Publications
| Title | Abstract | Year Filter | PMID(sorted descending) Filter |
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| immunology of yersinia pestis infection. | as a pathogen of plague, yersinia pestis caused three massive pandemics in history that killed hundreds of millions of people. yersinia pestis is highly invasive, causing severe septicemia which, if untreated, is usually fatal to its host. to survive in the host and maintain a persistent infection, yersinia pestis uses several stratagems to evade the innate and the adaptive immune responses. for example, infections with this organism are biphasic, involving an initial "noninflammatory" phase whe ... | 2016 | 27722867 |
| yersinia pestis in the age of big data. | as omics-driven technologies developed rapidly, genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics and other omics-based data have been accumulated in unprecedented speed. omics-driven big data in biology have changed our way of research. "big science" has promoted our understanding of biology in a holistic overview that is impossibly achieved by traditional hypothesis-driven research. in this chapter, we gave an overview of omics-driven research on y. pestis, provided a way of thinking on yers ... | 2016 | 27722866 |
| genetic regulation of yersinia pestis. | y. pestis exhibits dramatically different traits of pathogenicity and transmission, albeit their close genetic relationship with its ancestor-y. pseudotuberculosis, a self-limiting gastroenteric pathogen. y. pestis is evolved into a deadly pathogen and transmitted to mammals and/or human beings by infected flea biting or directly contacting with the infected animals. various kinds of environmental changes are implicated into its complex life cycle and pathogenesis. dynamic regulation of gene exp ... | 2016 | 27722865 |
| pathology and pathogenesis of yersinia pestis. | various types of animal models of plague have been developed, including mice, rats, guinea pigs, and nonhuman primates. studies have indicated that rodent and nonhuman primate models of pneumonic plague closely resemble the human disease and that the pathologic changes that occur during bubonic plague are very similar in rodents, nonhuman primates, and humans. in this section, the pathological changes caused by y. pestis in different animal models are described. the bacterium y. pestis causes de ... | 2016 | 27722864 |
| genome and evolution of yersinia pestis. | this chapter summarizes researches on genome and evolution features of yersinia pestis, the young pathogen that evolved from y. pseudotuberculosis at least 5000 years ago. y. pestis is a highly clonal bacterial species with closed pan-genome. comparative genomic analysis revealed that genome of y. pestis experienced highly frequent rearrangement and genome decay events during the evolution. the genealogy of y. pestis includes five major branches, and four of them seemed raised from a "big bang" ... | 2016 | 27722863 |
| ecology of yersinia pestis and the epidemiology of plague. | this chapter summarizes information about the natural foci of plague in the world. we describe the location, main hosts, and vectors of yersinia pestis. the ecological features of the hosts and vectors of plague are listed, including predators - birds and mammals and their role in the epizootic. the epizootic process in plague and the factors affecting the dynamics of epizootic activity of natural foci of y. pestis are described in detail. the mathematical models of the epizootic process in plag ... | 2016 | 27722862 |
| physiology of yersinia pestis. | this chapter outlines the physiology of yersinia pestis with emphasis on identifying unique functions required for tissue invasion and acute disease. these activities are opposed to often incompatible processes expressed by very closely related yersinia pseudotuberculosis, which causes localized gastrointestinal infection. gain of new information in y. pestis entailed lateral transfer of plasminogen activator and anti-phagocytic capsular antigen via the plasmids ppcp and pmt, respectively, and d ... | 2016 | 27722861 |
| taxonomy of yersinia pestis. | this chapter summarized the taxonomy and typing works of yersinia pestis since it's firstly identified in hong kong in 1894. phenotyping methods that based on phenotypic characteristics, including biotyping, serotyping, antibiogram analysis, bacteriocin typing, phage typing, and plasmid typing, were firstly applied in classification of y. pestis in subspecies level. and then, with the advancement of molecular biological technology, the methods based on outer membrane protein profiles, fatty acid ... | 2016 | 27722860 |
| discovery of the plague pathogen: lessons learned. | plague resulted in three pandemics in history; however, its causative pathogen was isolated until the third pandemic in hong kong in 1894. at that time, two famous researchers, dr. alexandre yersin and dr. shibasaburo kitasato, went to hk, in order to identify the pathogen. the two great researchers had done a lot of work to isolate and identify the causative pathogen. however, dr. alexandre yersin reported the real pathogen for plague, and we now acknowledge his work by nominating the pathogen' ... | 2016 | 27722859 |
| plague: a disease which changed the path of human civilization. | plague caused by yersinia pestis is a zoonotic infection, i.e., it is maintained in wildlife by animal reservoirs and on occasion spills over into human populations, causing outbreaks of different entities. large epidemics of plague, which have had significant demographic, social, and economic consequences, have been recorded in western european historical documents since the sixth century. plague has remained in europe for over 1400 years, intermittently disappearing, yet it is not clear if the ... | 2016 | 27722858 |
| navigable rivers facilitated the spread and recurrence of plague in pre-industrial europe. | infectious diseases have become a rising challenge to mankind in a globalizing world. yet, little is known about the inland transmission of infectious diseases in history. in this study, we based on the spatio-temporal information of 5559 plague (yersinia pestis) outbreaks in europe and its neighboring regions in ad1347-1760 to statistically examine the connection between navigable rivers and plague outbreak. our results showed that 95.5% of plague happened within 10 km proximity of navigable ri ... | 2016 | 27721393 |
| susceptibility of select agents to predation by predatory bacteria. | select agents are microorganisms and toxins considered to be exploitable as biological weapons. although infections by many select agents can be treated by conventional antibiotics, the risk of an emerging or engineered drug resistant strain is of great concern. one group of microorganisms that is showing potential to control drug resistant gram-negative bacteria are the predatory bacteria from the genera bdellovibrio spp. and micavibrio spp. in this study, we have examined the ability of bdello ... | 2015 | 27682124 |
| structure-activity relationships of the mepicides: n-acyl and o-linked analogs of fr900098 as inhibitors of dxr from mycobacterium tuberculosis and yersinia pestis. | despite continued research efforts, the threat of drug resistance from a variety of bacteria continues to plague clinical communities. discovery and validation of novel biochemical targets will facilitate development of new drugs to combat these organisms. the methylerythritol phosphate (mep) pathway to make isoprene units is a biosynthetic pathway essential to many bacteria. we and others have explored inhibitors of the mep pathway as novel antibacterial agents. mycobacterium tuberculosis, the ... | 2016 | 27676224 |
| vntr diversity in yersinia pestis isolates from an animal challenge study reveals the potential for in vitro mutations during laboratory cultivation. | underlying mutation rates and other evolutionary forces shape the population structure of bacteria in nature. although easily overlooked, similar forces are at work in the laboratory and may influence observed mutations. here, we investigated tissue samples and yersinia pestis isolates from a rodent laboratory challenge with strain co92 using whole genome sequencing and multi-locus variable-number tandem repeat (vntr) analysis (mlva). we identified six vntr mutations that were found to have occu ... | 2016 | 27664903 |
| beyond helper phage: using "helper cells" to select peptide affinity ligands. | peptides are important affinity ligands for microscopy, biosensing, and targeted delivery. however, because they can have low affinity for their targets, their selection from large naïve libraries can be challenging. when selecting peptidic ligands from display libraries, it is important to: 1) ensure efficient display; 2) maximize the ability to select high affinity ligands; and 3) minimize the effect of the display context on binding. the "helper cell" packaging system has been described as a ... | 2016 | 27626637 |
| molecular history of plague. | plague, a deadly zoonose caused by the bacterium yersinia pestis, has been firmly documented in 39 historical burial sites in eurasia that date from the bronze age to two historical pandemics spanning the 6th to 18th centuries. palaeomicrobiologic data, including gene and spacer sequences, whole genome sequences and protein data, confirmed that two historical pandemics swept over europe from probable asian sources and possible two-way-ticket journeys back from europe to asia. these investigation ... | 2016 | 27615720 |
| [ancient yersinia pestis genomes for tracing the origins and spreading of plague past epidemics]. | 2016 | 27615168 | |
| plazomicin is effective in a non-human primate pneumonic plague model. | the efficacy of plazomicin for pneumonic plague was evaluated in a non-human primate model. african green monkeys challenged with a lethal aerosol of yersinia pestis [median (range) of 98 (15-331) ld50s] received placebo (n=12) or 'humanized' dose regimens (6.25, 12.5 or 25mg/kg every 24h) of plazomicin (n=52) after the onset of fever for a duration of 5 or 10days. all animals treated with placebo died, while 36 plazomicin-treated animals survived through study end. the majority (33/36) were eit ... | 2016 | 27614915 |
| yersinia pestis caf1 protein: effect of sequence polymorphism on intrinsic disorder propensity, serological cross-reactivity and cross-protectivity of isoforms. | yersinia pestis caf1 is a multifunctional protein responsible for antiphagocytic activity and is a key protective antigen. it is generally conserved between globally distributed y. pestis strains, but y. pestis subsp. microtus biovar caucasica strains circulating within populations of common voles in georgia and armenia were reported to carry a single substitution of alanine to serine. we investigated polymorphism of the caf1 sequences among other y. pestis subsp. microtus strains, which have a ... | 2016 | 27606595 |
| detection of a yersinia pestis gene homologue in rodent samples. | a homologue to a widely used genetic marker, pla, for yersinia pestis has been identified in tissue samples of two species of rat (rattus rattus and rattus norvegicus) and of mice (mus musculus and apodemus sylvaticus) using a microarray based platform to screen for zoonotic pathogens of interest. samples were from urban locations in the uk (liverpool) and canada (vancouver). the results indicate the presence of an unknown bacterium that shares a homologue for the pla gene of yersinia pestis, so ... | 2016 | 27602258 |
| effect of natural polymorphism on structure and function of the yersinia pestis outer membrane porin f (ompf protein): a computational study. | the yersinia pestis outer membrane porin f (ompf) is a transmembrane protein located in the outer membrane of this gram-negative bacterium which is the causative agent of plague, where it plays a significant role in controlling the selective permeability of the membrane. the amino acid sequences of ompf proteins from 48 y. pestis strains representing all currently available phylogenetic groups of this gram-negative bacterium were recently deduced. comparison of these amino acid sequences reveale ... | 2016 | 27593697 |
| molecular, serological and epidemiological observations after a suspected outbreak of plague in nyimba, eastern zambia. | plague is a re-emerging zoonotic disease caused by the bacterium yersinia pestis. the disease has caused periodic global devastation since the first outbreak in the 6th century. two months after a suspected plague outbreak in nyimba district, samples were collected from 94 livestock (goats and pigs), 25 rodents, 6 shrews and 33 fleas. enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (elisa) and polymerase chain reaction (pcr) techniques were used to investigate the presence of y. pestis, which showed that 16.0 ... | 2017 | 27578859 |
| a high-coverage yersinia pestis genome from a sixth-century justinianic plague victim. | the justinianic plague, which started in the sixth century and lasted to the mid eighth century, is thought to be the first of three historically documented plague pandemics causing massive casualties. historical accounts and molecular data suggest the bacterium yersinia pestis as its etiological agent. here we present a new high-coverage (17.9-fold) y. pestis genome obtained from a sixth-century skeleton recovered from a southern german burial site close to munich. the reconstructed genome enab ... | 2016 | 27578768 |
| how old are bacterial pathogens? | only few molecular studies have addressed the age of bacterial pathogens that infected humans before the beginnings of medical bacteriology, but these have provided dramatic insights. the global genetic diversity of helicobacter pylori, which infects human stomachs, parallels that of its human host. the time to the most recent common ancestor (tmrca) of these bacteria approximates that of anatomically modern humans, i.e. at least 100 000 years, after calibrating the evolutionary divergence withi ... | 2016 | 27534956 |
| biological warfare in the 17th century. | 2016 | 27533653 | |
| evaluation of whole cell fixation methods for the analysis of nanoscale surface features of yersinia pestis kim. | manipulation of viable yersinia pestis (etiologic agent of plague) in the laboratory usually necessitates elevated biosafety and biocontainment procedures, even with avirulent or vaccine strains. to facilitate downstream biochemical or physical analyses in a biosafety level 1 laboratory environment, effective inactivation without affecting its intrinsic properties is critical. here, we report on the morphological and biochemical changes to y. pestis surfaces following four different fixation met ... | 2016 | 27527609 |
| xenopsylla brasiliensis fleas in plague focus areas, madagascar. | 2016 | 27513742 | |
| outbreak of plague in a high malaria endemic region - nyimba district, zambia, march-may 2015. | outbreaks of plague have been recognized in zambia since 1917 (1). on april 10, 2015, zambia's ministry of health was notified by the eastern provincial medical office of possible bubonic plague cases in nyimba district. eleven patients with acute fever and cervical lymphadenopathy had been evaluated at two rural health centers during march 28-april 9, 2015; three patients died. to confirm the outbreak and develop control measures, the zambia ministry of health's field epidemiology training prog ... | 2016 | 27513350 |
| plasmid ppcp1-derived srna hmsa promotes biofilm formation of yersinia pestis. | the ability of yersinia pestis to form a biofilm is an important characteristic in flea transmission of this pathogen. y. pestis laterally acquired two plasmids (ppcp1and pmt1) and the ability to form biofilms when it evolved from yersinia pseudotuberculosis. small regulatory rnas (srnas) are thought to play a crucial role in the processes of biofilm formation and pathogenesis. | 2016 | 27492011 |
| cell-free determination of binary complexes that comprise extended protein-protein interaction networks of yersinia pestis. | binary protein interactions form the basic building blocks of molecular networks and dynamic assemblies that control all cellular functions of bacteria. although these protein interactions are a potential source of targets for the development of new antibiotics, few high-confidence data sets are available for the large proteomes of most pathogenic bacteria. we used a library of recombinant proteins from the plague bacterium yersinia pestis to probe planar microarrays of immobilized proteins that ... | 2016 | 27489291 |
| biocidal and sporicidal efficacy of pathoster(®) 0.35% and pathoster(®) 0.50% against bacterial agents in potential bioterrorism use. | the use of products that can neutralize or significantly reduce the microbial load and that are not harmful to human health and the environment represents a milestone in the fight against the spread of infectious diseases. peracetic acid, besides being an excellent sterilizing and sporicidal agent, is harmless to humans and the environment when it is used in a common dosage. however, the high costs and loss of efficacy of the product very quickly after its reconstitution limit its use. we evalua ... | 2016 | 27482880 |
| resistance of mice of the 129 background to yersinia pestis maps to multiple loci on chromosome 1. | yersinia pestis is a gram-negative bacterium that is the causative agent of bubonic and pneumonic plague. it is commonly acquired by mammals such as rodents and humans via the bite of an infected flea. we previously reported that multiple substrains of the 129 mouse background are resistant to pigmentation locus-negative (pgm(-)) yersinia pestis and that this phenotype maps to a 30-centimorgan (cm) region located on chromosome 1. in this study, we have further delineated this plague resistance l ... | 2016 | 27481241 |
| manipulation of interleukin-1β and interleukin-18 production by yersinia pestis effectors yopj and yopm and redundant impact on virulence. | 2016 | 27474778 | |
| a recombinant trivalent fusion protein f1-lcrv-hsp70(ii) augments humoral and cellular immune responses and imparts full protection against yersinia pestis. | plague is one of the most dangerous infections in humans caused by yersinia pestis, a gram-negative bacterium. despite of an overwhelming research success, no ideal vaccine against plague is available yet. it is well established that f1/lcrv based vaccine requires a strong cellular immune response for complete protection against plague. in our earlier study, we demonstrated that hsp70(ii) of mycobacterium tuberculosis modulates the humoral and cellular immunity of f1/lcrv vaccine candidates indi ... | 2016 | 27458447 |
| plague in iran: its history and current status. | plague remains a public health concern worldwide, particularly in old foci. multiple epidemics of this disease have been recorded throughout the history of iran. despite the long-standing history of human plague in iran, it remains difficult to obtain an accurate overview of the history and current status of plague in iran. | 2016 | 27457063 |
| pterin-sulfa conjugates as dihydropteroate synthase inhibitors and antibacterial agents. | the sulfonamide class of antibiotics has been in continuous use for over 70years. they are thought to act by directly inhibiting dihydropteroate synthase (dhps), and also acting as prodrugs that sequester pterin pools by forming dead end pterin-sulfonamide conjugates. in this study, eight pterin-sulfonamide conjugates were synthesized using a novel synthetic strategy and their biochemical and microbiological properties were investigated. the conjugates were shown to competitively inhibit dhps, a ... | 2016 | 27423480 |
| classic spotlight: studies on the low-calcium response of yersinia pestis reveal the secrets of plague pathogenesis. | 2016 | 27413177 | |
| adjunctive corticosteroid treatment against yersinia pestis improves bacterial clearance, immunopathology, and survival in the mouse model of bubonic plague. | plague is initiated by yersinia pestis, a highly virulent bacterial pathogen. in late stages of the infection, bacteria proliferate extensively in the internal organs despite the massive infiltration of neutrophils. the ineffective inflammatory response associated with tissue damage may contribute to the low efficacy of antiplague therapies during late stages of the infection. in the present study, we address the possibility of improving therapeutic efficacy by combining corticosteroid administr ... | 2016 | 27402776 |
| [sympatric speciation of the plague microbe yersinia pestis: monohostal specialization in the host-parasite marmot-flea (marmota sibirica-oropsylla silantiewi) system]. | an ecological scenario of the origin of the plague microbe that is interpreted in the light of modern darwinism (synthetic theory of evolution) is presented. it is shown that the plague microbe emerged from a clone of the psychrophilic saprozoonotic pseudotuberculosis microbe yersinia pseudotuberculosis o:1b in the mountain steppe landscapes of central asia in the sartan time, 22000-15000 years ago, in the monohostal mongolian marmot (marmota sibirica)-flea (oropsylla silantiewi) host-parasite s ... | 2016 | 27396172 |
| [detection of yersinia enterocolitica bacteriophage phiye-f10 lysis spectrum and analysis of the relationship between lysis ability and virulence gene of yersinia enterocolitica]. | to determine the lysis spectrum of yersinia enterocolitica bacteriophage phiye-f10 and to analyze the relationship between the lysis ability of phiye-f10 and the virulence gene of yersinia enterocolitica. to observe the lysis ability of the phage phiye-f10 to the different yersinia strains with the double-layer technique. the strains used in this study including 213 of yersinia enterocolitica and 36 of yersinia pseudotuberculosis and 1 of yersinia pestis. the virulence genes of these yersinia en ... | 2016 | 27396162 |
| reannotation of yersinia pestis strain 91001 based on omics data. | yersinia pestis is among the most dangerous human pathogens, and systematic research of this pathogen is important in bacterial pathogenomics research. to fully interpret the biological functions, physiological characteristics, and pathogenesis of y. pestis, a comprehensive annotation of its entire genome is necessary. the emergence of omics-based research has brought new opportunities to better annotate the genome of this pathogen. here, the complete genome of y. pestis strain 91001 was reannot ... | 2016 | 27382076 |
| proteolysis of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 by yersinia pestis remodulates the host environment to promote virulence. | essentials effect of plasminogen activator inhibitor (pai)-1 on plague and its y. pestis cleavage is unknown. an intranasal mouse model of infection was used to determine the role of pai-1 in pneumonic plague. pai-1 is cleaved and inactivated by the pla protease of y. pestis in the lung airspace. pai-1 impacts both bacterial outgrowth and the immune response to respiratory y. pestis infection. click to hear dr bock discuss pathogen activators of plasminogen. | 2016 | 27377187 |
| plague in arab maghreb, 1940-2015: a review. | we reviewed the epidemiology of 49 plague outbreaks that resulted in about 7,612 cases in 30 localities in the arabic maghreb (mauritania, morocco, algeria, tunisia, libya, and egypt) over 75 years. between 1940 and 1950, most cases recorded in morocco (75%) and egypt (20%), resulted from plague imported to mediterranean harbors and transmitted by rat ectoparasites. by contrast, the re-emergence of plague in the southern part of western sahara in 1953 and in northeast libya in 1976 was traced to ... | 2016 | 27376053 |
| differential regulation of c-di-gmp metabolic enzymes by environmental signals modulates biofilm formation in yersinia pestis. | cyclic diguanylate (c-di-gmp) is essential for yersinia pestis biofilm formation, which is important for flea-borne blockage-dependent plague transmission. two diguanylate cyclases (dgcs), hmst and hmsd and one phosphodiesterase (pde), hmsp are responsible for the synthesis and degradation of c-di-gmp in y. pestis. here, we systematically analyzed the effect of various environmental signals on regulation of the biofilm phenotype, the c-di-gmp levels, and expression of hmst, hmsd, and hmsp in y. ... | 2016 | 27375563 |
| [pilot-scale purification of rf1-v fusion protein of yersinia pestis and characterization of its immunogenicity]. | recombinant fl-v (rfl-v) fusion protein is the main ingredient of the current candidate vaccine against yersinia pestis infection, which has been under investigation in clinical trial in usa. we investigated the soluble expression conditions of rf1-v in escherichia coli bl21 (de3) that we constructed before. after scale-up and optimization of fermentation processes, we got the optimized fermentation process parameters: the culture was induced at the middle exponential phase with 50 µmol/l of ipt ... | 2016 | 27363202 |
| yersinia virulence factors - a sophisticated arsenal for combating host defences. | the human pathogens yersinia pseudotuberculosis and yersinia enterocolitica cause enterocolitis, while yersinia pestis is responsible for pneumonic, bubonic, and septicaemic plague. all three share an infection strategy that relies on a virulence factor arsenal to enable them to enter, adhere to, and colonise the host while evading host defences to avoid untimely clearance. their arsenal includes a number of adhesins that allow the invading pathogens to establish a foothold in the host and to ad ... | 2016 | 27347390 |
| [isolation and biological characteristics on yersinia pestis phage yp060]. | to isolate and identify the characteristics of yersinia pestis phage yp060 from mice nests in yunnan plague focus. | 2016 | 27346118 |
| paleogenetics and past infections: the two faces of the coin of human immune evolution. | with the advent of next-generation sequencing, paleogenetics has considerably expanded over the past few years and notably encompassed the characterization of the genomes of archaic humans who lived more than 30,000 years ago. these paleogenetics investigations have revealed that admixture between modern and archaic humans occurred, with neanderthals having contributed to 1.5% to 2.1% of modern eurasian genomes, and denisovans to 3% to 6% of modern melanesian genomes and to approximately 0.2% of ... | 2016 | 27337483 |
| cationic host defense peptides; novel antimicrobial therapeutics against category a pathogens and emerging infections. | cationic host defense peptides (hdp, also known as antimicrobial peptides) are crucial components of the innate immune system and possess broad-spectrum antibacterial, antiviral, and immunomodulatory activities. they can contribute to the rapid clearance of biological agents through direct killing of the organisms, inhibition of pro-inflammatory mediators such as lipopolysaccharide, and by modulating the inflammatory response to infection. category a biological agents and materials, as classifie ... | 2017 | 27315342 |
| immunosuppressive yersinia effector yopm binds dead box helicase ddx3 to control ribosomal s6 kinase in the nucleus of host cells. | yersinia outer protein m (yopm) is a crucial immunosuppressive effector of the plaque agent yersinia pestis and other pathogenic yersinia species. yopm enters the nucleus of host cells but neither the mechanisms governing its nucleocytoplasmic shuttling nor its intranuclear activities are known. here we identify the dead-box helicase 3 (ddx3) as a novel interaction partner of y. enterocolitica yopm and present the three-dimensional structure of a yopm:ddx3 complex. knockdown of ddx3 or inhibitio ... | 2016 | 27300509 |
| historical y. pestis genomes reveal the european black death as the source of ancient and modern plague pandemics. | ancient dna analysis has revealed an involvement of the bacterial pathogen yersinia pestis in several historical pandemics, including the second plague pandemic (europe, mid-14(th) century black death until the mid-18(th) century ad). here we present reconstructed y. pestis genomes from plague victims of the black death and two subsequent historical outbreaks spanning europe and its vicinity, namely barcelona, spain (1300-1420 cal ad), bolgar city, russia (1362-1400 ad), and ellwangen, germany ( ... | 2016 | 27281573 |
| fast, sensitive point of care electrochemical molecular system for point mutation and select agent detection. | point of care molecular diagnostics benefits from a portable battery-operated device capable of performing a fast turnaround using reliable inexpensive cartridges. we describe a prototype device for performing a molecular diagnostics test for clinical and biodefense samples in 16 minutes using a prototype capable of an 8 minute pcr reaction, followed by hybridization and detection on an electrochemical microarray based on the i-stat® system. we used human buccal swabs for hemochromatosis testing ... | 2016 | 27280174 |
| the effect of growth temperature on the nanoscale biochemical surface properties of yersinia pestis. | yersinia pestis, the causative agent of plague, has been responsible for several recurrent, lethal pandemics in history. currently, it is an important pathogen to study owing to its virulence, adaptation to different environments during transmission, and potential use in bioterrorism. here, we report on the changes to y. pestis surfaces in different external microenvironments, specifically culture temperatures (6, 25, and 37 °c). using nanoscale imaging coupled with functional mapping, we illust ... | 2016 | 27259520 |
| mortality risk factors show similar trends in modern and historic populations exposed to plague. | plague has been responsible for two major historic pandemics (6th-8th century ce; 14th-19th century ce) and a modern one. the recent malagasy plague outbreaks raised new concerns on the deadly potential of the plague-causing bacteria yersinia pestis. between september 2014 and april 2015, outbreaks of bubonic and pneumonic plague hit the malagasy population. two hundred and sixty-three cases, including 71 deaths, have been reported in 16 different districts with a case fatality rate of 27%. the ... | 2016 | 27249524 |
| a rapid molecular test for determining yersinia pestis susceptibility to ciprofloxacin by the quantification of differentially expressed marker genes. | standard antimicrobial susceptibility tests used to determine bacterial susceptibility to antibiotics are growth dependent and time consuming. the long incubation time required for standard tests may render susceptibility results irrelevant, particularly for patients infected with lethal bacteria that are slow growing on agar but progress rapidly in vivo, such as yersinia pestis. here, we present an alternative approach for the rapid determination of antimicrobial susceptibility, based on the qu ... | 2016 | 27242774 |
| an internal standard approach for homogeneous tr-fret immunoassays facilitates the detection of bacteria, biomarkers, and toxins in complex matrices. | the recent development of a homogeneous time-resolved förster resonance energy transfer (tr-fret) immunoassay enables one-step, rapid (minutes), and direct detection compared to the multistep, time-consuming (hours), heterogeneous elisa-type immunoassays. the use of the time-resolved effect of a donor lanthanide complex with a delay time of microseconds and large stokes shift enables the separation of positive signals from the background autofluorescence of the sample. however, this study shows ... | 2016 | 27236318 |
| evaluation of yersinia pestis transmission pathways for sylvatic plague in prairie dog populations in the western u.s. | sylvatic plague, caused by the bacterium yersinia pestis, is periodically responsible for large die-offs in rodent populations that can spillover and cause human mortalities. in the western us, prairie dog populations experience nearly 100% mortality during plague outbreaks, suggesting that multiple transmission pathways combine to amplify plague dynamics. several alternate pathways in addition to flea vectors have been proposed, such as transmission via direct contact with bodily fluids or inha ... | 2016 | 27234457 |
| season of deltamethrin application affects flea and plague control in white-tailed prairie dog (cynomys leucurus) colonies, colorado, usa. | in 2008 and 2009, we evaluated the duration of prophylactic deltamethrin treatments in white-tailed prairie dog ( cynomys leucurus ) colonies and compared effects of autumn or spring dust application in suppressing flea numbers and plague. plague occurred before and during our experiment. overall, flea abundance tended to increase from may or june to september, but it was affected by deltamethrin treatment and plague dynamics. success in trapping prairie dogs (animals caught/trap days) declined ... | 2016 | 27195680 |
| effect of storage time and storage conditions on antibody detection in blood samples collected on filter paper. | using filter paper to collect blood from wildlife for antibody analysis can be a powerful technique to simplify the collection, transport, and storage of blood samples. despite these advantages, there are limited data that detail how long these samples can be stored and how storage conditions affect antibody longevity. we used blood samples collected on filter paper from coyotes experimentally infected with yersinia pestis to determine optimum sample storage conditions over time. blood samples c ... | 2016 | 27187032 |
| [comparative analysis of the mlva25- and mlva7-typing according to their ability to ascertain focal affiliation of yersinia pestis strains by the example of isolates from the central-caucasian highland natural plague focus]. | comparative analysis of the mlva25- and mlva7-typing ability to evaluate focal belonging of y. pestis strains by the example of bv. medievalis isolates from the central-caucasian highland natural plague focus was carried out. the mlva25-types of-82 isolates from this area were determined and included into the database containing information on 949 y. pestis strains from other natural foci of russia and other countries. categorical-upgma dendrograms were created on the bases of the data concernin ... | 2016 | 27183721 |
| targeted next-generation sequencing for the detection of ciprofloxacin resistance markers using molecular inversion probes. | antibiotic resistance (ar) is an epidemic of increasing magnitude requiring rapid identification and profiling for appropriate and timely therapeutic measures and containment strategies. in this context, ciprofloxacin is part of the first-line of countermeasures against numerous high consequence bacteria. significant resistance can occur via single nucleotide polymorphisms (snp) and deletions within ciprofloxacin targeted genes. ideally, use of ciprofloxacin would be prefaced with ar determinati ... | 2016 | 27174456 |
| epidemiological analysis of the eyam plague outbreak of 1665-1666. | plague, caused by the bacterium yersinia pestis, is one of the deadliest infectious diseases in human history, and still causes worrying outbreaks in africa and south america. despite the historical and current importance of plague, several questions remain unanswered concerning its transmission routes and infection risk factors. the plague outbreak that started in september 1665 in the derbyshire village of eyam claimed 257 lives over 14 months, wiping out entire families. since previous attemp ... | 2016 | 27170724 |
| a replication-defective human type 5 adenovirus-based trivalent vaccine confers complete protection against plague in mice and nonhuman primates. | currently, no plague vaccine exists in the united states for human use. the capsular antigen (caf1 or f1) and two type 3 secretion system (t3ss) components, the low-calcium-response v antigen (lcrv) and the needle protein yscf, represent protective antigens of yersinia pestis we used a replication-defective human type 5 adenovirus (ad5) vector and constructed recombinant monovalent and trivalent vaccines (rad5-lcrv and rad5-yfv) that expressed either the codon-optimized lcrv or the fusion gene d ... | 2016 | 27170642 |
| structural and functional characterization of the lps transporter lptde from gram-negative pathogens. | incorporation of lipopolysaccharide (lps) into the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria is essential for viability, and is accomplished by a two-protein complex called lptde. we solved crystal structures of the core lptde complexes from yersinia pestis, klebsiella pneumoniae, pseudomonas aeruginosa, and a full-length structure of the k. pneumoniae lptde complex. our structures adopt the same plug and 26-strand β-barrel architecture found recently for the shigella flexneri and salmonella typh ... | 2016 | 27161977 |
| ecological opportunity, evolution, and the emergence of flea-borne plague. | the plague bacillus yersinia pestis is unique among the pathogenic enterobacteriaceae in utilizing an arthropod-borne transmission route. transmission by fleabite is a recent evolutionary adaptation that followed the divergence of y. pestis from the closely related food- and waterborne enteric pathogen yersinia pseudotuberculosis a combination of population genetics, comparative genomics, and investigations of yersinia-flea interactions have disclosed the important steps in the evolution and eme ... | 2016 | 27160296 |
| [advance to the research of the climate factor effect on the distribution of plague]. | plague is an anthropozoonotic disease caused by the yersinia pestis ,which developed by many factors including local climate factors. in recent years, more and more studies on the effects of climate on plague were conducted. according to the researches, climate factors (mainly the rainfall and temperature) affected the development and distribution of plague by influencing the abundance of plague host animals and fleas index. the climate also affected the epidemic dynamics and the scope of plague ... | 2016 | 27141906 |
| selectivity of pyridone- and diphenyl ether-based inhibitors for the yersinia pestis fabv enoyl-acp reductase. | the enoyl-acp reductase (enr) catalyzes the last reaction in the elongation cycle of the bacterial type ii fatty acid biosynthesis (fas-ii) pathway. while the fabi enr is a well-validated drug target in organisms such as mycobacterium tuberculosis and staphylococcus aureus, alternate enr isoforms have been discovered in other pathogens, including the fabv enzyme that is the sole enr in yersinia pestis (ypfabv). previously, we showed that the prototypical enr inhibitor triclosan was a poor inhibi ... | 2016 | 27136302 |
| occurrence and analysis of irp2 virulence gene in isolates of klebsiella pneumoniae and enterobacter spp. from microbiota and hospital and community-acquired infections. | eighty-five isolates of klebsiella pneumoniae and enterobacter spp., originating from hospital- and community-acquired infections and from oropharyngeal and faecal microbiota from patients in recife-pe, brazil, were analyzed regarding the presence of irp2 gene. this is a yersinia typical gene involved in the synthesis of siderophore yersiniabactin. dna sequencing confirmed the identity of irp2 gene in five k. pneumoniae, five enterobacter aerogenes and one enterobacter amnigenus isolates. to our ... | 2016 | 27133266 |
| host-parasite associations in small mammal communities in semiarid savanna ecosystems of east africa. | despite the established importance of rodents as reservoirs of vector-borne zoonoses in east africa, there is relatively limited information regarding the infestation parameters and host associations of ectoparasites that vector many such pathogens among small mammals in this region. between 2009 and 2013, small mammals were live-trapped in the semiarid savanna of kenya. a subset of these individual hosts, including 20 distinct host taxa, was examined for ectoparasites, which were identified to ... | 2016 | 27113102 |
| highly effective soluble and bacteriophage t4 nanoparticle plague vaccines against yersinia pestis. | plague caused by yersinia pestis is an ancient disease, responsible for millions of deaths in human history. unfortunately, there is no fda-approved vaccine available. recombinant subunit vaccines based on two major antigens, caf 1 (f1) and lcrv (v), have been under investigation and showed promise. however, there are two main problems associated with these vaccines. first, the yersinia capsular protein f1 has high propensity to aggregate, particularly when expressed in heterologous systems such ... | 2016 | 27076150 |
| assessment of live plague vaccine candidates. | since its creation in the early twentieth century, live plague vaccine ev has been successfully applied to millions of people without severe complications. this vaccine has been proven to elicit protection against both bubonic and pneumonic plague, and it is still in use in populations at risk mainly in the countries of the former soviet union. despite extensive efforts in developing subunit vaccines, there is a reviving interest in creation of a precisely attenuated strain of yersinia pestis su ... | 2016 | 27076149 |
| replacing arginine 33 for alanine in the hemophore hasa from pseudomonas aeruginosa causes closure of the h32 loop in the apo-protein. | previous characterization of hemophores from serratia marcescens (hasas), pseudomonas aeruginosa (hasap), and yersinia pestis (hasayp) showed that hemin binds between two loops, where it is axially coordinated by h32 and y75. the y75 loop is structurally conserved in all three hemophores and harbors conserved ligand y75. the other loop contains h32 in hasas and hasap, but a noncoordinating q32 in hasayp. the h32 loop in apo-hasas and apo-hasap is in an open conformation, which places h32 about 3 ... | 2016 | 27074415 |
| new role for fda-approved drugs in combating antibiotic-resistant bacteria. | antibiotic resistance in medically relevant bacterial pathogens, coupled with a paucity of novel antimicrobial discoveries, represents a pressing global crisis. traditional drug discovery is an inefficient and costly process; however, systematic screening of food and drug administration (fda)-approved therapeutics for other indications in humans offers a rapid alternative approach. in this study, we screened a library of 780 fda-approved drugs to identify molecules that rendered raw 264.7 murine ... | 2016 | 27067323 |
| genetic variation at the mhc drb1 locus is similar across gunnison's prairie dog (cynomys gunnisoni) colonies regardless of plague history. | yersinia pestis was introduced to north america around 1900 and leads to nearly 100% mortality in prairie dog (cynomys spp.) colonies during epizootic events, which suggests this pathogen may exert a strong selective force. we characterized genetic diversity at an mhc class ii locus (drb1) in gunnison's prairie dog (c. gunnisoni) and quantified population genetic structure at the drb1 versus 12 microsatellite loci in three large arizona colonies. two colonies, seligman (se) and espee ranch (es), ... | 2016 | 27066243 |
| multiple antigens of yersinia pestis delivered by live recombinant attenuated salmonella vaccine strains elicit protective immunity against plague. | based on our improved novel salmonella vaccine delivery platform, we optimized the recombinant attenuated salmonella typhimurium vaccine (rasv) χ12094 to deliver multiple yersinia pestis antigens. these included lcrv196 (amino acids, 131-326), psn encoded on pya5383 and f1 encoded in the chromosome, their synthesis did not cause adverse effects on bacterial growth. oral immunization with χ12094(pya5383) simultaneously stimulated high antibody titers to lcrv, psn and f1 in mice and presented comp ... | 2016 | 27060051 |
| oral vaccination against plague using yersinia pseudotuberculosis. | yersinia pestis, the agent of plague, is among the deadliest bacterial pathogens affecting humans, and is a potential biological weapon. because antibiotic resistant strains of yersinia pestis have been observed or could be engineered for evil use, vaccination against plague might become the only means to reduce mortality. although plague is re-emerging in many countries, a vaccine with worldwide license is currently lacking. the vaccine strategy described here is based on an oral vaccination wi ... | 2017 | 27046452 |
| [on the origin of hypervirulence of the causative agent of plague]. | the attempt to combine yersinia pseudotuberculosis and yersinia pestis into one species has been unsupported by microbiologists due to the specific features of the epidemiology and clinical presentations of their induced diseases and to basic differences in their virulence. pseudotuberculosis is predominantly a relatively mild human intestinal infection transmitted through contaminated food and plague is an acute generalized disease with high mortality, which is most frequently transmitted by th ... | 2016 | 27029142 |
| expression and association of the yersinia pestis translocon proteins, yopb and yopd, are facilitated by nanolipoprotein particles. | yersinia pestis enters host cells and evades host defenses, in part, through interactions between yersinia pestis proteins and host membranes. one such interaction is through the type iii secretion system, which uses a highly conserved and ordered complex for yersinia pestis outer membrane effector protein translocation called the injectisome. the portion of the injectisome that interacts directly with host cell membranes is referred to as the translocon. the translocon is believed to form a por ... | 2016 | 27015536 |
| genomic insights into a new citrobacter koseri strain revealed gene exchanges with the virulence-associated yersinia pestis ppcp1 plasmid. | the history of infectious diseases raised the plague as one of the most devastating for human beings. far too often considered an ancient disease, the frequent resurgence of the plague has led to consider it as a reemerging disease in madagascar, algeria, libya, and congo. the genetic factors associated with the pathogenicity of yersinia pestis, the causative agent of the plague, involve the acquisition of the ppcp1 plasmid that promotes host invasion through the expression of the virulence fact ... | 2016 | 27014253 |
| crp is an activator of yersinia pestis biofilm formation that operates via a mechanism involving gmha and waaae-coad. | gmha encodes a phosphoheptose isomerase that catalyzes the biosynthesis of heptose, a conserved component of lipopolysaccharide (lps). gmha plays an important role in yersinia pestis biofilm blockage in the flea gut. waaa, waae, and coad constitute a three-gene operon waaae-coad in y. pestis. waaa encodes a transferase that is responsible for binding lipid-a to the core oligosaccharide of lps. waaa is a key determinant in y. pestis biofilm formation, and the waaa expression is positively regulat ... | 2016 | 27014218 |
| temporal progression of pneumonic plague in blood of nonhuman primate: a transcriptomic analysis. | early identification of impending illness during widespread exposure to a pathogenic agent offers a potential means to initiate treatment during a timeframe when it would be most likely to be effective and has the potential to identify novel therapeutic strategies. the latter could be critical, especially as antibiotic resistance is becoming widespread. in order to examine pre-symptomatic illness, african green monkeys were challenged intranasally with aerosolized yersinia pestis strain co92 and ... | 2016 | 27003632 |
| rapid antimicrobial susceptibility testing of bacillus anthracis, yersinia pestis, and burkholderia pseudomallei by use of laser light scattering technology. | rapid methods to determine antimicrobial susceptibility would assist in the timely distribution of effective treatment or postexposure prophylaxis in the aftermath of the release of bacterial biothreat agents such as bacillus anthracis, yersinia pestis, or burkholderia pseudomallei conventional susceptibility tests require 16 to 48 h of incubation, depending on the bacterial species. we evaluated a method that is based on laser light scattering technology that measures cell density in real time. ... | 2016 | 26984973 |
| reciprocal regulation of yersinia pestis biofilm formation and virulence by rovm and rova. | rova is known to enhance yersinia pestis virulence by directly upregulating the psa loci. this work presents a complex gene regulatory paradigm involving the reciprocal regulatory action of rovm and rova on the expression of biofilm and virulence genes as well as on their own genes. rovm and rova enhance and inhibit y. pestis biofilm production, respectively, whereas rovm represses virulence in mice. rovm directly stimulates the transcription of hmst, hmscde and rovm, while indirectly enhancing ... | 2016 | 26984293 |
| extraction of aerosol-deposited yersinia pestis from indoor surfaces to determine bacterial environmental decay. | public health and decontamination decisions following an event that causes indoor contamination with a biological agent require knowledge of the environmental persistence of the agent. the goals of this study were to develop methods for experimentally depositing bacteria onto indoor surfaces via aerosol, evaluate methods for sampling and enumerating the agent on surfaces, and use these methods to determine bacterial surface decay. a specialized aerosol deposition chamber was constructed, and met ... | 2016 | 26944839 |
| development of liposomal ciprofloxacin to treat lung infections. | except for management of pseudomonas aeruginosa (pa) in cystic fibrosis, there are no approved inhaled antibiotic treatments for any other diseases or for infections from other pathogenic microorganisms such as tuberculosis, non-tuberculous mycobacteria, fungal infections or potential inhaled biowarfare agents including francisella tularensis, yersinia pestis and coxiella burnetii (which cause pneumonic tularemia, plague and q fever, respectively). delivery of an antibiotic formulation via the i ... | 2016 | 26938551 |
| plague in china 2014-all sporadic case report of pneumonic plague. | yersinia pestis is the pathogen of the plague and caused three pandemics worldwide. pneumonic plague is rarer than bubonic and septicemic plague. we report detailed clinical and pathogenic data for all the three sporadic cases of pneumonic plagues in china in 2014. | 2016 | 26895880 |
| structure of d-alanine-d-alanine ligase from yersinia pestis: nucleotide phosphate recognition by the serine loop. | d-alanyl-d-alanine is an essential precursor of bacterial peptidoglycan and is synthesized by d-alanine-d-alanine ligase (ddl) with hydrolysis of atp; this reaction makes ddl an important drug target for the development of antibacterial agents. five crystal structures of ddl from yersinia pestis (ypddl) were determined at 1.7-2.5 å resolution: apo, amp-bound, adp-bound, adenosine 5'-(β,γ-imido)triphosphate-bound, and d-alanyl-d-alanine- and adp-bound structures. ypddl consists of three domains, ... | 2016 | 26894530 |
| quaternary structure of fur proteins, a new subfamily of tetrameric proteins. | the ferric uptake regulator (fur) belongs to the family of the dna-binding metal-responsive transcriptional regulators. fur is a global regulator found in all proteobacteria. it controls the transcription of a wide variety of genes involved in iron metabolism but also in oxidative stress or virulence factor synthesis. when bound to ferrous iron, fur can bind to specific dna sequences, called fur boxes. this binding triggers the repression or the activation of gene expression, depending on the re ... | 2016 | 26886069 |
| manipulation of interleukin-1β and interleukin-18 production by yersinia pestis effectors yopj and yopm and redundant impact on virulence. | innate immunity plays a central role in resolving infections by pathogens. host survival during plague, caused by the gram-negative bacterium yersinia pestis, is favored by a robust early innate immune response initiated by il-1β and il-18. these cytokines are produced by a two-step mechanism involving nf-κb-mediated pro-cytokine production and inflammasome-driven maturation into bioactive inflammatory mediators. because of the anti-microbial effects induced by il-1β/il-18, it may be desirable f ... | 2016 | 26884330 |
| the yersiniabactin-associated atp binding cassette proteins ybtp and ybtq enhance escherichia coli fitness during high-titer cystitis. | the yersinia high-pathogenicity island (hpi) is common to multiple virulence strategies used by escherichia coli strains associated with urinary tract infection (uti). among the genes in this island are ybtp and ybtq, encoding distinctive atp binding cassette (abc) proteins associated with iron(iii)-yersiniabactin import in yersinia pestis in this study, we compared the impact of ybtpq on a model e. coli cystitis strain during in vitro culture and experimental murine infections. a ybtpq-null mut ... | 2016 | 26883590 |
| spatial distribution patterns of plague hosts: point pattern analysis of the burrows of great gerbils in kazakhstan. | the spatial structure of a population can strongly influence the dynamics of infectious diseases, yet rarely is the underlying structure quantified. a case in point is plague, an infectious zoonotic disease caused by the bacterium yersinia pestis. plague dynamics within the central asian desert plague focus have been extensively modelled in recent years, but always with strong uniformity assumptions about the distribution of its primary reservoir host, the great gerbil (rhombomys opimus). yet, w ... | 2015 | 26877580 |
| 'add, stir and reduce': yersinia spp. as model bacteria for pathogen evolution. | pathogenic species in the yersinia genus have historically been targets for research aimed at understanding how bacteria evolve into mammalian pathogens. the advent of large-scale population genomic studies has greatly accelerated the progress in this field, and yersinia pestis, yersinia pseudotuberculosis and yersinia enterocolitica have once again acted as model organisms to help shape our understanding of the evolutionary processes involved in pathogenesis. in this review, we highlight the ge ... | 2016 | 26876035 |
| a deadly path: bacterial spread during bubonic plague. | yersinia pestis causes bubonic plague, a fulminant disease where host immune responses are abrogated. recently developed in vivo models of plague have resulted in new ideas regarding bacterial spread in the body. deciphering bacterial spread is key to understanding y. pestis and the immune responses it encounters during infection. | 2016 | 26875618 |
| two distinct yersinia pestis populations causing plague among humans in the west nile region of uganda. | plague is a life-threatening disease caused by the bacterium, yersinia pestis. since the 1990s, africa has accounted for the majority of reported human cases. in uganda, plague cases occur in the west nile region, near the border with democratic republic of congo. despite the ongoing risk of contracting plague in this region, little is known about y. pestis genotypes causing human disease. | 2016 | 26866815 |
| effect of temperature and relative humidity on the development times and survival of synopsyllus fonquerniei and xenopsylla cheopis, the flea vectors of plague in madagascar. | plague, a zoonosis caused by yersinia pestis, is found in asia, the americas but mainly in africa, with the island of madagascar reporting almost one third of human cases worldwide. in the highlands of madagascar, plague is transmitted predominantly by two flea species which coexist on the island, but differ in their distribution. the endemic flea, synopsyllus fonquerniei, dominates flea communities on rats caught outdoors, while the cosmopolitan flea, xenopsylla cheopis, is found mostly on rats ... | 2016 | 26864070 |
| polymorphism of the cysteine protease yopt from yersinia pestis. | antibiotic therapy of plague is hampered by the recent isolation of yersinia pestis strain resistant to all of antibiotics recommended for cure. this has constrained a quest for new antimicrobials taking aim at alternative targets. recently y. pestis cysteine protease yopt has been explored as a potential drug target. targets conserved in the pathogen populations should be more efficacious; therefore, we evaluated intraspecies variability in yopt genes and their products. 114 y. pestis isolates ... | 2016 | 26845766 |
| infection prevalence, bacterial loads, and transmission efficiency in oropsylla montana (siphonaptera: ceratophyllidae) one day after exposure to varying concentrations of yersinia pestis in blood. | unblocked fleas can transmit yersinia pestis, the bacterium that causes plague, shortly (≤4 d) after taking an infectious bloodmeal. investigators have measured so-called early-phase transmission (ept) efficiency in various fleas following infection with highly bacteremic blood (≥10(8 )cfu/ml). to date, no one has determined the lower limit of bacteremia required for fleas to acquire and transmit infection by ept, though knowing this threshold is central to determining the length of time a host ... | 2016 | 26843450 |
| feeding behavior modulates biofilm-mediated transmission of yersinia pestis by the cat flea, ctenocephalides felis. | the cat flea, ctenocephalides felis, is prevalent worldwide, will parasitize animal reservoirs of plague, and is associated with human habitations in known plague foci. despite its pervasiveness, limited information is available about the cat flea's competence as a vector for yersinia pestis. it is generally considered to be a poor vector, based on studies examining early-phase transmission during the first week after infection, but transmission potential by the biofilm-dependent proventricular- ... | 2016 | 26829486 |
| β-hydroxyacyl-acyl carrier protein dehydratase (fabz) from francisella tularensis and yersinia pestis: structure determination, enzymatic characterization, and cross-inhibition studies. | the bacterial system for fatty acid biosynthesis (fas) contains several enzymes whose sequence and structure are highly conserved across a vast array of pathogens. this, coupled with their low homology and difference in organization compared to the equivalent system in humans, makes the fas pathway an excellent target for antimicrobial drug development. to this end, we have cloned, expressed, and purified the β-hydroxyacyl-acyl carrier protein dehydratase (fabz) from both francisella tularensis ... | 2016 | 26818694 |
| [risk assessments and control strategies of plague in five key surveillance counties, zhejiang province]. | to analyze the epidemiology data on plague in five counties in zhejiang province and to evaluate the risk of plague in theses areas. | 2015 | 26813723 |