| the nlrc4 inflammasome contributes to restriction of pulmonary infection by flagellated legionella spp. that trigger pyroptosis. | the nlrc4 inflammasome is triggered in response to contamination of the host cell cytoplasm with bacterial flagellin, which induces pyroptosis, a form of cell death that accounts for restriction of bacterial infections. although induction of pyroptosis has been extensively investigated in response to salmonella typhimurium and legionella pneumophila, little is known regarding the role of the inflammasome for restriction of non-pneumophila legionella species. here, we used five species of the leg ... | 2011 | 21687424 |
| circadian clock proteins in prokaryotes: hidden rhythms? | circadian clock genes are vital features of eukaryotes that have evolved such that organisms can adapt to our planet's rotation in order to anticipate the coming day or night as well as unfavorable seasons. this circadian clock uses oscillation as a timekeeping element. however, circadian clock mechanisms exist also in prokaryotes. the circadian clock of cyanobacteria is well studied. it is regulated by a cluster of three genes: kaia, kaib, and kaic. in this review, we will discuss the circadian ... | 2010 | 21687756 |
| clinical and economic burden of community-acquired pneumonia amongst adults in the asia-pacific region. | community-acquired pneumonia (cap) is an important cause of mortality and morbidity amongst adults in the asia-pacific region. literature published between 1990 and may 2010 on the clinical and economic burden of cap amongst adults in this region was reviewed. cap is a significant health burden with significant economic impact in this region. chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cardiovascular disease, diabetes mellitus and advanced age were risk factors for cap. aetiological agents included s ... | 2011 | 21683553 |
| [biologic therapy and infections]. | biologic therapy is an important therapeutic arsenal in rheumatic diseases. anti-tnf therapies affect host defenses against infections, since tnf mediates inflammation and modulates cellular immune responses. cases of tuberculosis have been observed in patients treated with tnf antagonists, mainly due to the presence of latent or "dormant" tuberculosis infection (ltb1). other microorganisms responsible for the infectious complications associated with biologic therapy are generally intracellular ... | 2008 | 21794348 |
| total and viable legionella pneumophila cells in hot and natural waters as measured by immunofluorescence-based assays and solid-phase cytometry. | a new method was developed for the rapid and sensitive detection of viable legionella pneumophila. the method combines specific immunofluorescence (if) staining using monoclonal antibodies with a bacterial viability marker (chemchrome v6 cellular esterase activity marker) by means of solid-phase cytometry (spc). if methods were applied to the detection and enumeration of both the total and viable l. pneumophila cells in water samples. the sensitivity of the if methods coupled to spc was 34 cells ... | 2011 | 21742913 |
| asc-dependent and independent mechanisms contribute to restriction of legionella pneumophila infection in murine macrophages. | the apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase recruitment domain (asc) is an adaptor molecule that mediates inflammatory and apoptotic signals. legionella pneumophila is an intracellular bacterium and the causative agent of legionnaire's pneumonia. l. pneumophila is able to cause pneumonia in immuno-compromised humans but not in most inbred mice. murine macrophages that lack the ability to activate caspase-1, such as caspase(-1-/-) and nlrc4(-/-) allow l. pneumophila infection ... | 2011 | 21713115 |
| [atypical pneumonia with "atypical traits". analysis of a legionella outbreak.] | | 2011 | 21676390 |
| Accuracy and precision of Legionella isolation by US laboratories in the ELITE program pilot study. | A pilot study for the Environmental Legionella Isolation Techniques Evaluation (ELITE) Program, a proficiency testing scheme for US laboratories that culture Legionella from environmental samples, was conducted September 1, 2008 through March 31, 2009. Participants (n=20) processed panels consisting of six sample types: pure and mixed positive, pure and mixed negative, pure and mixed variable. The majority (93%) of all samples (n=286) were correctly characterized, with 88.5% of samples positive ... | 2011 | 21726887 |
| Modulation of Rab GTPase function by a protein phosphocholine transferase. | The intracellular pathogen Legionella pneumophila modulates the activity of host GTPases to direct the transport and assembly of the membrane-bound compartment in which it resides. In vitro studies have indicated that the Legionella protein DrrA post-translationally modifies the GTPase Rab1 by a process called AMPylation. Here we used mass spectrometry to investigate post-translational modifications to Rab1 that occur during infection of host cells by Legionella. Consistent with in vitro studies ... | 2011 | 21822290 |
| high-throughput typing method to identify a non-outbreak-involved legionella pneumophila strain colonizing the entire water supply system in the town of rennes, france. | two legionellosis outbreaks occurred in the city of rennes, france, during the past decade, requiring in-depth monitoring of legionella pneumophila in the water network and the cooling towers in the city. in order to characterize the resulting large collection of isolates, an automated low-cost typing method was developed. the multiplex capillary-based variable-number tandem repeat (vntr) (multiple-locus vntr analysis [mlva]) assay requiring only one pcr amplification per isolate ensures a high ... | 2011 | 21821761 |
| relationships between free-living protozoa, cultivable legionella spp., and water quality characteristics in three drinking water supplies in the caribbean. | the study whose results are presented here aimed at identifying free-living protozoa (flp) and conditions favoring the growth of these organisms and cultivable legionella spp. in drinking water supplies in a tropical region. treated and distributed water (±30°c) of the water supplies of three caribbean islands were sampled and investigated with molecular techniques, based on the 18s rrna gene. the protozoan host hartmannella vermiformis and cultivable legionella pneumophila were observed in all ... | 2011 | 21873489 |
| management of dental unit waterline biofilms in the 21st century. | dental chair units (dcus) use water to cool and irrigate dcu-supplied instruments and tooth surfaces, and provide rinsewater during dental treatment. a complex network of interconnected plastic dental unit waterlines (duwls) supply water to these instruments. duwls are universally prone to microbial biofilm contamination seeded predominantly from microorganisms in supply water. consequently, duwl output water invariably becomes contaminated by high densities of microorganisms, principally gram-n ... | 2011 | 22004039 |
| prevalence study of simkania negevensis in cooling towers in spain. | simkania negevensis is an obligate intracellular bacterium grouped into the order chlamydiales. this new amoeba-resistant intracellular bacterium might represent a novel etiologic agent of bronchiolitis and community-acquired pneumonia and occurs in aquatic habitats such as drinking water and reclaimed wastewater. another amoeba-related bacterium, legionella pneumophila, is an etiologic agent of pneumonia transmitted by environmental aerosols or contaminated water/air cooling systems. these tran ... | 2011 | 21942196 |
| non-chemotactic influence of cxcl7 on human phagocytes. modulation of antimicrobial activity against l. pneumophila. | we have investigated the role of cxcl7 in the immune response of human phagocytes against the intracellular bacteria mycobacterium tuberculosis and legionella pneumophila. we have observed that polymorphonuclear neutrophil (pmn) chemotaxis induced by the supernatants of infected monocyte derived macrophages (mdm) may be attributed to cxcl8 rather than cxcl7, although both chemokines are present in large quantities. we have also found that cxcl7 is present not only in the supernatants of mdm, but ... | 2011 | 22101183 |
| Legionella infections and travel associated legionellosis. | Travel associated Legionnaires' disease represents a significant cause of travel associated respiratory tract infections and impacts disproportionately on otherwise healthy individuals as a consequence of their travel abroad or within their own country. Because of the propensity of these bacteria to colonize man-made water systems, legionellosis are frequently reported in travelers who stayed in accommodations sites such as hotels or cruise ships. Since the discovery of this new pathogen and the ... | 2011 | 21995862 |
| The First Case of Legionella nagasakiensis Isolation from Hot Spring Water. | In August, 2010, strain HYMO-6 was isolated from a sample of hot spring water in Aomori, Japan. The 16S rDNA sequences (1,496bp) of this strain (accession number: AB597175) had a similarity of less than 96.6% to other Legionella species, prompting us to hypothesize that this strain might be a novel species belonging to the genus Legionella. However, in March of 2011, it was became clear that the HYMO-6 strain (=JCM 17450 =KCTC 23560 =DSM 24727) was Legionella nagasakiensis CDC-1796-JAP-E(T) (=AT ... | 2011 | 22190440 |
| Legionella longbeachae serogroup 1 infections linked to Potting Compost. | Four cases of legionellosis caused by Legionella longbeachae Serogroup (Sg) 1 were identified in Scotland from 2008 to 2010. All cases had exposure to commercially manufactured growing media or potting soils, commonly known as multi-purpose compost (MPC), in greenhouse conditions, prior to disease onset. Two cases had been using the same brand of MPC, however the clinical isolates were distinct genotypically by amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) analysis, but an indistinguishable AFLP ... | 2011 | 21940651 |
| development of a miniaturized dna microarray for identification of 66 virulence genes of legionella pneumophila. | introduction: for the last five years, legionella sp. infections and legionnaire's disease in poland have been receiving a lot of attention, because of the new regulations concerning microbiological quality of drinking water. this was the inspiration to search for and develop a new assay to identify many virulence genes of legionella pneumophila to better understand their distribution in environmental and clinical strains. the method might be an invaluable help in infection risk assessment and i ... | 2011 | 22204761 |
| Changing epidemiological trends of legionellosis in New Zealand, 1979-2009. | SUMMARYThis study evaluated the spatio-temporal variation of Legionella spp. in New Zealand using notification and laboratory surveillance data from 1979 to 2009 and analysed the epidemiological trends. To achieve this we focused on changing incidence rates and occurrence of different species over this time. We also examined whether demographic characteristics such as ethnicity may be related to incidence. The annual incidence rate for laboratory-proven cases was 2·5/100 000 and 1·4/100 000 for ... | 2011 | 21943591 |
| The immunochromatic kits Xpect(R) Legionella and BinaxNOW(R) Legionella for detection of Legionella pneumophila urinary antigen have low sensitivities for the diagnosis of Legionnaires' disease. | Urinary antigen tests are the most widely used methods for diagnosing Legionnaires' disease (LD). However, all available urinary antigen tests have the disadvantage that they have low or no sensitivity for other serogroups than Legionella (L.) pneumophila serogroup 1. Recently Oxoid introduced the Xpect® Legionella test for detection of L. pneumophila serogroup 1 and serogroup 6. In this study, we have evaluated the Xpect® kit together with the BinaxNOW® kit and compared with the Binax®EIA kit. ... | 2011 | 21921112 |
| prevention of legionnaires' disease in hospitals. | the first instance of legionella infection in a norwegian hospital was confirmed in 2005. we describe the best-known methods of eradicating legionella in hospitals. | 2011 | 21866196 |
| effector glycosyltransferases in legionella. | legionella causes severe pneumonia in humans. the pathogen produces an array of effectors, which interfere with host cell functions. among them are the glucosyltransferases lgt1, lgt2 and lgt3 from l. pneumophila. lgt1 and lgt2 are produced predominately in the post-exponential phase of bacterial growth, while synthesis of lgt3 is induced mainly in the lag-phase before intracellular replication of bacteria starts. lgt glucosyltransferases are structurally similar to clostridial glucosylating tox ... | 2011 | 21833323 |
| crystal structure of a copper-transporting pib-type atpase. | heavy-metal homeostasis and detoxification is crucial for cell viability. p-type atpases of the class ib (pib) are essential in these processes, actively extruding heavy metals from the cytoplasm of cells. here we present the structure of a pib-atpase, a legionella pneumophila copa cu(+)-atpase, in a copper-free form, as determined by x-ray crystallography at 3.2 +à resolution. the structure indicates a three-stage copper transport pathway involving several conserved residues. a pib-specific tra ... | 2011 | 21716286 |
| [Pathogenicity factors of bacteria with glycosylating activity]. | A and B toxins of Clostridium difficile, a-toxin of C. novyi, lehal toxin of C. sordellii, and TpeL toxin of C. perfringens belong to the group of the so-called large Clostridium toxins. These toxins modify low-molecular weight guanosine triphosphate-binding proteins of the Rho/Ras family by their glycosylation that results in inactivation of major signal pathways in eukaryotic cells. Lgt glycosyltransferases, a new group of pathogenicity factors also capable of inactivating eukaryotic substrate ... | 2011 | 22168036 |
| [Epidemiology and mechanisms of pneumonia in adults]. | Pneumonia is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in France. Microbial epidemiology, profile of bacterial resistance and prognosis depend on the type of pneumonia (community acquired pneumonia [CAP], health-care associated pneumonia, hospital acquired pneumonia or ventilator associated bacterial pneumonia). Streptococcus pneumoniae, community respiratory viruses, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydia pneumonia and Legionella sp. are the five most common pathogens causing CAP in adults. The suscep ... | 2011 | 22135968 |
| A Burkholderia pseudomallei macrophage infectivity potentiator-like protein has rapamycin-inhibitable peptidylprolyl isomerase activity and pleiotropic effects on virulence. | Macrophage infectivity potentiators (Mips) are a group of virulence factors encoded by pathogenic bacteria such as Legionella, Chlamydia, and Neisseria species. Mips are part of the FK506-binding protein (FKBP) family, whose members typically exhibit peptidylprolyl cis-trans isomerase (PPIase) activity which is inhibitable by the immunosuppressants FK506 and rapamycin. Here we describe the identification and characterization of BPSS1823, a Mip-like protein in the intracellular pathogen Burkholde ... | 2011 | 21859853 |
| molecular characterization of exploitation of the polyubiquitination and farnesylation machineries of dictyostelium discoideum by the ankb f-box effector of legionella pneumophila. | the dot/icm-translocated ankyrin b (ankb) f-box effector of legionella pneumophila is essential for intra-vacuolar proliferation and functions as a platform for the docking of polyubiquitinated proteins to the legionella-containing vacuole (lcv) within macrophages and ameba. here we show that ectopically expressed ankb in dictyostelium discoideum is targeted to the plasma membrane where it recruits polyubiquitinated proteins and it trans-rescues the intracellular growth defect of the ankb null m ... | 2011 | 21687415 |
| Legionella pneumophila transcriptional response to chlorine treatment. | Legionella pneumophila is a ubiquitous environmental microorganism found in freshwater that can cause an acute form of pneumonia known as Legionnaires' disease. Despite widespread use of chlorine to ensure drinking water quality and awareness that L. pneumophila may escape these treatments, little is known about its effects on L. pneumophila. The aim of this study was to investigate the L. pneumophila transcriptional response induced by chlorine treatment. Transcriptome analysis, using DNA array ... | 2011 | 22192759 |
| Instability of Gait as an Extrapulmonary Sequela in Acute Legionella Pneumonia: A Case Report. | BACKGROUND: Legionnaires disease is a potentially fatal infection often associated with permanent pulmonary fibrosis in survivors. Although neurological complications are not infrequent, chronic peripheral neuropathy in the absence of pulmonary abnormalities is an uncommon consequence of Legionnaires disease. CASE REPORT: A 51-year-old woman was admitted to the Emergency Department due to acute respiratory failure. Chest computed tomographic (CT) scan revealed bilateral consolidation shadows sug ... | 2011 | 21911280 |
| antibacterial properties of a glycolipid-rich extract and active principle from nunavik collections of the macroalgae fucus evanescens c. agardh (fucaceae). | this study investigated the antibacterial activity of glycolipid-rich extracts of the brown macroalga fucus evanescens in cell culture. accessions were collected on the arctic coast of ungava bay, nunavik, quebec. the crude ethyl acetate extract of these accessions showed strong antibacterial activity (≥4 log(10) cfu) against hemophilus influenzae , legionella pneumophila , propionibacterium acnes (atcc and clinical isolate), and streptococcus pyogenes at 100 µg/ml. this algal extract inhibited ... | 2011 | 21859295 |
| the htpab operon of legionella pneumophila cannot be deleted in the presence of the groe chaperonin operon of escherichia coli. | htpb, the chaperonin of the intracellular bacterial pathogen legionella pneumophila , displays several virulence-related functions in vitro. to confirm htpb's role in vivo, host infections with an htpb deletion mutant would be required. however, we previously reported that the htpab operon (encoding co-chaperonin and chaperonin) is essential. we attempted here to delete htpab in a l. pneumophila strain carrying the groe operon (encoding the escherichia coli co-chaperonin and chaperonin). the gro ... | 2011 | 22029459 |
| Electrochemical inactivation kinetics of boron-doped diamond electrode on waterborne pathogens. | A boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrode was constructed as a water disinfector for the inactivation of water borne pathogens. The bactericidal effect of the disinfector was evaluated on artificially contaminated waters containing, respectively, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Legionella pneumophila at high density. By treating the bacterial suspensions with 4 V of constant voltage between the BDD and the counter-electrode for 50 min, the population of E. coli and P. aeruginosa decreas ... | 2011 | 21976200 |
| [etiology of pneumonia in chilean hiv-infected adult patients]. | to establish the etiology of pneumonia and to compare the yield of diagnostic techniques for diagnosis of pneumocystis jiroveci and mycobacterium tuberculosis infections in hiv-1-infected patients. | 2011 | 22052399 |
| [Interdisciplinary management of a large Legionella outbreak in Germany]. | Between December 2009 and the end of January 2010, the largest hitherto known outbreak of Legionella in Germany took place in the cities of Ulm and Neu-Ulm. Of a total of 64 patients involved, 60 patients had to be hospitalized, and 5 patients died from the infection. This event was caused by a wet cooling tower of a large air conditioning system in the city center of Ulm. The search for the source of the Legionella emission was extremely difficult, since these plants are neither notifiable nor ... | 2011 | 22015788 |
| [four cases of respiratory infections caused by legionella pneumophila serogroup 3]. | legionella pneumonia tends to be severe and is known to be fatal. introduction of the urinary legionella antigen test and changes in the infectious disease law have led to increased numbers of reports, and milder cases are now occasionally seen. we experienced three cases demonstrating mild respiratory infections and one case demonstrating nosocomial pneumonia associated by legionella pneumophila serogroup 3. case 1 showed multiple ground-glass opacities on hrct and productive cough. cases 2 and ... | 2011 | 21861442 |
| quantification of legionella pneumophila by real-time quantitative pcr from samples with humic acid and ferric ion. | this study determined and overcame the influences of humic acid (ha) and/or ferric ion (fe) on quantification of legionella pneumophila by real-time quantitative pcr (qpcr). four commonly used dna isolation methods, qiaamp dna mini kit (q), q with sepharose 4b gel column (q/g), freeze-thaw/phenol-chloroform lysis (ft-pc), and ft-pc/g, were adopted to isolate l. pneumophila dna from samples containing fe alone (0-30mgl(-1)) or fe/ha (0/0-3/100mgl(-1)). among the four dna isolation methods, q remo ... | 2011 | 22104384 |
| The structural basis of mode of activation and functional diversity: a case study with HtrA family of serine proteases. | HtrA (High temperature requirement protease A) proteins that are primarily involved in protein quality control belong to a family of serine proteases conserved from bacteria to humans. HtrAs are oligomeric proteins that share a common trimeric pyramidal architecture where each monomer comprises a serine protease domain and one or two PDZ domains. Although the overall structural integrity is well maintained and they exhibit similar mechanism of activation, subtle conformational changes and struct ... | 2011 | 22027029 |
| reducing risk through 'not cutting corners'. | a comprehensive introduction to water risk and legislation, with a particular focus on the challenges in healthcare, was provided by blane judd, chief executive of the chartered institute of plumbing and heating engineering (ciphe), at a recent iheem seminar in london. in the spotlight in the presentation, part of a seminar entitled "total water management within healthcare premises" were subjects ranging from how to deal with legionella, and the dangers and potential costs of misconnection, to ... | 2011 | 22053355 |
| Host proteasomal degradation generates amino acids essential for intracellular bacterial growth. | Legionella pneumophila proliferates in environmental amoeba and human cells within the Legionella-containing vacuole (LCV). The exported AnkB F-box effector of L. pneumophila is anchored into the LCV membrane by host-mediated farnesylation. Here, we report that host proteasomal degradation of Lys(48)-linked polyubiquitinated proteins, assembled on the LCV by AnkB, generates amino acids required for intracellular bacterial proliferation. The severe defect of the ankB null mutant in proliferation ... | 2011 | 22096100 |
| Efficient synthesis and applications of peptides containing adenylylated tyrosine residues. | | 2011 | 21919157 |
| lamp-based method for a rapid identification of legionella spp. and legionella pneumophila. | legionella pneumophila is accounted for more than 80% of legionella infection. however it is difficult to discriminate between the l. pneumophila and non-l. pneumophila species rapidly. in order to detect the legionella spp. and distinguish l. pneumophila from legionella spp., a real-time loop-mediated isothermal amplification (lamp) platform that targets a specific sequence of the 16s rrna gene was developed. ls-lamp amplifies the fragment of the 16s rrna gene to detect all species of legionell ... | 2011 | 21847513 |
| Bacterial and fungal microflora in surgically removed lung cancer samples. | Clinical and experimental data suggest an association between the presence of bacterial and/or fungal infection and the development of different types of cancer, independently of chemotherapy-induced leukopenia. This has also been postulated for the development of lung cancer, however the prevalence and the exact species of the bacteria and fungi implicated, have not yet been described. | 2011 | 21999143 |
| respiratory syncytial virus (rsv) community-acquired pneumonia (cap) in a hospitalized adult with human immunodeficiency virus (hiv) mimicking influenza a and pneumocystis (carinii) jiroveci pneumonia (pcp). | respiratory syncytial virus (rsv) is an important cause of lower respiratory tract infections in young children, the elderly, and immunocompromised hosts, but rsv is a rare cause of community-acquired pneumonia (cap) in hospitalized adults with human immunodeficiency virus (hiv). in patients with hiv, cap is most frequently attributable to the usual bacterial respiratory pathogens that cause cap in immunocompetent hosts, eg, streptococcuspneumoniae or hemophilus influenzae. adults with hiv are a ... | 2012 | 22005289 |
| kinetic, mutagenic, and structural homology analysis of l-serine dehydratase from legionella pneumophila. | a structural database search has revealed that the same fold found in the allosteric substrate binding (asb) domain of mycobacterium tuberculosis d-3-phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase (pgdh) is found in l-serine dehydratase from legionella pneumophila. the m. tuberculosis pgdh asb domain functions in the control of catalytic activity. bacterial l-serine dehydratases are 4fe-4s proteins that convert l-serine to pyruvate and ammonia. sequence homology reveals two types depending on whether their α an ... | 2011 | 21878319 |
| [legionella contamination of hospital hot water supply systems in the light of research conducted in 2008-2010 as part of supervision by the country sanitary inspector in bydgoszcz]. | the aim of the study was to assess the level of legionella sp. contamination in the hot water supply systems at the premises of inpatient healthcare facilities. in the years 2008-2010 the state poviat sanitary inspector in bydgoszcz tested the hot water supply systems in 8 hospitals. a total of 88 samples of hot water were collected in the years 2008-2010. the analysis involved temperature measurements and microbiological testing of the hot water. contamination levels exceeding the applicable st ... | 2011 | 22184945 |
| manipulation of host vesicular trafficking and innate immune defence by legionella dot/icm effectors. | legionella pneumophila, the causative agent of legionnaires' disease, infects and replicates in macrophages and amoebas. following internalization, l. pneumophila resides in a vacuole structure called legionella-containing vacuole (lcv). the lcv escapes from the endocytic maturation process and avoids fusion with the lysosome, a hallmark of legionella pathogenesis. interference with the secretory vesicle transport and avoiding lysosomal targeting render the lcv permissive for l. pneumophila intr ... | 2011 | 21981078 |
| Caenorhabditis elegans as an Alternative Model to Study Senescence of Host Defense and the Prevention by Immunonutrition. | Whether nutritional control can retard senescence of immune function and decrease mortality from infectious diseases has not yet been established; the difficulty of establishing a model has made this a challenging topic to investigate. Caenorhabditis elegans has been extensively used as an experimental system for biological studies. Particularly for aging studies, the worm has the advantage of a short and reproducible life span. The organism has also been recognized as an alternative to mammalia ... | 2012 | 22127882 |
| humidification of unwrapped chilled meat on retail display using an ultrasonic fogging system. | the effects of an ultrasonic humidification system on unwrapped meat in a chilled retail display cabinet were assessed. humidification raised the relative humidity of the cabinet air from a mean of 76.7% to just below saturation at 98.8%. this reduced the mean evaporative weight loss from whole samples of meat after 14h from 1.68% to 0.62% of their initial weight. the rate of deterioration in the appearance of the meat due to dehydration was reduced to the extent that while the unhumidified tria ... | 2007 | 22061957 |
| applications of pcr (real-time and masstag) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in diagnosis of respiratory infections and diarrheal illness among deployed u.s. military personnel during exercise balikatan 2009, philippines. | laboratory-based surveillance for diarrheal and respiratory illness was conducted at the 2009 republic of the philippines-united states balikatan exercise to determine the presence of specific pathogens endemic in the locations where the military exercises were conducted. ten stool and 6 respiratory specimens were obtained from individuals meeting case definitions for diarrhea or respiratory illness. stool specimens were frozen in dry ice and remotely tested using enzyme-linked immunosorbent ass ... | 2011 | 22128641 |
| scald risk in social housing can be reduced through thermostatic control system without increasing legionella risk: a cluster randomised trial. | to quantify the effects of a thermostatic control system in social (public) housing on the prevalence of dangerous (>60°c) water temperatures and on fuel consumption. | 2011 | 21937486 |
| protein lida from legionella is a rab gtpase supereffector. | the causative agent of legionnaires disease, legionella pneumophila, injects several hundred proteins into the cell it infects, many of which interfere with or exploit vesicular transport processes. one of these proteins, lida, has been described as a rab effector (i.e., a molecule that interacts preferentially with the gtp-bound form of rab). we describe here the structure and biochemistry of a complex between the rab-binding domain of lida and active rab8a. lida displays structural peculiariti ... | 2011 | 22011575 |
| The N-Acylneuraminate Cytidyltransferase Gene, neuA, Is Heterogenous in Legionella pneumophila Strains but Can Be Used as a Marker for Epidemiological Typing in the Consensus Sequence-Based Typing Scheme. | Sequence-based typing (SBT) is the internationally recognized standard method for genotyping Legionella pneumophila. To date all strains of serogroup 1 (SG1) and some of SGs 2 to 14 yield a seven-allele profile and can be assigned a sequence type (ST). However, for some strains belonging to SGs 2 to 14, the targeted region of the neuA gene could not be amplified using the published standard primers. We determined the DNA sequence of a neuA gene homolog located in the lipopolysaccharide synthesis ... | 2011 | 21956982 |
| activation of nlrc4 by flagellated bacteria triggers caspase-1-dependent and -independent responses to restrict legionella pneumophila replication in macrophages and in vivo. | although nlrc4/ipaf activation by flagellin has been extensively investigated, the downstream signaling pathways and the mechanisms responsible for infection clearance remain unclear. in this study, we used mice deficient for the inflammasome components in addition to wild-type (wt) legionella pneumophila or bacteria deficient for flagellin (flaa) or motility (flii) to assess the pathways responsible for nlrc4-dependent growth restriction in vivo and ex vivo. by comparing infections with wt l. p ... | 2011 | 22079982 |
| [the lethiferous journey of a bacterium--the research progress of secretion systems and effectors in legionella pneumophila]. | legionella pneumophila is the intracellular bacterial pathogen that causes severe legionnaires' disease and flu-like pontiac fever. to accomplish successful aggression against hosts, l. pneumophila secrets more than 150 kinds of substrate effector proteins into host cells via its type ivb secretion system. with the multiple functions of effectors, l. pneumophila evades effectively the defense systems of hosts, converts or adjusts intracellular vesicular transport of hosts, modifies or disguises ... | 2011 | 21993284 |
| legionella pneumophila urinary antigen subtyping using monoclonal antibodies as a tool for epidemiological investigations. | legionnaires' disease is diagnosed predominantly by urinary antigen detection, and patient isolates are rarely available. the lipopolysaccharide (lps) epitope pattern of isolates detected by monoclonal antibodies is an accepted marker for the phenotyping of l. pneumophila serogroup 1 strains into monoclonal subgroups. l. pneumophila lps is the dominant antigen in patients' urinary specimens. by using commercially available microtiter wells coated with rabbit anti-legionella serogroup 1 igg as th ... | 2011 | 22120420 |
| roles of il-17 in an experimental legionella pneumonia model. | interleukin (il)-17 is a key factor in t helper type (th) 17 lineage host responses and plays critical roles in immunological control of a variety of infectious diseases. although legionella pneumophila, an intracellular bacterium found widely in the environment, often causes a serious and life-threatening pneumonia in humans, the contribution of il-17 to immune function during legionella pneumonia is unknown. in the present study, we used an experimental legionella pneumonia infection to clarif ... | 2011 | 22144493 |
| an in-premise model for legionella exposure during showering events. | an exposure model was constructed to predict the critical legionella densities in an engineered water system that result in infection from inhalation of aerosols containing the pathogen while showering. the model predicted the legionella densities in the shower air, water and in-premise plumbing biofilm that might result in a deposited dose of legionella in the alveolar region of the lungs associated with infection for a routine showering event. processes modeled included the detachment of biofi ... | 2011 | 21924754 |
| diagnosis of fulminant pneumonia caused by legionella pneumophila serogroup 8 with the sequence analysis of the 16s rrna gene. | pneumonia is the fourth leading cause of death in japan. accurate and rapid detection of the causative pathogen(s) is necessary and important for appropriate antimicrobial treatment, especially in patients with rapidly progressive pneumonia or immunocompromised patients. conventional methods, such as cultivations, detection of urinary antigens or pcr amplification of specific genes, inevitably require the precise presumption of potential pathogens in each case, and pneumonia caused by unanticipa ... | 2011 | 21878746 |
| Legionella pneumophila community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) in a post-splenectomy patient with myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS). | Legionnaire's disease is a cause of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) in normal hosts, but those with impaired cell-mediated immunity (CMI) and T-lymphocyte function are particularly predisposed to Legionella species CAP. Myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) is a disorder of the elderly that is associated with impaired CMI. Cases of MDS or Legionella species CAP are rare. Splenectomized patients primarily have impaired humoral immunity and B-lymphocyte function, and, to a lesser extent, some decrease ... | 2011 | 22197305 |
| chemical disinfection of legionella in hot water systems biofilm: a pilot-scale 1 study. | legionella bacteria encounter optimum growing conditions in hot water systems and cooling towers. a pilot-scale 1 unit was built in order to study the biofilm disinfection. it consisted of two identical loops, one used as a control and the other as a 'test loop'. a combination of a bio-detergent and a biocide (hydrogen peroxide + peracetic acid) was applied in the test loop three times under the same conditions at 100 and 1,000 mg/l with a contact time of 24 and 3-6 hours, respectively. each tre ... | 2011 | 22097051 |
| identification of legionella pneumophila serogroups and other legionella species by mip gene sequencing. | the virulence factor known as the macrophage infectivity potentiator (mip) is responsible for the intracellular survival of legionella species. in this study, we investigated the potential of the mip gene sequence to differentiate isolates of different species of legionella and different serogroups of legionella pneumophila. we used 35 clinical l. pneumophila isolates and one clinical isolate each of legionella micdadei, legionella longbeachae, and legionella dumoffii (collected from hospitals a ... | 2011 | 22015397 |
| legionella: from protozoa to humans. | | 2011 | 22016745 |
| legionella pneumophila st1/paris-pulsotype subtyping by spoligotyping. | endemic strains of legionella pneumophila st1, in particular the st1/paris-pulsotype, are dispersed worldwide and represent about 10% of culture-proven clinical cases of ld in france. the high isolation rate of this strain, in both clinical and environmental samples, makes identification of the source of infection difficult during epidemiological investigations. the full-length genome sequence of this strain was recently determined and it revealed the presence of a crispr/cas complex. the aim of ... | 2011 | 22205819 |
| enhanced isolation of legionella species from composted material. | legionella pneumophila and legionella species were isolated from composted material when freshly prepared buffered charcoal yeast extract (bcye) was supplemented with glycine (1.5 g/l), polymyxin b sulfate (40 000 iu/l), vancomycin hydrochloride (0.5 mg/l) and cycloheximide (40 mg/l) (gvpc medium) and modified wadowsky-yee (mwy) (oxoid, cambridge, uk) plates were used for cultivation, but not with commercially sourced pre-poured gvpc and mwy plates (oxoid). legionella cincinnatiensis and pathoge ... | 2011 | 21848971 |
| cluster of travel-associated legionnaires disease in lazise, italy, july to august 2011. | | 2011 | 21996379 |
| performance on a multipathogen external quality assessment (eqa) panel by different mono- and multiplex nucleic acid amplification tests. | an external quality assessment (eqa) panel consisting of a total of 48 samples in broncho alveolar lavage (bal) or transport medium was prepared in collaboration with quality control for molecular diagnostics (qcmd) (www.qcmd.org). the panel was used to assess the proficiency of the 3 laboratories that would be responsible to examine the 6000 samples to be collected in the grace network of excellence (www.grace-lrti.org). the main objective was to decide on the best performing testing approach f ... | 2011 | 22170925 |
| prevalence of legionella spp. in water systems of hospitals and hotels in south western greece. | the aim of the present study was to determine the prevalence of legionella spp. in water systems of hospitals and hotels located in south western greece, to study the molecular epidemiology of the isolated strains and their possible association with bacterial contamination (total count and pseudomonas aeruginosa), the water ph, and temperature. a prevalence survey for legionella spp. by culturing techniques in water distribution systems of eight hospitals and nine hotels occurred in south wester ... | 2011 | 22149148 |
| de-ampylation unmasked: modulation of host membrane trafficking. | ampylation, a posttranslational modification in which adenosine monophosphate (amp) is added to hydroxyl side chains of protein substrates, is employed by many bacterial pathogens to subvert host signaling pathways during infection. the legionella pneumophila effector protein sidm is a multifunctional enzyme that targets the guanosine triphosphatase (gtpase) rab1 to manipulate intracellular vesicular trafficking in the host cell. sidm recruits rab1 to the membranes of legionella-containing vacuo ... | 2011 | 21990428 |
| rpka, a highly conserved gpcr with a lipid kinase domain, has a role in phagocytosis and anti-bacterial defense. | rpka (receptor phosphatidylinositol kinase a) is an unusual seven-helix transmembrane protein of dictyostelium discoideum with a g protein coupled receptor (gpcr) signature and a c-terminal lipid kinase domain (gpcr-pipk) predicted as a phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate 5-kinase. rpka-homologs are present in all so far sequenced dictyostelidae as well as in several other lower eukaryotes like the oomycete phytophthora, and in the legionella host acanthamoeba castellani. here we show by immunofluo ... | 2011 | 22073313 |
| [hygiene in schools - an important issue for the public health services]. | according to the protection against infection act (ifsg), schools have to identify their arrangements of standard operating procedures (sops) for hygienic conditions, and the public health departments are obliged to check the hygienic conditions in schools. here, practical experience with these topics in frankfurt/main, germany, is presented.although all schools had been informed about their duties according to ifsg in 2001, only 44% (80/180 schools) of them were able to present their sops when ... | 2011 | 22113381 |
| the surfactant of legionella pneumophila is secreted in a tolc-dependent manner and is antagonistic toward other legionella species. | when legionella pneumophila grows on agar plates, it secretes a surfactant that promotes flagellum- and pilus-independent "sliding" motility. we isolated three mutants that were defective for surfactant. the first two had mutations in genes predicted to encode cytoplasmic enzymes involved in lipid metabolism. these genes mapped to two adjacent operons that we designated bbcabcdef and bbcghijk. backcrossing and complementation confirmed the importance of the bbc genes and suggested that the legio ... | 2011 | 21890700 |
| Anchoring of bacterial effectors to host membranes through host-mediated lipidation by prenylation: a common paradigm. | Post-translational lipidation by prenylation of the CaaX-box C-terminal motif in eukaryotic proteins facilitates anchoring of hydrophilic proteins, such as Ras and Rab, to membranes. A large cadre of bacterial effectors injected into host cells is anchored to host membranes by unknown mechanisms. As already documented for Legionella and Salmonella, we propose a common paradigm of microbial exploitation of the host prenylation machinery for anchoring of injected effectors to host membranes. This ... | 2011 | 21983544 |
| combined legionella and escherichia coli lung infection after a tsunami disaster. | pulmonary infection after a tsunami is often polymicrobial and tends to form chronic pyogenic lung disease, necrotizing pneumonia, and empyemas. we report a combined pulmonary infection of legionella and multiple antibiotic-resistant escherichia coli in a previously well 75-year-old woman following immersion in tsunami waters 1 km inland from the pacific coastline following the tohoku region pacific coast earthquake of 2011. she needed drainage several times and the long-term use of multiple ant ... | 2011 | 21963747 |
| legionella species in year-round vs. seasonal accommodation water supply systems. | the purpose of this study was to compare the quality of hot water between eleven hotels in the split-dalmatia county, croatia that are open year round and 10 summer season hotels and retirement homes with irregular use of water. we took 122 samples between may and december 2009. water temperature and free residual chlorine were measured in situ. physical and chemical analysis included ph, electrical conductivity, and concentrations of iron, manganese, copper, zinc, calcium, and magnesium that we ... | 2011 | 22202467 |
| Molecular evolution of key genes for type II secretion in Legionella pneumophila. | Given the role of type II protein secretion system (T2S) in the ecology and pathogenesis of Legionella pneumophila, it is possible that this system is a target for adaptive evolution. The population genetic structure of L. pneumophila was inferred from the partial sequences of rpoB and from the complete sequence of three T2S structural components (lspD, lspE and pilD) and from two T2S effectors critical for intracellular infection of protozoa (proA and srnA) of 37 strains isolated from natural a ... | 2011 | 22118294 |
| plan for the control of legionella infections in long-term care facilities: role of environmental monitoring. | in accordance with the international and national guidelines, the emilia-romagna region (italy) has established regional guidelines for the surveillance and prevention of legionellosis based on the concept of risk assessment, with particular attention to environmental monitoring. the aim of this study was to verify how environmental surveillance in the context of risk assessment plans could help to guide decisions about preventive strategies against legionella infections in long term care facili ... | 2011 | 21925948 |
| legionellae in engineered systems and use of quantitative microbial risk assessment to predict exposure. | while it is well-established that legionella are able to colonize engineered water systems, the number of interacting factors contributing to their occurrence, proliferation, and persistence are unclear. this review summarizes current methods used to detect and quantify legionellae as well as the current knowledge of engineered water system characteristics that both favour and promote legionellae growth. furthermore, the use of quantitative microbial risk assessment (qmra) models to predict pote ... | 2011 | 22209280 |
| legionellosis --- united states, 2000-2009. | legionnaires disease (ld), a serious, sometimes lethal pneumonia, and pontiac fever (pf), an influenza-like, self-limited illness, are the two most common forms of legionellosis, which is caused by legionella bacteria. legionellosis cases are reported to cdc through the national notifiable disease surveillance system (nndss) and a supplemental legionnaires disease surveillance system (sldss) designed to manage surveillance data on travel-related cases and enhance outbreak detection. for this rep ... | 2011 | 21849965 |
| How often is a work-up for Legionella pursued in patients with pneumonia? a retrospective study. | It is unclear how often patients with pneumonia are assessed for Legionella in endemic areas. Additionally, the sensitivity of the IDSA/ATS criteria for recommended Legionella testing is undefined. | 2011 | 21899763 |
| extensive recombination events and horizontal gene transfer shaped the legionella pneumophila genomes. | legionella pneumophila is an intracellular pathogen of environmental protozoa. when humans inhale contaminated aerosols this bacterium may cause a severe pneumonia called legionnaires' disease. despite the abundance of dozens of legionella species in aquatic reservoirs, the vast majority of human disease is caused by a single serogroup (sg) of a single species, namely l. pneumophila sg1. to get further insights into genome dynamics and evolution of sg1 strains, we sequenced strains lorraine and ... | 2011 | 22044686 |
| Evaluation of the SD Bioline test, a new assay for detecting Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1 antigen in urine. | | 2012 | 22024377 |
| Electrochemically amplified molecular beacon biosensor for ultrasensitive DNA sequence-specific detection of Legionella sp. | An electrochemically amplified molecular beacon (EAMB) biosensor is constructed using thiolated hairpin DNA-ferrocene probes on gold electrode. The switching from "on" to "off" states of individual probes in the presence of complementary DNA target influences the electrode potential, besides the current, owing to changes in surface density of the electroactive hairpin DNA-ferrocene probes. The EAMB biosensor demonstrates linear range over 8 orders of magnitude with ultrasensitive detection limit ... | 2011 | 22196877 |
| the occurrence of legionella species other than legionella pneumophila in clinical and environmental samples in denmark identified by mip gene sequencing and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. | clin microbiol infect abstract: in denmark, several laboratories use pcr as a routine diagnostic method for legionnaires' disease, and almost all pcr-positive samples are investigated by culture. from 1993 to 2010, isolates of legionella species other than legionella pneumophila were obtained from respiratory samples from 33 patients, and from 1997 to 2010, 42 isolates of legionella non-pneumophila species were obtained and saved from water samples from 39 different sites in denmark. macrophage ... | 2011 | 22070605 |
| Evaluation of empirical antibiotherapy for acute community-acquired pneumonia prescribed in emergency departments. | OBJECTIVE: The authors assessed the management of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) and empirical antibiotic prescription in a primary care center. METHOD: A retrospective study was made on medical charts of patients admitted to the emergency department for CAP. RESULTS: Seventy-six patients were included. Their mean age was 65years for a sex ratio of 1.81. Fever (83%) and cough (72%) were the most common symptoms. Chest X-ray was abnormal in 86%. The median CRP value was 138mg/L (58-235). The ... | 2011 | 22154524 |
| Diagnostic Challenges and Opportunities in Older Adults With Infectious Diseases. | Infections remain a major threat to the well-being of our growing aged population. The correct and timely diagnosis of infections in older adults is increasingly important in the current age of antimicrobial resistance. Urinary tract infection, pneumonia, and bacteremia present particular challenges. In older patients with bacteremia, blood cultures have comparable yield as compared with younger patients. However, the routine triggers for ordering blood cultures may not be appropriate in older a ... | 2011 | 22186775 |
| minimization of the legionella pneumophila genome reveals chromosomal regions involved in host range expansion. | legionella pneumophila is a bacterial pathogen of amoebae and humans. intracellular growth requires a type ivb secretion system that translocates at least 200 different proteins into host cells. to distinguish between proteins necessary for growth in culture and those specifically required for intracellular replication, a screen was performed to identify genes necessary for optimal growth in nutrient-rich medium. mapping of these genes revealed that the l. pneumophila chromosome has a modular ar ... | 2011 | 21873199 |
| the overlapping host responses to bacterial cyclic dinucleotides. | macrophages respond to infection with legionella pneumophila by the induction of inflammatory mediators, including type i interferons (ifn-is). to explore whether the bacterial second messenger cyclic 3'-5' diguanylate (c-digmp) activates some of these mediators, macrophages were infected with l. pneumophila strains in which the levels of bacterial c-digmp had been altered. intriguingly, there was a positive correlation between c-digmp levels and ifn-i expression. subsequent studies with synthet ... | 2011 | 21933720 |
| Wild-type MIC distribution and epidemiological cut-off values in clinical Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1 isolates. | The purpose of this study was to establish wild-type (WT) distributions and determine the epidemiological cut-off values (ECOFF) in clinical L. pneumophila serogroup 1 isolates for 10 antimicrobials commonly used for the treatment of Legionella infections using a method feasible in a routine clinical laboratory. | 2012 | 22100012 |
| surveillance for waterborne disease outbreaks associated with drinking water---united states, 2007--2008. | since 1971, cdc, the environmental protection agency (epa), and the council of state and territorial epidemiologists have collaborated on the waterborne disease and outbreak surveillance system (wbdoss) for collecting and reporting data related to occurrences and causes of waterborne disease outbreaks associated with drinking water. this surveillance system is the primary source of data concerning the scope and health effects of waterborne disease outbreaks in the united states. | 2011 | 21937977 |
| opportunistic pathogens relative to physicochemical factors in water storage tanks. | household water in oman, as well as in other countries in the region, is stored in tanks placed on house roofs that can be subjected to physicochemical factors which can promote microbial growth, including pathogens and opportunistic pathogens which pose health risks. water samples were collected from 30 houses in a heavily populated suburb of muscat. the tanks used were either glass reinforced plastic (grp), polyethylene or galvanised iron (gi). heterotrophic bacteria, coliforms, faecal colifor ... | 2011 | 21942202 |
| diversity and impact of prokaryotic toxins on aquatic environments: a review. | microorganisms are ubiquitous in all habitats and are recognized by their metabolic versatility and ability to produce many bioactive compounds, including toxins. some of the most common toxins present in water are produced by several cyanobacterial species. as a result, their blooms create major threats to animal and human health, tourism, recreation and aquaculture. quite a few cyanobacterial toxins have been described, including hepatotoxins, neurotoxins, cytotoxins and dermatotoxins. these t ... | 2010 | 22069558 |
| decreasing trend of legionella isolation in a long-term microbial monitoring program in greek hospitals. | legionnaires' disease is a known cause of severe pneumonia in a nosocomial setting. this study examined legionella isolation in greek hospitals. water samples and swabs of showerheads from 41 hospitals were collected over a four-year period (2004-2007) from hot and cold water systems and cooling towers in greece. in total, 1058 samples were examined for the presence of legionella. from the hot water samples examined, 166 out of 607 (27.3%) were positive for legionella, including 111 (18.3%) posi ... | 2011 | 22017573 |
| legionella pneumophila serogroup 3 pneumonia in a patient with low-grade 4 non-hodgkin lymphoma: a case report. | abstract: | 2011 | 21849075 |
| Detection of Legionella by quantitative-Polymerase Chain Reaction (qPCR) for monitoring and risk assessment. | ABSTRACT: Background Culture and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assays for the detection of Legionella were compared on samples from a residential area before and after two interventions. A total of 84 samples were collected from shower hoses and taps as first flush samples and at constant temperature. Samples were grouped according to the origin of the sample, a) circulation water b) water from empty apartments c) water from shower hoses. The aims were to investigate the usefulne ... | 2011 | 22103438 |
| Reprint of: Effective high-throughput overproduction of membrane proteins in Escherichia coli. | Structural biology is increasingly reliant on elevated throughput methods for protein production. In particular, development of efficient methods of heterologous production of membrane proteins is essential. Here, we describe the heterologous overproduction of 24 membrane proteins from the human pathogen Legionella pneumophila in Escherichia coli. Protein production was performed in 0.5ml cultures in standard 24-well plates, allowing increased throughput with minimal effort. The effect of the lo ... | 2011 | 21893197 |
| [Demographic characteristics of reported cases of legionellosis in years 2005-2009 in Poland in comparison to EWGLI data]. | In Poland, all forms of legionellosis are obligatory reported: Legionella pneumonia and extrapulmonary legionellosis (such as Pontiac fever). Total 210 cases caused by Legionella sp. were reported in years 2003-2010. In our study analysis of age, sex, place of residence of 163 patients with legionellosis reported in 2005-2009 were done. The majority (74.2%) cases were reported in Region Mazowieckie. Age and sex structure of patients in Poland in years 2005-2009 differ from the data of EWGLI. In ... | 2011 | 22184944 |
| [when to ask a microbiological diagnostic test in pneumonia and how to interpret the results]. | pneumonia is a leading cause of death in adults in the industrialised countries and in the rest of the world in infants. most of the time the pathogens stay unkown and the current recommendations for the treatment of pneumonia are mainly based on a severity score to adapt the treatement to the risk. nonethless new pathogens have recently been identified, coronavirus for srass, h5n1 for avian flu, n1n1 for pandemic flu, 35 years after the identification of legionella pneumophila. these exemples s ... | 2011 | 22135970 |
| the major facilitator superfamily-type protein lbtc promotes the utilization of the legiobactin siderophore by legionella pneumophila. | the gram-negative bacterium legionella pneumophila elaborates the siderophore legiobactin. we previously showed that cytoplasmic lbta helps mediate legiobactin synthesis, inner membrane lbtb promotes export of legiobactin, and outer membrane lbtu acts as the ferrisiderophore receptor. rt-pcr analyses now identified lbtc as an iron-repressed gene that is the final gene in an operon containing lbta and lbtb. in silico analysis predicted that lbtc is an inner membrane protein that belongs to the ... | 2011 | 22160401 |
| Legionella steelei sp. nov. isolated from human respiratory specimens in California and South Australia. | Legionella-like bacteria were isolated from the respiratory tract of two humans in California and South Australia, but not thought to cause disease. These bacteria, strains F2632 and IMVS-3376, were found to have identical Legionella macrophage infectivity potentiator (mip) sequences, and were therefore further characterized to determine their genetic and phenotypic relatedness and properties. Both of these Gram-negative bacterial strains grew on buffered charcoal yeast extract medium, were cyst ... | 2011 | 21948093 |
| Comparative and functional genomics of legionella identified eukaryotic like proteins as key players in host-pathogen interactions. | Although best known for its ability to cause severe pneumonia in people whose immune defenses are weakened, Legionella pneumophila and Legionella longbeachae are two species of a large genus of bacteria that are ubiquitous in nature, where they parasitize protozoa. Adaptation to the host environment and exploitation of host cell functions are critical for the success of these intracellular pathogens. The establishment and publication of the complete genome sequences of L. pneumophila and L. long ... | 2011 | 22059087 |