against nine human bacterial pathogens: staphylococcus aureus, staphylococcus epidermidis, bacillus subtilis, bacillus cereus, escherichia coli, klebsiella ... | 2017 | 28698913 |
| identification and growth optimization of a marine bacillus dk1-sa11 having potential of producing broad spectrum antimicrobial compounds. | control of harmful bacteria in food, aquaculture, pharmaceuticals, agriculture, hospitals and recreation water pools are of great global concern. marine bacteria are an enormous source of bio-controlling agents. the aim of this study was to identify and optimize the growth conditions including effect of different biotic and abiotic factors on antimicrobial activity of strain dk1-sa11 isolated from qingdao bay of china yellow sea. microscopic characterization, api® 20e and 50 chb kit base carbohy ... | 2017 | 28653930 |
| prevalence of enteric infections among hospitalized patients in two referral hospitals in ghana. | diarrhea is an important cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. in africa and ghana in particular, it is estimated to contribute directly to 19 and 25% of pediatric mortality among children under 5 years, respectively. | 2017 | 28716138 |
| antiprotozoal, antibacterial and antidiarrheal properties from the flowers of chiranthodendron pentadactylon and isolated flavonoids. | chiranthodendron pentadactylon larreat. (sterculiaceae) is a mexican plant used in traditional medicine for the treatment of heart disease symptoms and infectious diarrhea. | 2017 | 28539715 |
| preparation, characterization and antibacterial activity of chitosan and phosphorylated chitosan from cuttlebone of sepia kobiensis (hoyle, 1885). | chitosan is a commercially available derivative of chitin that has been extensively studied for its antimicrobial properties. in order to improve the water solubility and its biological activity, the chemical modification or derivatisation is attempted. in the present investigation, the chitosan prepared from the cuttlebone of sepia kobiensis was being chemically modified by reacting it with orthophosphoric acid so as to obtain phosphorylated chitosan. then the chitosan and phosphorylated chitos ... | 2016 | 28507912 |
| campylobacter jejuni as a cause of diarrhoea. | this study was carried out to isolate and identify campylobacter jejuni from stool samples of patients suffering from diarrhoea. the study spanned a two-year period and c. jejuni was isolated in 10 (4.5%) out of 220 patients of diarrhoea] disorders. in samples of stool collected from 50 healthy individuals, c. jejuni was isolated in one (2%) case. further, to isolate other enteropathogens alongwith c. jejuni, procedures were undertaken simultaneously to identify salmonella, shigella and vibrio c ... | 1997 | 28769509 |
| great cormorants (phalacrocorax carbo) as potential vectors for the dispersal of vibrio cholerae. | vibrio cholerae is the cause of cholera, a devastating epidemic and pandemic disease. despite its importance, the way of its global dissemination is unknown. v. cholerae is abundant in aquatic habitats and is known to be borne by copepods, chironomids and fishes. our aim was to determine if fish-eating birds act as vectors in the spread of v. cholerae by consuming infected fish. we determined the existence of v. cholerae in the microbiome of 5/7 wild cormorants' intestine. in three of these v. c ... | 2017 | 28801549 |
| enhancing multiplex genome editing by natural transformation (mugent) via inactivation of ssdna exonucleases. | recently, we described a method for multiplex genome editing by natural transformation (mugent). mutant constructs for mugent require large arms of homology (>2000 bp) surrounding each genome edit, which necessitates laborious in vitro dna splicing. in vibrio cholerae, we uncover that this requirement is due to cytoplasmic ssdna exonucleases, which inhibit natural transformation. in ssdna exonuclease mutants, one arm of homology can be reduced to as little as 40 bp while still promoting integrat ... | 2017 | 28575400 |
| detection of eight foodborne bacterial pathogens by oligonucleotide array hybridization. | simultaneous and rapid detection of multiple foodborne bacterial pathogens is important for the prevention of foodborne illnesses. | 2017 | 28713514 |
| development of a novel rationally designed antibiotic to inhibit a nontraditional bacterial target. | the search for new nontraditional targets is a high priority in antibiotic design today. bacterial membrane energetics based on sodium ion circulation offers potential alternative targets. the present work identifies the na(+)-translocating nadh:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (na(+)-nqr), a key respiratory enzyme in many microbial pathogens, as indispensible for the chlamydia trachomatis infectious process. infection by chlamydia trachomatis significantly increased first h(+) and then na(+) levels wi ... | 2017 | 28425301 |
| use of serologic responses against enteropathogens to assess the impact of a point-of-use water filter: a randomized controlled trial in western province, rwanda. | diarrhea is a leading contributor to childhood morbidity and mortality in sub-saharan africa. given the challenge of blinding most water, sanitation, and hygiene (wash) interventions, diarrheal disease outcome measures in wash intervention trials are subject to potential bias and misclassification. using the platform of a cluster-randomized controlled trial of a household-based drinking water filter in western province, rwanda, we assessed the impact of the drinking water filter on enteric seroc ... | 2017 | 28749764 |
| treatment of diarrhoea using traditional medicines: contemporary research in south africa and zimbabwe. | gastrointestinal disorders, diarrhoea in particular remain a major concern in south africa and zimbabwe resulting in high mortality rates when left untreated. this investigation was aimed at documenting herbal medicines used in the treatment of diarrhoea in south africa and zimbabwe. | 2016 | 28480353 |
| correlation of edge truncation with antibacterial activity of plate-like anisotropic silver nanoparticles. | the effect of silver nanoparticle anisotropy on the antibacterial properties has been studied against escherichia coli, staphylococcus aureus, bacillus, vibrio cholerae, and streptococcus pyogenes. anisotropic silver nanoparticles have been synthesized by solvothermal process. the uv-visible absorption, x-ray diffraction, and tem studies show the anisotropic nature of silver nanoparticles. the results demonstrate that the anisotropic silver nanoparticles undergo a shape-dependent interaction wit ... | 2017 | 28707245 |
| characterization of the escherichia coli concentrative nucleoside transporter nupc using computational, biochemical, and biophysical methods. | members of the concentrative nucleoside transporter (cnt) family of proteins mediate uptake of nucleosides into cells driven by a cation gradient, which then enter salvage pathways for nucleic acid synthesis. in humans, they also transport hydrophilic anticancer and antiviral nucleoside analogue drugs into cells and tissues where they exert their pharmacological effects. escherichia coli cnt nupc (400 residues) is pyrimidine-specific and driven by a proton gradient. we have used computational, b ... | 2017 | 28682624 |
| putative protein vc0395_0300 from vibrio cholerae is a diguanylate cyclase with a role in biofilm formation. | the hallmark of the lifecycle of vibrio cholerae is its ability to switch between two lifestyles - the sessile, non-pathogenic form and the motile, infectious form in human hosts. one of these changes is in the formation of surface biofilms, when in sessile aquatic habitats. the cell-cell interactions within a v. cholerae biofilm are stabilized by the production of an exopolysachharide (eps) matrix, which in turn is regulated by the ubiquitous secondary messenger, cyclic di-gmp (c-di-gmp), synth ... | 2017 | 28647124 |
| electrostatic interactions between the ctx phage minor coat protein and the bacterial host receptor tola drive the pathogenic conversion of vibrio cholerae. | vibrio cholerae is a natural inhabitant of aquatic environments and converts to a pathogen upon infection by a filamentous phage, ctxφ, that transmits the cholera toxin-encoding genes. this toxigenic conversion of v. cholerae has evident implication in both genome plasticity and epidemic risk, but the early stages of the infection have not been thoroughly studied. ctxφ transit across the bacterial periplasm requires binding between the minor coat protein named piii and a bacterial inner-membrane ... | 2017 | 28642371 |
| a versatile toolbox for the control of protein levels using n(ε)-acetyl-l-lysine dependent amber suppression. | the analysis of the function of essential genes in vivo depends on the ability to experimentally modulate levels of their protein products. current methods to address this are based on transcriptional or post-transcriptional regulation of mrnas, but approaches based on the exploitation of translation regulation have so far been neglected. here we describe a toolbox, based on amber suppression in the presence of n(ε)-acetyl-l-lysine (ack), for translational tuning of protein output. we chose the ... | 2017 | 28594177 |
| evaluation of synergy and bacterial regrowth in photocatalytic ozonation disinfection of municipal wastewater. | the use of solar and ultraviolet titanium dioxide photocatalytic ozonation processes to inactivate waterborne pathogens (escherichia coli, salmonella species, shigella species and vibrio cholerae) in synthetic water and secondary municipal wastewater effluent is presented. the performance indicators were bacterial inactivation efficiency, post-disinfection regrowth and synergy effects (collaboration) between ozonation and photocatalysis (photocatalytic ozonation). photocatalytic ozonation effect ... | 2017 | 28577398 |
| histo-blood group antigens as mediators of infections. | the critical first step of a microbial infection is usually the attachment of pathogens to host cell glycans. targets on host tissues are in particular the histo-blood group antigens (hbgas), which are present in rich diversity in the mucus layer and on the underlying mucosa. recent structural and functional studies have revealed significant new insight into the molecular mechanisms, explaining why individuals with certain blood groups are at increased risk of some infections. the most prominent ... | 2017 | 28544984 |
| structural studies of the periplasmic portion of the diguanylate cyclase cdgh from vibrio cholerae. | cyclic diguanylate monophosphate (c-di-gmp) is a second messenger involved in bacterial signal transduction and produced by diguanylate cyclases (dgcs) generally containing highly variable periplasmic signal-recognition domains. cdgh is a dgc enzyme that regulates rugosity associated phenotypes in vibrio cholerae. cdgh has two n-terminal tandem periplasmic substrate-binding (pbpb) domains for its signal recognition; however, the role of the tandem pbpb domains remains unclear. here, we reported ... | 2017 | 28500346 |
| plasmid mediated drug resistance in vibrio cholerae 0139 bengal. | sixteen strains of vibrio cholerae were isolated from cases of diarrhoea. out of these, 12 (75%) were identified as vibrio cholerae 0139 synonym bengal and 4 (25%) as vibrio cholerae el tor by standard biochemical and serological tests. modified camp reaction in sheep blood agar showed that 0139 produced moderate hemolysis, el tor produced wider zone of hemolysis whereas classical vibrio cholerae produced no zone of hemolysis (camp negative). break point minimum inhibitory concentration (mic) by ... | 1998 | 28775481 |
| heme proximal hydrogen bonding between his170 and asp132 plays an essential role in the heme degradation reaction of hutz from vibrio cholerae. | hutz from vibrio cholerae is an enzyme that catalyzes the oxygen-dependent degradation of heme. the crystal structure of the homologous protein from helicobacter pylori, hugz, predicts that asp132 in hutz is located within hydrogen-bonding distance of the heme axial ligand his170. hydrogen bonding between his170 and asp132 appears to be disfavored in heme-degrading enzymes, because it can contribute to the imidazolate character of the axial histidine, as observed in most heme-containing peroxida ... | 2017 | 28481076 |
| plant-made virus-like particles bearing influenza hemagglutinin (ha) recapitulate early interactions of native influenza virions with human monocytes/macrophages. | plant-made virus-like particles (vlp) bearing influenza virus hemagglutinins (ha) are novel vaccine candidates that induce cross-reactive humoral and poly-functional t cell responses. to better understand the mechanisms that underlie this broad immunogenicity we studied early interactions of vlps bearing either h1 (a/california/07/2009 (h1n1)) or h5 (a/indonesia/05/2005 (h5n1)) with a human monocytoid cell line (u-937 cells) and human monocyte-derived macrophages (mdms) as model antigen-presenti ... | 2017 | 28712489 |
| repurposing a two-component system-based biosensor for the killing of vibrio cholerae. | new strategies to control cholera are urgently needed. this study develops an in vitro proof-of-concept sense-and-kill system in a wild-type escherichia coli strain to target the causative pathogen vibrio cholerae using a synthetic biology approach. our engineered e. coli specifically detects v. cholerae via its quorum-sensing molecule cai-1 and responds by expressing the lysis protein yebf-art-085, thereby self-lysing to release the killing protein art-085 to kill v. cholerae. for this report, ... | 2017 | 28441472 |
| rstb regulates expression of the photobacterium damselae subsp. damselae major virulence factors damselysin, phobalysin p and phobalysin c. | the marine pathogenic bacterium photobacterium damselae subsp. damselae causes septicemia in marine animals and in humans. the pphdd1 plasmid-encoded hemolysins damselysin (dly) and phobalysin p (phlyp), and the chromosome-encoded hemolysin phobalysin c (phlyc) constitute its main virulence factors. however, the mechanisms by which expression of these three hemolysins is regulated remain unknown. here we report the isolation of a mini-tn10 transposon mutant which showed a strong impairment in it ... | 2017 | 28443076 |
| discovery of two bacterial nitric oxide-responsive proteins and their roles in bacterial biofilm regulation. | bacterial biofilms form when bacteria adhere to a surface and produce an exopolysaccharide matrix ( costerton science 1999 , 284 , 1318 ; davies science 1998 , 280 , 295 ; flemming nat. rev. microbiol. 2010 , 8 , 623 ). because biofilms are resistant to antibiotics, they are problematic in many aspects of human health and welfare, causing, for instance, persistent fouling of medical implants such as catheters and artificial joints ( brunetto chimia 2008 , 62 , 249 ). they are responsible for chr ... | 2017 | 28605194 |
| vibrio cholerae type 6 secretion system effector trafficking in target bacterial cells. | the type 6 secretion system (t6ss) is used by many gram-negative bacterial species to deliver toxic effector proteins into nearby bacteria prey cells to kill or inhibit their growth. vgrg proteins are core conserved secretion substrates of the t6ss and one subset of t6ss effectors consists of vgrg proteins with c-terminal extension domains carrying various enzymatic activities. in vibrio cholerae, vgrg3 has a hydrolase extension domain and degrades peptidoglycan in the periplasm of target bacter ... | 2017 | 28808000 |
| control of virulence gene transcription by indirect readout in vibrio cholerae and salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium. | indirect readout mechanisms of transcription control rely on the recognition of dna shape by transcription factors (tfs). tfs may also employ a direct readout mechanism that involves the reading of the base sequence in the dna major groove at the binding site. tfs with winged helix-turn-helix (whth) motifs use an alpha helix to read the base sequence in the major groove while inserting a beta sheet 'wing' into the adjacent minor groove. such whth proteins are important regulators of virulence ge ... | 2017 | 28631437 |
| a novel role of listeria monocytogenes membrane vesicles in inhibition of autophagy and cell death. | bacterial membrane vesicle (mv) production has been mainly studied in gram-negative species. in this study, we show that listeria monocytogenes, a gram-positive pathogen that causes the food-borne illness listeriosis, produces mvs both in vitro and in vivo. we found that a major virulence factor, the pore-forming hemolysin listeriolysin o (llo), is tightly associated with the mvs, where it resides in an oxidized, inactive state. previous studies have shown that llo may induce cell death and auto ... | 2017 | 28516064 |
| the dnak chaperone uses different mechanisms to promote and inhibit replication of vibrio cholerae chromosome 2. | replication of vibrio cholerae chromosome 2 (chr2) depends on molecular chaperone dnak to facilitate binding of the initiator (rctb) to the replication origin. the binding occurs at two kinds of site, 12-mers and 39-mers, which promote and inhibit replication, respectively. here we show that dnak employs different mechanisms to enhance the two kinds of binding. we found that mutations in rctb that reduce dnak binding also reduce 12-mer binding and initiation. the initiation defect is suppressed ... | 2017 | 28420739 |
| regulation of acetyl-coa synthetase transcription by the crbs/r two-component system is conserved in genetically diverse environmental pathogens. | the crbs/r two-component signal transduction system is a conserved regulatory mechanism through which specific gram-negative bacteria control acetate flux into primary metabolic pathways. crbs/r governs expression of acetyl-coa synthase (acsa), an enzyme that converts acetate to acetyl-coa, a metabolite at the nexus of the cell's most important energy-harvesting and biosynthetic reactions. during infection, bacteria can utilize this system to hijack host acetate metabolism and alter the course o ... | 2017 | 28542616 |
| evaluation of microplate immunocapture method for detection of vibrio cholerae, salmonella typhi and shigella flexneri from food. | improved methods with better separation and concentration ability for detection of foodborne pathogens are in constant need. the aim of this study was to evaluate microplate immunocapture (ic) method for detection of salmonella typhi, shigella flexneri and vibrio cholerae from food samples to provide a better alternative to conventional culture based methods. | 2017 | 28851288 |
| crystal structure of master biofilm regulator csgd regulatory domain reveals an atypical receiver domain. | the master regulator csgd switches planktonic growth to biofilm formation by activating synthesis of curli fimbriae and cellulose in enterobacteriaceae. csgd was classified to be the luxr response regulatory family, while its cognate sensor histidine kinase has not been identified yet. csgd consists of a c-terminal dna binding domain and an n-terminal regulatory domain that provokes the upstream signal transduction to further modulate its function. we provide the crystal structure of salmonella ... | 2017 | 28758290 |
| transposon insertion site sequencing for synthetic lethal screening. | transposon insertion site sequencing (tis) permits genome-wide, quantitative fitness assessment of individual genomic loci. in addition to the identification of essential genes in given growth conditions, tis enables the elucidation of genetic networks such as synthetic lethal or suppressor gene combinations. therefore, tis becomes an exceptionally powerful tool for the high-throughput determination of genotype-phenotype relationships in bacteria. here, we describe a protocol for the generation ... | 2017 | 28842874 |
| highlights from this issue. | | 2017 | 28839876 |
| extracellular-matrix-mediated osmotic pressure drives vibrio cholerae biofilm expansion and cheater exclusion. | biofilms, surface-attached communities of bacteria encased in an extracellular matrix, are a major mode of bacterial life. how the material properties of the matrix contribute to biofilm growth and robustness is largely unexplored, in particular in response to environmental perturbations such as changes in osmotic pressure. here, using vibrio cholerae as our model organism, we show that during active cell growth, matrix production enables biofilm-dwelling bacterial cells to establish an osmotic ... | 2017 | 28835649 |
| prediction of bacterial small rnas in the rsma (csra) and toxt pathways: a machine learning approach. | small rnas (srnas) constitute an important class of post-transcriptional regulators that control critical cellular processes in bacteria. recent research using high-throughput transcriptomic approaches has led to a dramatic increase in the discovery of bacterial srnas. however, it is generally believed that the currently identified srnas constitute a limited subset of the bacterial srna repertoire. in several cases, srnas belonging to a specific class are already known and the challenge is to id ... | 2017 | 28830349 |
| spermine inhibits vibrio cholerae biofilm formation through the nsps-mbaa polyamine signaling system. | the aquatic bacterium and human intestinal pathogen, vibrio cholerae, senses and responds to a variety of environment-specific cues to regulate biofilm formation. specifically, the polyamines norspermidine and spermidine enhance and repress v. cholerae biofilm formation, respectively. these effects are relevant for understanding v. cholerae pathogenicity and are mediated through the periplasmic binding protein, nsps, and the transmembrane c-di-gmp phosphodiesterase mbaa. however, the levels of s ... | 2017 | 28827313 |
| from hospitalization records to surveillance: the use of local patient profiles to characterize cholera in vellore, india. | despite availability of high quality medical records, health care systems often do not have the resources or tools to utilize these data efficiently. yet, hospital-based, laboratory-confirmed records may pave the way for building reliable surveillance systems capable of monitoring temporal trends of emerging infections. in this communication, we present a new tool to compress and visualize medical records with a local population profile (lpp) approach, which transforms information into statistic ... | 2017 | 28820902 |
| molecular epidemiology of cholera outbreaks during the rainy season in mandalay, myanmar. | cholera, caused by vibrio cholerae, remains a global threat to public health. in myanmar, the availability of published information on the occurrence of the disease is scarce. we report here that cholera incidence in mandalay generally exhibited a single annual peak, with an annual average of 312 patients with severe dehydration over the past 5 years (since 2011) and was closely associated with the rainy season. we analyzed cholera outbreaks, characterized 67 isolates of v. cholerae serogroup o1 ... | 2017 | 28820711 |
| large cholera outbreak in brong ahafo region, ghana. | a nationwide outbreak of vibrio cholerae occurred in ghana in 2014 with accra, the nation's capital as the epi-center. the outbreak spread to the brong ahafo region (bar) which is geographically located in the middle of the country. in this region a review of data collected during the outbreak was carried out and analyzed descriptively to determine the hot spots and make recommendations for effective response to future outbreaks. | 2017 | 28797285 |