| fast quantitative pcr, locked nucleic acid probes and reduced volume reactions are effective tools for detecting batrachochytrium dendrobatidis dna. | the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis threatens amphibian populations around the world. the ability to detect this pathogen on infected animals and in the environment is critical for understanding and controlling this pandemic. we tested several advances in quantitative pcr (qpcr) techniques to detect b. dendrobatidis dna. we used a fast pcr thermocycler and enzymes that reduced the volume and the duration of the reaction. we also compared a conventional taqman minor groove binding ... | 2012 | 22422095 |
| urinary corticosterone metabolites and chytridiomycosis disease prevalence in a free-living population of male stony creek frogs (litoria wilcoxii). | the emerging amphibian disease chytridiomycosis, which is caused by the fungal pathogen (batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, bd), has caused mass mortalities of native amphibian populations globally. there have been no previous studies on the relationships between stress hormones in free-living amphibians and bd infections. in this study, we measured urinary corticosterone metabolite concentrations and bd infections within free-living populations of male stony creek frog (litoria wilcoxii) in queens ... | 2012 | 22387450 |
| treatment of chytridiomycosis with reduced-dose itraconazole. | effective treatment methods to eliminate infection with batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) are required for development of sustainable captive survival assurance populations of amphibians and to reduce the risk of introducing bd to new locations as part of amphibian trade or reintroduction programs. treatment with itraconazole baths at 100 mg l-1 is commonly used in captive amphibians, but side effects are observed in some amphibian species and life stages. naturally occurring outbreaks of chyt ... | 2012 | 22832723 |
| selecting for tolerance against pathogens and herbivores to enhance success of reintroduction and translocation. | some species have insufficient defenses against climate change, emerging infectious diseases, and non-native species because they have not been exposed to these factors over their evolutionary history, and this can decrease their likelihood of persistence. captive breeding programs are sometimes used to reintroduce individuals back into the wild; however, successful captive breeding and reintroduction can be difficult because species or populations often cannot coexist with non-native pathogens ... | 2012 | 22809350 |
| transmission of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis to wood frogs (lithobates sylvaticus) via a bullfrog (l. catesbeianus) vector. | chytridiomycosis, an emerging infectious disease caused by the chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, threatens anuran populations worldwide. effects of b. dendrobatidis on frog species are variable. some species typically develop nonlethal infections and may function as carriers; others typically develop lethal infections that can lead to population declines. nonlethal infections in the bullfrog (lithobates catesbeianus) are well-documented. in contrast, recently metamorphosed wood frog ... | 2012 | 22740523 |
| prevalence of infection by batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and ranavirus in eastern hellbenders (cryptobranchus alleganiensis alleganiensis) in eastern tennessee. | hellbenders (n=97) were collected from the little and hiwassee rivers in eastern tennessee, usa, during 2009 and 2010. location and morphometrics for each animal were recorded, and nonlethal tissue samples were collected to estimate the prevalence of infection with batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) and ranavirus in each watershed and year. real-time polymerase chain reaction was performed on skin swabs for bd and on tail clips for ranaviruses. overall prevalences of dna of bd, ranavirus, and c ... | 2012 | 22740521 |
| species-specific chitin-binding module 18 expansion in the amphibian pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. | batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is the causative agent of chytridiomycosis, which is considered one of the driving forces behind the worldwide decline in populations of amphibians. as a member of the phylum chytridiomycota, b. dendrobatidis has diverged significantly to emerge as the only pathogen of adult vertebrates. such shifts in lifestyle are generally accompanied by various degrees of genomic modifications, yet neither its mode of pathogenicity nor any factors associated with it have ever b ... | 2012 | 22718849 |
| controlling wildlife fungal disease spread: in vitro efficacy of disinfectants against batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and mucor amphibiorum. | chytridiomycosis in amphibians, and mucormycosis in the platypus ornithorhynchus anatinus and amphibians, are serious fungal diseases affecting these aquatic taxa. in tasmania, australia, the fungi that cause these diseases overlap in range along with phytophthora cinnamomi (pc), an invasive fungal plant pathogen. to identify disinfectants that may be useful to reduce anthropogenic spread of these fungi to uninfected wilderness areas, for example by bush walkers and forestry or fire-fighting ope ... | 2012 | 22691980 |
| bd on the beach: high prevalence of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in the lowland forests of gorgona island (colombia, south america). | the amphibian chytrid fungus, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, bd, has been implicated in the decimation and extinction of many amphibian populations worldwide, especially at mid and high elevations. recent studies have demonstrated the presence of the pathogen in the lowlands from australia and central america. we extend here its elevational range by demonstrating its presence at the sea level, in the lowland forests of gorgona island, off the pacific coast of colombia. we conducted two field su ... | 2012 | 22669408 |
| sodium chloride inhibits the growth and infective capacity of the amphibian chytrid fungus and increases host survival rates. | the amphibian chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is a recently emerged pathogen that causes the infectious disease chytridiomycosis and has been implicated as a contributing factor in the global amphibian decline. since its discovery, research has been focused on developing various methods of mitigating the impact of chytridiomycosis on amphibian hosts but little attention has been given to the role of antifungal agents that could be added to the host's environment. sodium chloride is ... | 2012 | 22590639 |
| magnetic capture hybridization of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis genomic dna. | we hybridized biotinylated probes that anneal at multiple locations throughout the batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) genome to selectively capture bd genomic dna (gdna) by binding the probe-gdna complex to streptavidin coated magnetic beads. we then whole genome amplified the captured gdna. this method extends the usefulness of field-collected swabs for downstream pcr-based genomic applications. | 2012 | 22579582 |
| pathophysiology in mountain yellow-legged frogs (rana muscosa) during a chytridiomycosis outbreak. | the disease chytridiomycosis is responsible for declines and extirpations of amphibians worldwide. chytridiomycosis is caused by a fungal pathogen (batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) that infects amphibian skin. although we have a basic understanding of the pathophysiology from laboratory experiments, many mechanistic details remain unresolved and it is unknown if disease development is similar in wild amphibian populations. to gain a better understanding of chytridiomycosis pathophysiology in wild ... | 2012 | 22558145 |
| eradication of the chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in the japanese giant salamander andrias japonicus. | the purpose of this study was to establish a method for eradicating a chytrid fungus (batrachochytrium dendrobatidis; bd) from the japanese giant salamander andrias japonicus. the emerging agent (bd) has a high rate of detection in this endangered amphibian species, which is designated as a special natural monument in japan. four japanese giant salamanders with bd confirmed by pcr assay were bathed in 0.01% itraconazole for 5 min d-1 over 10 successive days. pcr assays were conducted prior to tr ... | 2012 | 22535874 |
| batrachochytrium dendrobatidis shows high genetic diversity and ecological niche specificity among haplotypes in the maya mountains of belize. | the amphibian pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) has been implicated in amphibian declines around the globe. although it has been found in most countries in central america, its presence has never been assessed in belize. we set out to determine the range, prevalence, and diversity of bd using quantitative pcr (qpcr) and sequencing of a portion of the 5.8 s and its1-2 regions. swabs were collected from 524 amphibians of at least 26 species in the protected areas of the maya mountains o ... | 2012 | 22389681 |
| only skin deep: shared genetic response to the deadly chytrid fungus in susceptible frog species. | amphibian populations around the world are threatened by an emerging infectious pathogen, the chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd). how can a fungal skin infection kill such a broad range of amphibian hosts? and do different host species have a similar response to bd infection? here, we use a genomics approach to understand the genetic response of multiple susceptible frog species to bd infection. we characterize the transcriptomes of two closely related endangered frog species (ra ... | 2012 | 22332717 |
| fluorescent microscopy of viable batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. | batrachochytrium dendrobatidis ( bd ), a chytrid fungus, is a causative agent of chytridiomycosis and amphibian population declines worldwide. the sequenced genome of bd provides information necessary for studying the fungus and its molecular biology. fluorescent microscopy is a technique used to image targeted molecules in live or fixed organisms to understand cellular trafficking and localization, but the use of fluorescent microscopy with bd has not yet been demonstrated. two fluorescent stai ... | 2012 | 22257116 |
| evaluation of a filtration-based method for detecting batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in natural bodies of water. | infectious diseases are emerging as a significant threat to wildlife. the resulting increased effort to monitor wildlife diseases is driving the development of innovative pathogen monitoring techniques, including many polymerase chain reaction (pcr)-based diagnostics. despite the utility of these pcr-based techniques, there is still much to be learned about their ability to accurately detect target pathogens in nature. we assessed the diagnostic sensitivity of a pcr-based water filtration techni ... | 2012 | 22422089 |
| interaction between breeding habitat and elevation affects prevalence but not infection intensity of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in brazilian anuran assemblages. | chytridiomycosis, an infectious disease of amphibians, is caused by the fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) and has been linked to declining amphibian populations worldwide. the susceptibility of amphibians to chytridiomycosis-induced population declines is potentially influenced by many factors, including environmental characteristics, differences among host species and the growth of the pathogen itself. we investigated the effects of elevation and breeding habitat on bd prevalence and i ... | 2012 | 22422088 |
| the impact of pesticides on the pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis independent of potential hosts. | amphibians around the world are experiencing the greatest organismal decline in recent history. xenobiotics, such as pesticides, and pathogenic biotic perturbations, including the fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), have played major roles in amphibian decreases. we conducted laboratory culture studies to determine the effects of three pesticides {carbaryl, glyphosate, and thiophanate-methyl [tm; topsin-m(r) (cerexagri-nisso llc)]} on bd zoospore production and zoosporangia growth. we ap ... | 2012 | 22228138 |
| chloramphenicol with fluid and electrolyte therapy cures terminally ill green tree frogs (litoria caerulea) with chytridiomycosis. | terminal changes in frogs infected with the amphibian fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) include epidermal degeneration leading to inhibited epidermal electrolyte transport, systemic electrolyte disturbances, and asystolic cardiac arrest. there are few reports of successful treatment of chytridiomycosis and none that include curing amphibians with severe disease. three terminally ill green tree frogs (litoria caerulea) with heavy bd infections were cured using a combination of c ... | 2012 | 22779237 |
| widespread co-occurrence of virulent pathogens within california amphibian communities. | the chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, ranaviruses, and trematodes (ribeiroia ondatrae and echinostomes) are highly virulent pathogens known to infect amphibians, yet the extent to which they co-occur within amphibian communities remains poorly understood. using field surveillance of 85 wetlands in the east bay region of california, usa, we found that 68% of wetlands had ≥2 pathogens and 36% had ≥3 pathogens. wetlands with high pathogen species richness also tended to cluster spatial ... | 2012 | 22766887 |
| road-killed common toads (bufo bufo) in flanders (belgium) reveal low prevalence of ranaviruses and batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. | | 2012 | 22740561 |
| first parasitological study of the african clawed frog (xenopus laevis, amphibia) in chile. | introduced species can arrive into new territories with parasites; however, these species are expected to face lower parasite richness than in their original regions. both introduced hosts and parasites can affect native fauna. since their release into the wild in chile following laboratory use, xenopus laevis daudin, 1802 has widely spread throughout central chile. the only pathogen described on the host is the fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis longcore, pessier, nichols, 1999; thus, this i ... | 2017 | 28746452 |
| land cover and forest connectivity alter the interactions among host, pathogen and skin microbiome. | deforestation has detrimental consequences on biodiversity, affecting species interactions at multiple scales. the associations among vertebrates, pathogens and their commensal/symbiotic microbial communities (i.e. microbiomes) have important downstream effects for biodiversity conservation, yet we know little about how deforestation contributes to changes in host microbial diversity and pathogen abundance. here, we tested the effects of landcover, forest connectivity and infection by the chytri ... | 2017 | 28835551 |
| field and laboratory studies of the susceptibility of the green treefrog (hyla cinerea) to batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection. | amphibians worldwide are experiencing devastating declines, some of which are due to the amphibian chytrid fungus (batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, bd). populations in the southeastern united states, however, have not been noticeably affected by the pathogen. the green treefrog (hyla cinerea) is abundant and widespread in the southeastern united states, but has not been documented to harbor bd infection. this study examined the susceptibility of h. cinerea to two strains of bd in the lab and the ... | 2012 | 22685572 |
| genetic erosion in wild populations makes resistance to a pathogen more costly. | populations that have suffered from genetic erosion are expected to exhibit reduced average trait values or decreased variation in adaptive traits when experiencing periodic or emergent stressors such as infectious disease. genetic erosion may consequentially modify the ability of a potential host population to cope with infectious disease emergence. we experimentally investigate this relationship between genetic variability and host response to exposure to an infectious agent both in terms of s ... | 2012 | 22671558 |
| the effect of captivity on the skin microbial symbionts in three atelopus species from the lowlands of colombia and ecuador. | many amphibian species are at risk of extinction in their natural habitats due to the presence of the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd). for the most highly endangered species, captive assurance colonies have been established as an emergency measure to avoid extinction. experimental research has suggested that symbiotic microorganisms in the skin of amphibians play a key role against bd. while previous studies have addressed the effects of captivity on the cutaneous bacterial c ... | 2017 | 28785515 |
| populations of a susceptible amphibian species can grow despite the presence of a pathogenic chytrid fungus. | disease can be an important driver of host population dynamics and epizootics can cause severe host population declines. batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), the pathogen causing amphibian chytridiomycosis, may occur epizootically or enzootically and can harm amphibian populations in many ways. while effects of bd epizootics are well documented, the effects of enzootic bd have rarely been described. we used a state-space model that accounts for observation error to test whether population trends ... | 2012 | 22496836 |
| batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in amphibians confiscated from illegal wildlife trade and used in an ex situ breeding program in brazil. | this paper describes an outbreak of chytridiomycosis affecting a group of dendrobates tinctorius, a neotropical anuran species, confiscated from the illegal wildlife trade and housed in a private zoo in brazil as part of an ex situ breeding program. we examined histological sections of the skin of 30 d. tinctorius and 20 adelphobates galactonotus individuals. twenty d. tinctorius (66.7%) and none of the a. galactonotus were positive for batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd). multiple development s ... | 2012 | 22436465 |
| batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection of amphibians in the doñana national park, spain. | amphibian chytridiomycosis, caused by infection with the non-hyphal, zoosporic chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), is an emerging infectious disease recognised as a cause of recent amphibian population declines and extinctions worldwide. the doñana national park (dnp) is located in southwestern spain, a country with widespread bd infection. this protected area has a great diversity of aquatic habitats that constitute important breeding habitats for 11 native amphibian species. we ... | 2012 | 22436459 |
| qualitative risk analysis of introducing batrachochytrium dendrobatidis to the uk through the importation of live amphibians. | the international amphibian trade is implicated in the emergence and spread of the amphibian fungal disease chytridiomycosis, which has resulted in amphibian declines and extinctions globally. the establishment of the causal pathogen, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), in the uk could negatively affect the survival of native amphibian populations. in recognition of the ongoing threat that it poses to amphibians, bd was recently included in the world organisation for animal health aquatic anima ... | 2012 | 22436458 |
| a reservoir species for the emerging amphibian pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis thrives in a landscape decimated by disease. | chytridiomycosis, a disease caused by the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), is driving amphibian declines and extinctions in protected areas globally. the introduction of invasive reservoir species has been implicated in the spread of bd but does not explain the appearance of the pathogen in remote protected areas. in the high elevation (>1500 m) sierra nevada of california, the native pacific chorus frog, pseudacris regilla, appears unaffected by chytridiomycosis while sympat ... | 2012 | 22428071 |
| batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and the decline and survival of the relict leopard frog. | epizootic disease caused by the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) is a major driver of amphibian declines, yet many amphibians declined before the pathogen was described. the relict leopard frog, rana onca (=lithobates onca), was nearly extinct, with the exception of populations within a few geothermal springs. growth of bd, however, is limited by high water temperature, and geothermal springs may have provided refuge during outbreaks of chytridiomycosis. we conducted field sur ... | 2017 | 28439781 |
| chytrid fungus infection in zebrafish demonstrates that the pathogen can parasitize non-amphibian vertebrate hosts. | aquatic chytrid fungi threaten amphibian biodiversity worldwide owing to their ability to rapidly expand their geographical distributions and to infect a wide range of hosts. combating this risk requires an understanding of chytrid host range to identify potential reservoirs of infection and to safeguard uninfected regions through enhanced biosecurity. here we extend our knowledge on the host range of the chytrid batrachochytrium dendrobatidis by demonstrating infection of a non-amphibian verteb ... | 2017 | 28425465 |
| skin bacterial community reorganization following metamorphosis of the fire-bellied toad (bombina orientalis). | in organisms with complex life histories, dramatic changes in microbial community structure may occur with host development and immune system maturation. amphibian host susceptibility to diseases such as chytridiomycosis may be affected by the reorganization of skin microbial community structure that occurs during metamorphosis. we tracked changes in the bacterial communities inhabiting skin of korean fire-bellied toads (bombina orientalis) that we infected as tadpoles with different strains of ... | 2017 | 28725944 |
| disease-associated change in an amphibian life-history trait. | emerging pathogens can drive evolutionary shifts in host life-history traits, yet this process remains poorly documented in vertebrate hosts. amphibian chytridiomycosis, caused by infection with the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), is the worst recorded wildlife disease and has caused the extinction of over 100 species across multiple continents. a similar number of additional species have experienced mass declines and bd remains a major source of mortality in many population ... | 2017 | 28707112 |
| host niche may determine disease-driven extinction risk. | the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) drives declines and extinctions in amphibian communities. however, not all regions and species are equally affected. here, we show that association with amphibian aquatic habitat types (bromeliad phytotelmata versus stream) across central america results in the odds of being threatened by bd being five times higher in stream microhabitats. this differential threat of bd was supported in our study by a significantly lower prevalence of bd in ... | 2017 | 28704480 |
| major histocompatibility complex variation and the evolution of resistance to amphibian chytridiomycosis. | chytridiomycosis, caused by the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), has been implicated in population declines and species extinctions of amphibians around the world. susceptibility to the disease varies both within and among species, most likely attributable to heritable immunogenetic variation. analyses of transcriptional expression in hosts following their infection by bd reveal complex responses. species resistant to bd generally show evidence of stronger innate and adaptive ... | 2017 | 28695290 |
| effects of host species and environment on the skin microbiome of plethodontid salamanders. | the amphibian skin microbiome is recognized for its role in defence against pathogens, including the deadly fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd). yet, we have little understanding of evolutionary and ecological processes that structure these communities, especially for salamanders and closely related species. we investigated patterns in the distribution of bacterial communities on plethodon salamander skin across host species and environments. quantifying salamander skin microbiom ... | 2017 | 28682480 |
| dominance-function relationships in the amphibian skin microbiome. | some amphibian skin bacteria inhibit growth of a fungal amphibian pathogen, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), but it is unclear how dominant these anti-bd bacteria are in skin communities. using in vitro co-culture challenge assays, we quantified bd inhibition by bacterial isolates collected from the skin of four amphibian species: bullfrogs, eastern newts, spring peepers and american toads. the 16s rrna sequences for each isolate were matched to culture-independent amplicon sequences from th ... | 2017 | 28677171 |
| temperature variation, bacterial diversity and fungal infection dynamics in the amphibian skin. | host-associated bacterial communities on the skin act as the first line of defence against invading pathogens. yet, for most natural systems, we lack a clear understanding of how temperature variability affects structure and composition of skin bacterial communities and, in turn, promotes or limits the colonization of opportunistic pathogens. here, we examine how natural temperature fluctuations might be related to changes in skin bacterial diversity over time in three amphibian populations infe ... | 2017 | 28664981 |
| epidemic and endemic pathogen dynamics correspond to distinct host population microbiomes at a landscape scale. | infectious diseases have serious impacts on human and wildlife populations, but the effects of a disease can vary, even among individuals or populations of the same host species. identifying the reasons for this variation is key to understanding disease dynamics and mitigating infectious disease impacts, but disentangling cause and correlation during natural outbreaks is extremely challenging. this study aims to understand associations between symbiotic bacterial communities and an infectious di ... | 2017 | 28637861 |
| identification of bufadienolides from the boreal toad, anaxyrus boreas, active against a fungal pathogen. | amphibian granular glands provide a wide range of compounds on the skin that defend against pathogens and predators. we identified three bufadienolides-the steroid-like compounds arenobufagin, gamabufotalin, and telocinobufagin-from the boreal toad, anaxyrus boreas, through liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (lc/ms). compounds were detected both after inducing skin gland secretions and in constitutive mucosal rinses from toads. we described the antimicrobial properties of each bufadienolide ... | 2017 | 28631214 |
| skin sloughing in susceptible and resistant amphibians regulates infection with a fungal pathogen. | the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) has been implicated in amphibian population declines globally. given that bd infection is limited to the skin in post-metamorphic amphibians, routine skin sloughing may regulate infection. skin sloughing has been shown to reduce the number of cultivatable microbes on amphibian skin, and bd infection increases skin sloughing rates at high loads. however, it is unclear whether species specific differences in skin sloughing patterns could regu ... | 2017 | 28615642 |
| using stochastic epidemiological models to evaluate conservation strategies for endangered amphibians. | recent outbreaks of chytridiomycosis, the disease of amphibians caused by the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), have contributed to population declines of numerous amphibian species worldwide. the devastating impacts of this disease have led researchers to attempt drastic conservation measures to prevent further extinctions and loss of biodiversity. the conservation measures can be labour-intensive or expensive, and in many cases have been unsuccessful. we developed a mathemat ... | 2017 | 28855388 |
| infection increases vulnerability to climate change via effects on host thermal tolerance. | unprecedented global climate change and increasing rates of infectious disease emergence are occurring simultaneously. infection with emerging pathogens may alter the thermal thresholds of hosts. however, the effects of fungal infection on host thermal limits have not been examined. moreover, the influence of infections on the heat tolerance of hosts has rarely been investigated within the context of realistic thermal acclimation regimes and potential anthropogenic climate change. we tested for ... | 2017 | 28839273 |
| a pesticide paradox: fungicides indirectly increase fungal infections. | there are many examples where the use of chemicals have had profound unintended consequences, such as fertilizers reducing crop yields (paradox of enrichment) and insecticides increasing insect pests (by reducing natural biocontrol). recently, the application of agrochemicals, such as agricultural disinfectants and fungicides, has been explored as an approach to curb the pathogenic fungus, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), which is associated with worldwide amphibian declines. however, the lo ... | 2017 | 28763165 |
| the pharmacokinetics of topical itraconazole in panamanian golden frogs (atelopus zeteki). | chytridiomycosis is caused by the fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and is one of the primary causes of the global decline in amphibian populations and specifically of the panamanian golden frog ( atelopus zeteki ). itraconazole has been demonstrated to be an effective treatment for chytridiomycosis by inhibiting cytochrome p450, a major enzyme important for the structure of b. dendrobatidis zoospores' plasma membranes. however, anecdotal reports of toxicity in this and other amphibian speci ... | 2017 | 28749305 |
| resistance, tolerance and environmental transmission dynamics determine host extinction risk in a load-dependent amphibian disease. | while disease-induced extinction is generally considered rare, a number of recently emerging infectious diseases with load-dependent pathology have led to extinction in wildlife populations. transmission is a critical factor affecting disease-induced extinction, but the relative importance of transmission compared to load-dependent host resistance and tolerance is currently unknown. using a combination of models and experiments on an amphibian species suffering extirpations from the fungal patho ... | 2017 | 28745026 |
| antifungal treatment of wild amphibian populations caused a transient reduction in the prevalence of the fungal pathogen, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. | emerging infectious diseases can drive host populations to extinction and are a major driver of biodiversity loss. controlling diseases and mitigating their impacts is therefore a priority for conservation science and practice. chytridiomycosis is a devastating disease of amphibians that is caused by the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), and for which there is an urgent need to develop mitigation methods. we treated tadpoles of the common midwife toad (alytes obstetricans) wit ... | 2017 | 28729557 |
| using a bayesian network to clarify areas requiring research in a host-pathogen system. | bayesian network analyses can be used to interactively change the strength of effect of variables in a model to explore complex relationships in new ways. in doing so, they allow one to identify influential nodes that are not well studied empirically so that future research can be prioritized. we identified relationships in host and pathogen biology to examine disease-driven declines of amphibians associated with amphibian chytrid fungus (batrachochytrium dendrobatidis). we constructed a bayesia ... | 2017 | 28464282 |
| cryptic chytridiomycosis linked to climate and genetic variation in amphibian populations of the southeastern united states. | north american amphibians have recently been impacted by two major emerging pathogens, the fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) and iridoviruses in the genus ranavirus (rv). environmental factors and host genetics may play important roles in disease dynamics, but few studies incorporate both of these components into their analyses. here, we investigated the role of environmental and genetic factors in driving bd and rv infection prevalence and severity in a biodiversity hot spot, the south ... | 2017 | 28448517 |
| minimum lethal concentration of sodium hypochlorite for the amphibian pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. | sodium hypochlorite (naocl) is the active ingredient in household bleach and is commonly used as a disinfectant to clean equipment contaminated by the amphibian pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) in lab husbandry and field studies. we conducted a series of replicated exposure trials using a single global pandemic lineage bd isolate from panama (jel 310) and concentrations of naocl ranging from 0.006% to 0.6% for exposure times ranging from 30 seconds to 15 minutes to determine the mini ... | 2017 | 28441417 |
| diversity in growth patterns among strains of the lethal fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis across extended thermal optima. | the thermal sensitivities of organisms regulate a wide range of ecological interactions, including host-parasite dynamics. the effect of temperature on disease ecology can be remarkably complex in disease systems where the hosts are ectothermic and where thermal conditions constrain pathogen reproductive rates. amphibian chytridiomycosis, caused by the pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), is a lethal fungal disease that is influenced by temperature. however, recent temperature studies h ... | 2017 | 28424893 |
| accuracy of climate-based forecasts of pathogen spread. | species distribution models (sdms) are a tool for predicting the eventual geographical range of an emerging pathogen. most sdms, however, rely on an assumption of equilibrium with the environment, which an emerging pathogen, by definition, has not reached. to determine if some sdm approaches work better than others for modelling the spread of emerging, non-equilibrium pathogens, we studied time-sensitive predictive performance of sdms for batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, a devastating infectious ... | 2017 | 28405387 |
| amphibian skin microbiota exhibits temporal variation in community structure but stability of predicted bd-inhibitory function. | host-associated microbiomes are increasingly recognized to contribute to host disease resistance; the temporal dynamics of their community structure and function, however, are poorly understood. we investigated the cutaneous bacterial communities of three newt species, ichthyosaura alpestris, lissotriton vulgaris and triturus cristatus, at approximately weekly intervals for 3 months using 16s ribosomal rna amplicon sequencing. we hypothesized cutaneous microbiota would vary across time, and that ... | 2017 | 28387770 |
| fight fungi with fungi: antifungal properties of the amphibian mycobiome. | emerging infectious diseases caused by fungal taxa are increasing and are placing a substantial burden on economies and ecosystems worldwide. of the emerging fungal diseases, chytridomycosis caused by the fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (hereafter bd) is linked to global amphibian declines. amphibians have innate immunity, as well as additional resistance through cutaneous microbial communities. despite the targeting of bacteria as potential probiotics, the role of fungi in the protection ... | 2017 | 29312201 |
| host size influences the effects of four isolates of an amphibian chytrid fungus. | understanding factors that influence host-pathogen interactions is key to predicting outbreaks in natural systems experiencing environmental change. many amphibian population declines have been attributed to an amphibian chytrid fungus, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd). while this fungus is widespread, not all bd-positive populations have been associated with declines, which could be attributed to differences in pathogen virulence or host susceptibility. in a laboratory experiment, we examine ... | 2017 | 29187961 |
| probiotic consortia are not uniformly effective against different amphibian chytrid pathogen isolates. | symbiotic bacterial communities can protect their hosts from infection by pathogens. treatment of wild individuals with protective bacteria (probiotics) isolated from hosts can combat the spread of emerging infectious diseases. however, it is unclear whether candidate probiotic bacteria can offer consistent protection across multiple isolates of globally distributed pathogens. here, we use the lethal amphibian fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis to investigate whether probiotic richne ... | 2017 | 29218845 |
| culture media and individual hosts affect the recovery of culturable bacterial diversity from amphibian skin. | one current challenge in microbial ecology is elucidating the functional roles of the large diversity of free-living and host-associated bacteria identified by culture-independent molecular methods. importantly, the characterization of this immense bacterial diversity will likely require merging data from culture-independent approaches with work on bacterial isolates in culture. amphibian skin bacterial communities have become a recent focus of work in host-associated microbial systems due to th ... | 2017 | 28883811 |
| genomic epidemiology of the emerging pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis from native and invasive amphibian species in chile. | emerging fungal diseases represent a threat to food security, animal and human health worldwide. amphibian chytridiomycosis, caused by the fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), has been associated with catastrophic and well-documented amphibian population declines and extinctions. for the first time, bd was cultured from native and non-native wild amphibians in chile. phylogenomic analyses revealed that chilean isolates avs2, avs4 and avs7 group within the global panzootic lineage of bd (b ... | 2017 | 29205924 |
| fragile coexistence of a global chytrid pathogen with amphibian populations is mediated by environment and demography. | unravelling the multiple interacting drivers of host-pathogen coexistence is crucial in understanding how an apparently stable state of endemism may shift towards an epidemic and lead to biodiversity loss. here, we investigate the apparent coexistence of the global amphibian pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) with bombina variegata populations in the netherlands over a 7-year period. we used a multi-season mark-recapture dataset and assessed potential drivers of coexistence (individual ... | 2017 | 28978729 |
| are oral deformities in tadpoles accurate indicators of anuran chytridiomycosis? | we evaluated the use of oral deformities as reliable proxies for determining batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) infection in tadpoles of six anuran species of the atlantic forest in southeastern brazil. we examined oral discs of 2156 tadpoles of six species of anurans collected in 2016: aplastodiscus albosignatus, boana albopunctata, boana faber, scinax hayii, crossodactylus caramaschii, and physalaemus cuvieri. three oral deformities were recognized: lack of keratinization only in upper and/or ... | 0 | 29320551 |
| skin bacterial microbiome of a generalist puerto rican frog varies along elevation and land use gradients. | host-associated microbial communities are ubiquitous among animals, and serve important functions. for example, the bacterial skin microbiome of amphibians can play a role in preventing or reducing infection by the amphibian chytrid fungus, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. evidence suggests that environmental bacteria likely serve as a source pool for at least some of the members of the amphibian skin bacterial community, underscoring the potential for local environmental changes to disrupt micro ... | 2017 | 28875068 |
| amphibian skin defences show variation in ability to inhibit growth of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis isolates from the global panzootic lineage. | the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis has caused declines and extinctions in hundreds of amphibian species across the world. virulence varies among and within lineages; the global panzootic lineage (gpl) is the most pathogenic, although there is also variation in lethality among gpl isolates. amphibians have a number of defences against pathogens, and skin products including the microbiota and host peptides have considerable influence over disease progression. here we demonstrate th ... | 2017 | 29095686 |
| four new species of terrestrial-breeding frogs of the genus <i>phrynopus </i>(anura: terrarana: craugastoridae) from río abiseo national park, peru. | we describe four new species of terrestrial-breeding frogs belonging to the genus phrynopus from specimens collected on the eastern slopes of the cordillera oriental (2800-3850 m) near and within río abiseo national park, provincia mariscal cáceres, departments of san martín and la libertad, northeastern peru. all four species lack a visible tympanum and inhabit the upper ridges and slopes within or adjacent to the park. phrynopus anancites sp. nov. and p. capitalis sp. nov. inhabit the wet mont ... | 2017 | 28610240 |
| population dynamics of the critically endangered toad atelopus cruciger and the fungal disease chytridiomycosis. | harlequin toads (atelopus) are among the most severely impacted amphibians by the emergence of chytridiomycosis, a fungal disease caused by the pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd). many species disappeared while others suffered drastic contractions of their geographic distribution to lower altitudes. a diminished virulence of bd in warm habitats was proposed to explain the survival of lowland populations of harlequin toads (i.e. thermal refuge hypothesis). to understand the mechanisms t ... | 2017 | 28570689 |
| introduced bullfrogs are associated with increased batrachochytrium dendrobatidis prevalence and reduced occurrence of korean treefrogs. | bullfrogs, lithobates catesbeianus, have been described as major vectors of the amphibian chytrid fungus, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd). bd is widespread throughout the range of amphibians yet varies considerably within and among populations in prevalence and host impact. in our study, the presence of l. catesbeianus is correlated with a 2.5 increase in bd prevalence in treefrogs, and the endangered dryophytes suweonensis displays a significantly higher bd prevalence than the more abundant ... | 2017 | 28562628 |
| batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is present in poland and associated with reduced fitness in wild populations of pelophylax lessonae. | the fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) is a pathogen associated with global declines of amphibians. we used qpcr to detect bd in 255 samples from 10 polish populations of 8 species. we found bd infection in 3 species (bombina variegata, pelophylax lessonae, p. esculentus). the infection intensity in p. lessonae reached a maximum of 58400 genomic equivalents of zoospores (ge), and the 2 most heavily infected individuals died. previous observations of the populations that included infected ... | 2017 | 28492180 |
| virulence variation among strains of the emerging infectious fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) in multiple amphibian host species. | emerging infectious diseases have been documented in numerous plant and animal populations. the infectious disease amphibian chytridiomycosis, caused by the fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), is associated with global amphibian population declines. while much bd-amphibian research has centered on response variation in hosts, a paucity of information exists on how variation in the pathogen, such as strain differences, affects infection dynamics. to examine how different bd strains may di ... | 2017 | 28492179 |
| spatial distribution of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in south american caecilians. | the amphibian-killing fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) is linked to population declines in anurans and salamanders globally. to date, however, few studies have attempted to screen bd in live caecilians; bd-positive caecilians have only been reported in africa and french guiana. here, we performed a retrospective survey of museum preserved specimens to (1) describe spatial patterns of bd infection in gymnophiona across south america and (2) test whether areas of low climatic suitability ... | 2017 | 28425424 |
| temporal variation of the skin bacterial community and batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection in the terrestrial cryptic frog philoria loveridgei. | in animals and plants, symbiotic bacteria can play an important role in disease resistance of host and are the focus of much current research. globally, amphibian population declines and extinctions have occurred due to chytridiomycosis, a skin disease caused by the pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd). currently amphibian skin bacteria are increasingly recognized as important symbiont communities with a relevant role in the defense against pathogens, as some bacteria can inhibit the gro ... | 2017 | 29312226 |
| effects of nutrient supplementation on host-pathogen dynamics of the amphibian chytrid fungus: a community approach. | anthropogenic stressors may influence hosts and their pathogens directly or may alter host-pathogen dynamics indirectly through interactions with other species. for example, in aquatic ecosystems, eutrophication may be associated with increased or decreased disease risk. conversely, pathogens can influence community structure and function and are increasingly recognised as important members of the ecological communities in which they exist.in outdoor mesocosms, we experimentally manipulated nutr ... | 2016 | 28956554 |
| using environmental dna for early detection of amphibian chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis prior to a ranid die-off. | amphibian chytridiomycosis caused by the fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) is an emerging infectious disease that has been associated with mass mortality and extinctions of amphibians worldwide. environmental dna (edna) techniques have been used to detect the presence of bd in the environment, but not to detect bd prior to an amphibian die-off. we collected edna using filtered water samples from 13 lakes across sequoia kings canyon national park. seven of those sites had populations of ... | 2017 | 29256431 |
| rapid extirpation of a north american frog coincides with an increase in fungal pathogen prevalence: historical analysis and implications for reintroduction. | as extinctions continue across the globe, conservation biologists are turning to species reintroduction programs as one optimistic tool for addressing the biodiversity crisis. for repatriation to become a viable strategy, fundamental prerequisites include determining the causes of declines and assessing whether the causes persist in the environment. invasive species-especially pathogens-are an increasingly significant factor contributing to biodiversity loss. we hypothesized that batrachochytriu ... | 2017 | 29238549 |
| composition of micro-eukaryotes on the skin of the cascades frog (rana cascadae) and patterns of correlation between skin microbes and batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. | global amphibian decline linked to fungal pathogens has galvanized research on applied amphibian conservation. skin-associated bacterial communities of amphibians have been shown to mediate fungal skin infections and the development of probiotic treatments with antifungal bacteria has become an emergent area of research. while exploring the role of protective bacteria has been a primary focus for amphibian conservation, we aim to expand and study the other microbes present in amphibian skin comm ... | 2017 | 29276502 |
| correction: introduced bullfrogs are associated with increased batrachochytrium dendrobatidis prevalence and reduced occurrence of korean treefrogs. | [this corrects the article doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0177860.]. | 2017 | 29284040 |
| comparison of methods for detection of chytrid fungus (batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) in bullfrog tadpole mouthparts. | we previously reported that the tadpole of bullfrog (lithobates catesbeiana) is a useful model for the field surveillance of the batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) distribution. in the present study, we compared bd detection rates in swab-scraped and resected mouthpart samples, using nested polymerase chain reaction (pcr). the resulting detection rates for swab-scraped and resected specimens were 67% and 65%, respectively, with no significant difference. furthermore, we performed a histopatholo ... | 2017 | 29269708 |
| perspectives on invasive amphibians in brazil. | introduced species have the potential to become invasive and jeopardize entire ecosystems. the success of species establishing viable populations outside their original extent depends primarily on favorable climatic conditions in the invasive ranges. species distribution modeling (sdm) can thus be used to estimate potential habitat suitability for populations of invasive species. here we review the status of six amphibian species with invasive populations in brazil (four domestic species and two ... | 2017 | 28938024 |
| cryptic disease-induced mortality may cause host extinction in an apparently stable host-parasite system. | the decline of wildlife populations due to emerging infectious disease often shows a common pattern: the parasite invades a naive host population, producing epidemic disease and a population decline, sometimes with extirpation. some susceptible host populations can survive the epidemic phase and persist with endemic parasitic infection. understanding host-parasite dynamics leading to persistence of the system is imperative to adequately inform conservation practice. here we combine field data, s ... | 2017 | 28954907 |
| efficacy of chemical disinfectants for the containment of the salamander chytrid fungus batrachochytrium salamandrivorans. | the recently emerged chytrid fungus batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (bsal) causes european salamander declines. proper hygiene protocols including disinfection procedures are crucial to prevent disease transmission. here, the efficacy of chemical disinfectants in killing bsal was evaluated. at all tested conditions, biocidal®, chloramine-t®, dettol medical®, disolol®, ethanol, f10®, hibiscrub®, potassium permanganate, safe4®, sodium hypochlorite, and virkon s®, were effective at killing bsal. ... | 2017 | 29023562 |
| evolution of resistance to chytridiomycosis is associated with a robust early immune response. | potentiating the evolution of immunity is a promising strategy for addressing biodiversity diseases. assisted selection for infection resistance may enable the recovery and persistence of amphibians threatened by chytridiomycosis; a devastating fungal skin disease threatening hundreds of species globally. however, knowledge of the mechanisms involved in the natural evolution of immunity to chytridiomycosis is limited. understanding the mechanisms of such resistance may help speed assisted-select ... | 2018 | 29337419 |
| design- and model-based recommendations for detecting and quantifying an amphibian pathogen in environmental samples. | accurate pathogen detection is essential for developing management strategies to address emerging infectious diseases, an increasingly prominent threat to wildlife. sampling for free-living pathogens outside of their hosts has benefits for inference and study efficiency, but is still uncommon. we used a laboratory experiment to evaluate the influences of pathogen concentration, water type, and qpcr inhibitors on the detection and quantification of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) using water ... | 2017 | 29299272 |
| are the adverse effects of stressors on amphibians mediated by their effects on stress hormones? | adverse effects of anthropogenic changes on biodiversity might be mediated by their impacts on the stress response of organisms. to test this hypothesis, we crossed exposure to metyrapone, a synthesis inhibitor of the stress hormone corticosterone, with exposure to the herbicide atrazine and the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) to assess whether the effects of these stressors on tadpoles and post-metamorphic frogs were mediated by corticosterone. metyrapone countered atrazine- ... | 2017 | 29222721 |
| low resistance to chytridiomycosis in direct-developing amphibians. | host-generalist pathogens sporadically infect naive hosts, potentially triggering epizootics. the waterborne fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) is linked to declines of hundreds of amphibian species with aquatic larvae. although several population declines and extinctions attributed to bd have been reported among cryptic species undergoing direct development away from water, epidemiological studies focused on these terrestrial frogs are lacking. our field data support that terrestrial di ... | 2017 | 29192210 |
| lowland extirpation of anuran populations on a tropical mountain. | climate change and infectious diseases threaten animal and plant species, even in natural and protected areas. to cope with these changes, species may acclimate, adapt, move or decline. here, we test for shifts in anuran distributions in the luquillo mountains (lm), a tropical montane forest in puerto rico by comparing species distributions from historical (1931-1989)and current data (2015/2016). | 2017 | 29158987 |
| amphibian species traits, evolutionary history and environment predict batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection patterns, but not extinction risk. | the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (b. dendrobatidis) has emerged as a major agent of amphibian extinction, requiring conservation intervention for many susceptible species. identifying susceptible species is challenging, but many aspects of species biology are predicted to influence the evolution of host resistance, tolerance, or avoidance strategies towards disease. in turn, we may expect species exhibiting these distinct strategies to differ in their ability to survive epizoot ... | 2017 | 29151866 |
| batrachochytrium salamandrivorans and the risk of a second amphibian pandemic. | amphibians are experiencing devastating population declines globally. a major driver is chytridiomycosis, an emerging infectious disease caused by the fungal pathogens batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) and batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (bsal). bd was described in 1999 and has been linked with declines since the 1970s, while bsal is a more recently discovered pathogen that was described in 2013. it is hypothesized that bsal originated in asia and spread via international trade to europe, wh ... | 2017 | 29147975 |
| prodigiosin, violacein, and volatile organic compounds produced by widespread cutaneous bacteria of amphibians can inhibit two batrachochytrium fungal pathogens. | symbiotic bacteria can produce secondary metabolites and volatile compounds that contribute to amphibian skin defense. some of these symbionts have been used as probiotics to treat or prevent the emerging disease chytridiomycosis. we examined 20 amphibian cutaneous bacteria for the production of prodigiosin or violacein, brightly colored defense compounds that pigment the bacteria and have characteristic spectroscopic properties making them readily detectable, and evaluated the antifungal activi ... | 2017 | 29119317 |
| prevalence and genetic diversity of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in central african island and continental amphibian communities. | the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) infects hundreds of amphibian species and is implicated in global amphibian declines. bd is comprised of several lineages that differ in pathogenicity, thus, identifying which bd strains are present in a given amphibian community is essential for understanding host-pathogen dynamics. the presence of bd has been confirmed in central africa, yet vast expanses of this region have not yet been surveyed for bd prevalence, and the genetic diversi ... | 2017 | 29043029 |
| epizootic to enzootic transition of a fungal disease in tropical andean frogs: are surviving species still susceptible? | the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), which causes the disease chytridiomycosis, has been linked to catastrophic amphibian declines throughout the world. amphibians differ in their vulnerability to chytridiomycosis; some species experience epizootics followed by collapse while others exhibit stable host/pathogen dynamics where most amphibian hosts survive in the presence of bd (e.g., in the enzootic state). little is known about the factors that drive the transition between th ... | 2017 | 29040327 |
| do host-associated gut microbiota mediate the effect of an herbicide on disease risk in frogs? | environmental stressors, such as pollutants, can increase disease risk in wildlife. for example, the herbicide atrazine affects host defences (e.g. resistance and tolerance) of the amphibian chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), but the mechanisms for these associations are not entirely clear. given that pollutants can alter the gut microbiota of hosts, which in turn can affect their health and immune systems, one potential mechanism by which pollutants could increase infection ris ... | 2017 | 29030867 |
| batrachochytrium salamandrivorans not detected in u.s. survey of pet salamanders. | we engaged pet salamander owners in the united states to screen their animals for two amphibian chytrid fungal pathogens batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) and b. salamandrivorans (bsal). we provided pet owners with a sampling kit and instructional video to swab the skin of their animals. we received 639 salamander samples from 65 species by mail, and tested them for bd and bsal using qpcr. we detected bd on 1.3% of salamanders (95% ci 0.0053-0.0267) and did not detect bsal (95% ci 0.0000-0.007 ... | 2017 | 29030586 |
| estimating herd immunity to amphibian chytridiomycosis in madagascar based on the defensive function of amphibian skin bacteria. | for decades, amphibians have been globally threatened by the still expanding infectious disease, chytridiomycosis. madagascar is an amphibian biodiversity hotspot where batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) has only recently been detected. while no bd-associated population declines have been reported, the risk of declines is high when invasive virulent lineages become involved. cutaneous bacteria contribute to host innate immunity by providing defense against pathogens for numerous animals, includ ... | 2017 | 28959244 |
| detection of amphibian chytrid fungus on waterfowl integument in natural settings. | the chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), the causal agent of the amphibian disease chytridiomycosis, has spread at an alarming rate since its discovery. bd was initially thought to only infect keratinizing epithelial cells in amphibians, a core component of amphibian skin. however, recent studies have detected bd on the integument of non-amphibian hosts. we conducted a survey of 3 duck species (gadwalls, green-winged teals, and mallards) to determine whether bd dna could be found ... | 2017 | 28930087 |
| differential patterns of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection in relict amphibian populations following severe disease-associated declines. | global amphibian biodiversity has declined dramatically in the past 4 decades, and many amphibian species have declined to near extinction as a result of emergence of the amphibian chytrid fungus, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd). however, persistent or recovering populations of several amphibian species have recently been rediscovered, and such populations may illustrate how amphibian species that are highly susceptible to chytridiomycosis may survive in the presence of bd. we conducted fiel ... | 2017 | 28930083 |
| the influence of temperature on chytridiomycosis in vivo. | chytridiomycosis, an amphibian disease caused by the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), is an ideal system for studying the influence of temperature on host-pathogen relationships because both host and pathogen are ectothermic. studies of bd in culture suggest that optimal growth occurs between 17 and 23°c, and death of the fungus occurs above 29 or below 0°c. amphibian immune systems, however, are also temperature dependent and often more effective at higher temperatures. we t ... | 2017 | 28879516 |
| inhibition of fungal pathogens across genotypes and temperatures by amphibian skin bacteria. | symbiotic bacteria may dampen the impacts of infectious diseases on hosts by inhibiting pathogen growth. however, our understanding of the generality of pathogen inhibition by different bacterial taxa across pathogen genotypes and environmental conditions is limited. bacterial inhibitory properties are of particular interest for the amphibian-killing fungal pathogens (batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and batrachochytrium salamandrivorans), for which probiotic applications as conservation strategie ... | 2017 | 28871241 |
| white blood cell profiles in amphibians help to explain disease susceptibility following temperature shifts. | temperature variability, and in particular temperature decreases, can increase susceptibility of amphibians to infections by the fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd). however, the effects of temperature shifts on the immune systems of bd-infected amphibians are unresolved. we acclimated frogs to 16 °c and 26 °c (baseline), simultaneously transferred them to an intermediate temperature (21 °c) and inoculated them with bd (treatment), and tracked their infection levels and white blood cell p ... | 2017 | 28870450 |