| ftsz from divergent foreign bacteria can function for cell division in escherichia coli. | ftszs from mycoplasma pulmonis (mpuftsz) and bacillus subtilis (bsftsz) are only 46% and 53% identical in amino acid sequence to ftsz from escherichia coli (ecftsz). in the present study we show that mpuftsz and bsftsz can function for cell division in e. coli provided we make two modifications. first, we replaced their c-terminal tails with that from e. coli, giving the foreign ftsz the binding site for e. coli ftsa and zipa. second, we selected for mutations in the e. coli genome that facilita ... | 2006 | 17015652 |
| evolution of sensory complexity recorded in a myxobacterial genome. | myxobacteria are single-celled, but social, eubacterial predators. upon starvation they build multicellular fruiting bodies using a developmental program that progressively changes the pattern of cell movement and the repertoire of genes expressed. development terminates with spore differentiation and is coordinated by both diffusible and cell-bound signals. the growth and development of myxococcus xanthus is regulated by the integration of multiple signals from outside the cells with physiologi ... | 2006 | 17015832 |
| strict host-symbiont cospeciation and reductive genome evolution in insect gut bacteria. | host-symbiont cospeciation and reductive genome evolution have been identified in obligate endocellular insect symbionts, but no such example has been identified from extracellular ones. here we first report such a case in stinkbugs of the family plataspidae, wherein a specific gut bacterium is vertically transmitted via "symbiont capsule." in all of the plataspid species, females produced symbiont capsules upon oviposition and their gut exhibited specialized traits for capsule production. phylo ... | 2006 | 17032065 |
| a small microbial genome: the end of a long symbiotic relationship? | intracellular bacteria are characterized by genome reduction. the 422,434-base pair genome of buchnera aphidicola bcc, primary endosymbiont of the aphid cinara cedri, is approximately 200 kilobases smaller than the previously sequenced b. aphidicola genomes. b. aphidicola bcc has lost most metabolic functions, including the ability to synthesize the essential amino acid tryptophan and riboflavin. in addition, most retained genes are evolving rapidly. possibly, b. aphidicola bcc is losing its sym ... | 2006 | 17038625 |
| the reach of the genome signature in prokaryotes. | with the increased availability of sequenced genomes there have been several initiatives to infer evolutionary relationships by whole genome characteristics. one of these studies suggested good congruence between genome synteny, shared gene content, 16s ribosomal dna identity, codon usage and the genome signature in prokaryotes. here we rigorously test the phylogenetic signal of the genome signature, which consists of the genome-specific relative frequencies of dinucleotides, on 334 sequenced pr ... | 2006 | 17040564 |
| molecular evolution of the h-ns protein: interaction with hha-like proteins is restricted to enterobacteriaceae. | we show here that chromosomal hha-like genes are restricted to the enterobacteriaceae. the h-ns n-terminal domain of members of this family includes an unaltered seven-amino-acid sequence located between helixes 1 and 2, termed the hha signature, that contains key residues for h-ns-hha interaction. | 2007 | 17041043 |
| molecular evolution of the h-ns protein: interaction with hha-like proteins is restricted to enterobacteriaceae. | we show here that chromosomal hha-like genes are restricted to the enterobacteriaceae. the h-ns n-terminal domain of members of this family includes an unaltered seven-amino-acid sequence located between helixes 1 and 2, termed the hha signature, that contains key residues for h-ns-hha interaction. | 2007 | 17041043 |
| different levels of transcriptional regulation due to trophic constraints in the reduced genome of buchnera aphidicola aps. | symbiotic associations involving intracellular microorganisms and animals are widespread, especially for species feeding on poor or unbalanced diets. buchnera aphidicola, the obligate intracellular bacterium associated with most aphid species, provides its hosts with essential amino acids (eaas), nutrients in short supply in the plant phloem sap. the buchnera genome has undergone severe reductions during intracellular evolution. genes for eaa biosynthesis are conserved, but most of the transcrip ... | 2006 | 17041159 |
| towards the identification of essential genes using targeted genome sequencing and comparative analysis. | the identification of genes essential for survival is of theoretical importance in the understanding of the minimal requirements for cellular life, and of practical importance in the identification of potential drug targets in novel pathogens. with the great time and expense required for experimental studies aimed at constructing a catalog of essential genes in a given organism, a computational approach which could identify essential genes with high accuracy would be of great value. | 2006 | 17052348 |
| novel design and controls for focused dna microarrays: applications in quality assurance/control and normalization for the health canada toxarray. | microarray normalizations typically apply methods that assume absence of global transcript shifts, or absence of changes in internal control features such as housekeeping genes. these normalization approaches are not appropriate for focused arrays with small sets of genes where a large portion may be expected to change. furthermore, many microarrays lack control features that can be used for quality assurance (qa). here, we describe a novel external control series integrated with a design featur ... | 2006 | 17052352 |
| leaner and meaner genomes in escherichia coli. | a 'better' escherichia coli k-12 genome has recently been engineered in which about 15% of the genome has been removed by planned deletions. comparison with related bacterial genomes that have undergone a natural reduction in size suggests that there is plenty of scope for yet more deletions. | 2006 | 17076878 |
| selection acts on dna secondary structures to decrease transcriptional mutagenesis. | single-stranded dna is more subject to mutation than double stranded. during transcription, dna is transiently single stranded and therefore subject to higher mutagenesis. however, if local intra-strand secondary structures are formed, some bases will be paired and therefore less sensitive to mutation than unpaired bases. using complete genome sequences of escherichia coli, we show that local intra-strand secondary structures can, as a consequence, be used to define an index of transcription-dri ... | 2006 | 17083275 |
| selection for unequal densities of sigma70 promoter-like signals in different regions of large bacterial genomes. | the evolutionary processes operating in the dna regions that participate in the regulation of gene expression are poorly understood. in escherichia coli, we have established a sequence pattern that distinguishes regulatory from nonregulatory regions. the density of promoter-like sequences, that could be recognizable by rna polymerase and may function as potential promoters, is high within regulatory regions, in contrast to coding regions and regions located between convergently transcribed genes ... | 2006 | 17096598 |
| genome reduction of the aphid endosymbiont buchnera aphidicola in a recent evolutionary time scale. | genome reduction, a typical feature of symbiotic bacteria, was analyzed in the last stages of evolution of buchnera aphidicola, the primary aphid endosymbiont, in two neutrally evolving regions: the pseudogene cmk and an intergenic region. these two regions were examined in endosymbionts from several lineages of their aphid host rhopalosiphum padi, and different species of the same genus, whose divergence times ranged from 0.62 to 19.51 million years. estimates of nucleotide substitution rates w ... | 2007 | 17098378 |
| dynamics of reductive genome evolution in mitochondria and obligate intracellular microbes. | reductive evolution in mitochondria and obligate intracellular microbes has led to a significant reduction in their genome size and guanine plus cytosine content (gc). we show that genome shrinkage during reductive evolution in prokaryotes follows an exponential decay pattern and provide a method to predict the extent of this decay on an evolutionary timescale. we validated predictions by comparison with estimated extents of genome reduction known to have occurred in mitochondria and buchnera ap ... | 2007 | 17108184 |
| operon prediction for sequenced bacterial genomes without experimental information. | various computational approaches have been proposed for operon prediction, but most algorithms rely on experimental or functional data that are only available for a small subset of sequenced genomes. in this study, we explored the possibility of using phylogenetic information to aid in operon prediction, and we constructed a bayesian hidden markov model that incorporates comparative genomic data with traditional predictors, such as intergenic distances. the prediction algorithm performs as well ... | 2007 | 17122389 |
| operon prediction for sequenced bacterial genomes without experimental information. | various computational approaches have been proposed for operon prediction, but most algorithms rely on experimental or functional data that are only available for a small subset of sequenced genomes. in this study, we explored the possibility of using phylogenetic information to aid in operon prediction, and we constructed a bayesian hidden markov model that incorporates comparative genomic data with traditional predictors, such as intergenic distances. the prediction algorithm performs as well ... | 2007 | 17122389 |
| role of host nutrition in symbiont regulation: impact of dietary nitrogen on proliferation of obligate and facultative bacterial endosymbionts of the pea aphid acyrthosiphon pisum. | the impact of host nutrition on symbiont regulation in the pea aphid acyrthosiphon pisum was investigated. the population density of the obligate symbiont buchnera aphidicola positively correlated with dietary nitrogen levels. in contrast, the population density of the facultative symbiont serratia symbiotica increased in aphids reared on low-nitrogen diets, indicating distinct regulatory mechanisms in the same insect host. | 2007 | 17158610 |
| role of host nutrition in symbiont regulation: impact of dietary nitrogen on proliferation of obligate and facultative bacterial endosymbionts of the pea aphid acyrthosiphon pisum. | the impact of host nutrition on symbiont regulation in the pea aphid acyrthosiphon pisum was investigated. the population density of the obligate symbiont buchnera aphidicola positively correlated with dietary nitrogen levels. in contrast, the population density of the facultative symbiont serratia symbiotica increased in aphids reared on low-nitrogen diets, indicating distinct regulatory mechanisms in the same insect host. | 2007 | 17158610 |
| high precision multi-genome scale reannotation of enzyme function by eficaz. | the functional annotation of most genes in newly sequenced genomes is inferred from similarity to previously characterized sequences, an annotation strategy that often leads to erroneous assignments. we have performed a reannotation of 245 genomes using an updated version of eficaz, a highly precise method for enzyme function prediction. | 2006 | 17166279 |
| how repetitive are genomes? | genome sequences vary strongly in their repetitiveness and the causes for this are still debated. here we propose a novel measure of genome repetitiveness, the index of repetitiveness, ir, which can be computed in time proportional to the length of the sequences analyzed. we apply it to 336 genomes from all three domains of life. | 2006 | 17187668 |
| a possible heterodimeric prophage-like element in the genome of the insect endosymbiont sodalis glossinidius. | extrachromosomal element psog3 (52,162 nucleotides) in the genome of sodalis glossinidius contains redundant phage-related gene pairs, indicating that it may have been formed by the fusion of two ancestral phage genomes followed by gene degradation. we suggest that psog3 is a prophage that has undergone genome degeneration accompanying host adaptation to symbiosis. | 2007 | 17209029 |
| reductive genome evolution from the mother of rickettsia. | the rickettsia genus is a group of obligate intracellular alpha-proteobacteria representing a paradigm of reductive evolution. here, we investigate the evolutionary processes that shaped the genomes of the genus. the reconstruction of ancestral genomes indicates that their last common ancestor contained more genes, but already possessed most traits associated with cellular parasitism. the differences in gene repertoires across modern rickettsia are mainly the result of differential gene losses f ... | 2007 | 17238289 |
| the role of the s1 domain in exoribonucleolytic activity: substrate specificity and multimerization. | rnase ii is a 3'-5' exoribonuclease that processively hydrolyzes single-stranded rna generating 5' mononucleotides. this enzyme contains a catalytic core that is surrounded by three rna-binding domains. at its c terminus, there is a typical s1 domain that has been shown to be critical for rna binding. the s1 domain is also present in the other major 3'-5' exoribonucleases from escherichia coli: rnase r and polynucleotide phosphorylase (pnpase). in this report, we examined the involvement of the ... | 2007 | 17242308 |
| genome analysis of dna repair genes in the alpha proteobacterium caulobacter crescentus. | the integrity of dna molecules is fundamental for maintaining life. the dna repair proteins protect organisms against genetic damage, by removal of dna lesions or helping to tolerate them. dna repair genes are best known from the gamma-proteobacterium escherichia coli, which is the most understood bacterial model. however, genome sequencing raises questions regarding uniformity and ubiquity of these dna repair genes and pathways, reinforcing the need for identifying genes and proteins, which may ... | 2007 | 17352799 |
| stripped-down dna repair in a highly reduced parasite. | encephalitozoon cuniculi is a member of a distinctive group of single-celled parasitic eukaryotes called microsporidia, which are closely related to fungi. some of these organisms, including e. cuniculi, also have uniquely small genomes that are within the prokaryotic range. thus, e. cuniculi has undergone a massive genome reduction which has resulted in a loss of genes from diverse biological pathways, including those that act in dna repair.dna repair is essential to any living cell. a loss of ... | 2007 | 17374165 |
| aphid thermal tolerance is governed by a point mutation in bacterial symbionts. | symbiosis is a ubiquitous phenomenon generating biological complexity, affecting adaptation, and expanding ecological capabilities. however, symbionts, which can be subject to genetic limitations such as clonality and genomic degradation, also impose constraints on hosts. a model of obligate symbiosis is that between aphids and the bacterium buchnera aphidicola, which supplies essential nutrients. we report a mutation in buchnera of the aphid acyrthosiphon pisum that recurs in laboratory lines a ... | 2007 | 17425405 |
| on the origin and evolution of biosynthetic pathways: integrating microarray data with structure and organization of the common pathway genes. | the lysine, threonine, and methionine biosynthetic pathways share the three initial enzymatic steps, which are referred to as the common pathway (cp). in escherichia coli three different aspartokinases (aki, akii, akiii, the products of thra, metl and lysc, respectively) can perform the first step of the cp. moreover, two of them (aki and akii) are bifunctional, carrying also homoserine dehydrogenasic activity (hom product). the second step of the cp is catalyzed by a single aspartate semialdehy ... | 2007 | 17430556 |
| proteomic profiling of aphid macrosiphum euphorbiae responses to host-plant-mediated stress induced by defoliation and water deficit. | abiotic and biotic host-plant stress, such as desiccation and herbivory, may strongly affect sap-sucking insects such as aphids via changes in plant chemicals of insect nutritional or plant defensive value. here, we examined (i) water deprivation and (ii) defoliation by the beetle leptinotarsa decemlineata as stresses indirectly affecting the aphid macrosiphum euphorbiae via its host plant solanum tuberosum. for plant-induced stress, aphids were reared on healthy vs. continuously stressed potato ... | 2007 | 17466324 |
| modular organization in the reductive evolution of protein-protein interaction networks. | the variation in the sizes of the genomes of distinct life forms remains somewhat puzzling. the organization of proteins into domains and the different mechanisms that regulate gene expression are two factors that potentially increase the capacity of genomes to create more complex systems. high-throughput protein interaction data now make it possible to examine the additional complexity generated by the way that protein interactions are organized. | 2007 | 17532860 |
| genetic evidence from mitochondrial, nuclear, and endosymbiont markers for the evolution of host plant associated species in the aphid genus hyalopterus (hemiptera: aphididae). | over the past several decades biologists' fascination with plant-herbivore interactions has generated intensive research into the implications of these interactions for insect diversification. the study of closely related phytophagous insect species or populations from an evolutionary perspective can help illuminate ecological and selective forces that drive these interactions. here we present such an analysis for aphids in the genus hyalopterus (hemiptera: aphididae), a cosmopolitan group that ... | 2007 | 17542845 |
| conservation of the links between gene transcription and chromosomal organization in the highly reduced genome of buchnera aphidicola. | genomic studies on bacteria have clearly shown the existence of chromosomal organization as regards, for example, to gene localization, order and orientation. moreover, transcriptomic analyses have demonstrated that, in free-living bacteria, gene transcription levels and chromosomal organization are mutually influenced. we have explored the possible conservation of relationships between mrna abundances and chromosomal organization in the highly reduced genome of buchnera aphidicola, the primary ... | 2007 | 17547756 |
| obligate symbiont involved in pest status of host insect. | the origin of specific insect genotypes that enable efficient use of agricultural plants is an important subject not only in applied fields like pest control and management but also in basic disciplines like evolutionary biology. conventionally, it has been presupposed that such pest-related ecological traits are attributed to genes encoded in the insect genomes. here, however, we report that pest status of an insect is principally determined by symbiont genotype rather than by insect genotype. ... | 2007 | 17567556 |
| reconstructing the ancestor of mycobacterium leprae: the dynamics of gene loss and genome reduction. | we have reconstructed the gene content and order of the last common ancestor of the human pathogens mycobacterium leprae and mycobacterium tuberculosis. during the reductive evolution of m. leprae, 1537 of 2977 ancestral genes were lost, among which we found 177 previously unnoticed pseudogenes. we find evidence that a massive gene inactivation took place very recently in the m. leprae lineage, leading to the loss of hundreds of ancestral genes. a large proportion of their nucleotide content ( a ... | 2007 | 17623808 |
| gene promoter scan methodology for identifying and classifying coregulated promoters. | a critical challenge of the postgenomic era is to understand how genes are differentially regulated. genetic and genomic approaches have been used successfully to assign genes to distinct regulatory networks in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. however, little is known about what determines the differential expression of genes within a particular network, even when it involves a single transcription factor. the fact that coregulated genes may be differentially expressed suggests that subtle diffe ... | 2007 | 17628149 |
| rasta-bacteria: a web-based tool for identifying toxin-antitoxin loci in prokaryotes. | toxin/antitoxin (ta) systems, viewed as essential regulators of growth arrest and programmed cell death, are widespread among prokaryotes, but remain sparsely annotated. we present rasta-bacteria, an automated method allowing quick and reliable identification of ta loci in sequenced prokaryotic genomes, whether they are annotated open reading frames or not. the tool successfully confirmed all reported ta systems, and spotted new putative loci upon screening of sequenced genomes. rasta-bacteria i ... | 2007 | 17678530 |
| bacterial endosymbiont of the slender pigeon louse, columbicola columbae, allied to endosymbionts of grain weevils and tsetse flies. | the current study focuses on a symbiotic bacterium found in the slender pigeon louse, columbicola columbae (insecta: phthiraptera). molecular phylogenetic analyses indicated that the symbiont belongs to the gamma subdivision of the class proteobacteria and is allied to sodalis glossinidius, the secondary symbiont of tsetse flies (glossina spp.) and also to the primary symbiont of grain weevils (sitophilus spp.). relative-rate tests revealed that the symbiont of c. columbae exhibits accelerated m ... | 2007 | 17766458 |
| the role of mutational dynamics in genome shrinkage. | genome shrinkage occurs after whole genome duplications (wgds) and in the evolution of parasitic or symbiotic species. the dynamics of this process, whether it occurs by single gene deletions or also by larger deletions are however unknown. in yeast, genome shrinkage has occurred after a wgd. using a computational model of genome evolution, we show that in a random genome single gene deletions cannot explain the observed pattern of gene loss in yeast. the distribution of genes deleted per event ... | 2007 | 17768305 |
| the frontier between cell and organelle: genome analysis of candidatus carsonella ruddii. | bacterial symbioses are widespread among insects. the early establishment of such symbiotic associations has probably been one of the key factors for the evolutionary success of insects, since it may have allowed access to novel ecological niches and to new imbalanced food resources, such as plant sap or blood. several genomes of bacterial endosymbionts of different insect species have been recently sequenced, and their biology has been extensively studied. recently, the complete genome sequence ... | 2007 | 17908294 |
| analysis of gene order data supports vertical inheritance of the leukotoxin operon and genome rearrangements in the 5' flanking region in genus mannheimia. | the mannheimia subclades belong to the same bacterial genus, but have taken divergent paths toward their distinct lifestyles. for example, m. haemolytica + m. glucosida are potential pathogens of the respiratory tract in the mammalian suborder ruminantia, whereas m. ruminalis, the supposed sister group, lives as a commensal in the ovine rumen. we have tested the hypothesis that vertical inheritance of the leukotoxin (lktcabd) operon has occurred from the last common ancestor of genus mannheimia ... | 2007 | 17915007 |
| lateral gene transfer between obligate intracellular bacteria: evidence from the rickettsia massiliae genome. | rickettsia massiliae is a tick-borne obligate intracellular alpha-proteobacteria causing spotted fever in humans. here, we present the sequence of its genome, comprising a 1.3-mb circular chromosome and a 15.3-kb plasmid. the chromosome exhibits long-range colinearity with the other spotted fever group rickettsia genomes, except for a large fragment specific to r. massiliae that contains 14 tra genes presumably involved in pilus formation and conjugal dna transfer. we demonstrate that the tra re ... | 2007 | 17916642 |
| nutritional upgrading for omnivorous carpenter ants by the endosymbiont blochmannia. | carpenter ants (genus camponotus) are considered to be omnivores. nonetheless, the genome sequence of blochmannia floridanus, the obligate intracellular endosymbiont of camponotus floridanus, suggests a function in nutritional upgrading of host resources by the bacterium. thus, the strongly reduced genome of the endosymbiont retains genes for all subunits of a functional urease, as well as those for biosynthetic pathways for all but one (arginine) of the amino acids essential to the host. | 2007 | 17971224 |
| short-term temporal variability in airborne bacterial and fungal populations. | airborne microorganisms have been studied for centuries, but the majority of this research has relied on cultivation-dependent surveys that may not capture all of the microbial diversity in the atmosphere. as a result, our understanding of airborne microbial ecology is limited despite the relevance of airborne microbes to human health, various ecosystem functions, and environmental quality. cultivation-independent surveys of small-subunit rrna genes were conducted in order to identify the types ... | 2008 | 17981945 |
| short-term temporal variability in airborne bacterial and fungal populations. | airborne microorganisms have been studied for centuries, but the majority of this research has relied on cultivation-dependent surveys that may not capture all of the microbial diversity in the atmosphere. as a result, our understanding of airborne microbial ecology is limited despite the relevance of airborne microbes to human health, various ecosystem functions, and environmental quality. cultivation-independent surveys of small-subunit rrna genes were conducted in order to identify the types ... | 2008 | 17981945 |
| genomic resources for myzus persicae: est sequencing, snp identification, and microarray design. | the green peach aphid, myzus persicae (sulzer), is a world-wide insect pest capable of infesting more than 40 plant families, including many crop species. however, despite the significant damage inflicted by m. persicae in agricultural systems through direct feeding damage and by its ability to transmit plant viruses, limited genomic information is available for this species. | 2007 | 18021414 |
| parallel genomic evolution and metabolic interdependence in an ancient symbiosis. | obligate symbioses with nutrient-provisioning bacteria have originated often during animal evolution and have been key to the ecological diversification of many invertebrate groups. to date, genome sequences of insect nutritional symbionts have been restricted to a related cluster within gammaproteobacteria and have revealed distinctive features, including extreme reduction, rapid evolution, and biased nucleotide composition. using recently developed sequencing technologies, we show that sulcia ... | 2007 | 18048332 |
| impact of plant nutrients on the relationship between a herbivorous insect and its symbiotic bacteria. | the interactions between herbivorous insects and their symbiotic micro-organisms can be influenced by the plant species on which the insects are reared, but the underlying mechanisms are not understood. here, we identify plant nutrients, specifically amino acids, as a candidate factor affecting the impact of symbiotic bacteria on the performance of the phloem-feeding aphid aphis fabae. aphis fabae grew more slowly on the labiate plant lamium purpureum than on an alternative host plant vicia faba ... | 2008 | 18089538 |
| impact of plant nutrients on the relationship between a herbivorous insect and its symbiotic bacteria. | the interactions between herbivorous insects and their symbiotic micro-organisms can be influenced by the plant species on which the insects are reared, but the underlying mechanisms are not understood. here, we identify plant nutrients, specifically amino acids, as a candidate factor affecting the impact of symbiotic bacteria on the performance of the phloem-feeding aphid aphis fabae. aphis fabae grew more slowly on the labiate plant lamium purpureum than on an alternative host plant vicia faba ... | 2008 | 18089538 |
| the cyanobacterial endosymbiont of the unicellular algae rhopalodia gibba shows reductive genome evolution. | bacteria occur in facultative association and intracellular symbiosis with a diversity of eukaryotic hosts. recently, we have helped to characterise an intracellular nitrogen fixing bacterium, the so-called spheroid body, located within the diatom rhopalodia gibba. spheroid bodies are of cyanobacterial origin and exhibit features that suggest physiological adaptation to their intracellular life style. to investigate the genome modifications that have accompanied the process of endosymbiosis, her ... | 2008 | 18226230 |
| comparing patterns of natural selection across species using selective signatures. | comparing gene expression profiles over many different conditions has led to insights that were not obvious from single experiments. in the same way, comparing patterns of natural selection across a set of ecologically distinct species may extend what can be learned from individual genome-wide surveys. toward this end, we show how variation in protein evolutionary rates, after correcting for genome-wide effects such as mutation rate and demographic factors, can be used to estimate the level and ... | 2008 | 18266472 |
| enzymes of the shikimic acid pathway encoded in the genome of a basal metazoan, nematostella vectensis, have microbial origins. | the shikimic acid pathway is responsible for the biosynthesis of many aromatic compounds by a broad range of organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants, and some protozoans. animals are considered to lack this pathway, as evinced by their dietary requirement for shikimate-derived aromatic amino acids. we challenge the universality of this traditional view in this report of genes encoding enzymes for the shikimate pathway in an animal, the starlet sea anemone nematostella vectensis. molecular e ... | 2008 | 18268342 |
| high rate of mobilization for blactx-ms. | we constructed a phylogenetic analysis of class a beta-lactamases and found that the blactx-ms have been mobilized to plasmids approximately 10 times more frequently than other class a beta-lactamases. we also found that the blactx-ms are descended from a common ancestor that was incorporated in ancient times into the chromosome of the ancestor of kluyvera species through horizontal transfer. considerable sequence divergence has occurred among the descendents of that ancestral gene sequence sinc ... | 2008 | 18325257 |
| klebsiella pneumoniae multiresistance plasmid pmet1: similarity with the yersinia pestis plasmid pcry and integrative conjugative elements. | dissemination of antimicrobial resistance genes has become an important public health and biodefense threat. plasmids are important contributors to the rapid acquisition of antibiotic resistance by pathogenic bacteria. | 2008 | 18350140 |
| comparative genome analysis of "candidatus phytoplasma australiense" (subgroup tuf-australia i; rp-a) and "ca. phytoplasma asteris" strains oy-m and ay-wb. | the chromosome sequence of "candidatus phytoplasma australiense" (subgroup tuf-australia i; rp-a), associated with dieback in papaya, australian grapevine yellows in grapevine, and several other important plant diseases, was determined. the circular chromosome is represented by 879,324 nucleotides, a gc content of 27%, and 839 protein-coding genes. five hundred two of these protein-coding genes were functionally assigned, while 337 genes were hypothetical proteins with unknown function. potentia ... | 2008 | 18359806 |
| reducing the false positive rate in the non-parametric analysis of molecular coevolution. | the strength of selective constraints operating on amino acid sites of proteins has a multifactorial nature. in fact, amino acid sites within proteins coevolve due to their functional and/or structural relationships. different methods have been developed that attempt to account for the evolutionary dependencies between amino acid sites. researchers have invested a significant effort to increase the sensitivity of such methods. however, the difficulty in disentangling functional co-dependencies f ... | 2008 | 18402697 |
| extreme polyploidy in a large bacterium. | cells rely on diffusion to move metabolites and biomolecules. diffusion is highly efficient but only over short distances. although eukaryotic cells have broken free of diffusion-dictated constraints on cell size, most bacteria and archaea are forced to remain small. exceptions to this rule are found among the bacterial symbionts of surgeonfish; epulopiscium spp. are cigar-shaped cells that reach lengths in excess of 600 mum. a large epulopiscium contains thousands of times more dna than a bacte ... | 2008 | 18445653 |
| infection dynamics of coexisting beta- and gammaproteobacteria in the nested endosymbiotic system of mealybugs. | we investigated the infection dynamics of endosymbiotic bacteria in the developmental course of the mealybugs planococcus kraunhiae and pseudococcus comstocki. molecular phylogenetic analyses identified a betaproteobacterium and a gammaproteobacterium from each of the mealybug species. the former bacterium was related to the beta-endosymbionts of other mealybugs, i.e., "candidatus tremblaya princeps," and formed a compact clade in the betaproteobacteria. meanwhile, the latter bacterium was relat ... | 2008 | 18469124 |
| triad pattern algorithm for predicting strong promoter candidates in bacterial genomes. | bacterial promoters, which increase the efficiency of gene expression, differ from other promoters by several characteristics. this difference, not yet widely exploited in bioinformatics, looks promising for the development of relevant computational tools to search for strong promoters in bacterial genomes. | 2008 | 18471287 |
| interactions of chaperonin with a weakly active anthranilate synthase from the aphid endosymbiont buchnera aphidicola. | the endosymbiotic bacterium buchnera provides its aphid host with essential amino acids. buchnera is typical of intracellular symbiotic and parasitic microorganisms in having a small effective population size, which is believed to accelerate genetic drift and reduce the stability of gene products. it is hypothesized that buchnera mitigates protein instability with an increased production of the chaperonins groesl. in this paper, we report the expression and functional analysis of trpe, a plasmid ... | 2008 | 18478288 |
| evolution of the secondary symbiont "candidatus serratia symbiotica" in aphid species of the subfamily lachninae. | buchnera aphidicola bcc, the primary endosymbiont of the aphid cinara cedri (subfamily lachninae), is losing its symbiotic capacity and might be replaced by the coresident "candidatus serratia symbiotica." phylogenetic and morphological analyses within the subfamily lachninae indicate two different "ca. serratia symbiotica" lineages and support the longtime coevolution of both symbionts in c. cedri. | 2008 | 18502932 |
| ests from the microsporidian edhazardia aedis. | microsporidia are a group of parasites related to fungi that infect a wide variety of animals and have gained recognition from the medical community in the past 20 years due to their ability to infect immuno-compromised humans. microsporidian genomes range in size from 2.3 to 19.5 mbp, but almost all of our knowledge comes from species that have small genomes (primarily from the human parasite encephalitozoon cuniculi and the locust parasite antonospora locustae). we have conducted an est survey ... | 2008 | 18570666 |
| the striking case of tryptophan provision in the cedar aphid cinara cedri. | buchnera aphidicola bcc has lost its symbiotic role as the tryptophan supplier to the aphid cinara cedri. we report the presence of a plasmid in this endosymbiont that contains the trpeg genes. the remaining genes for the pathway (trpdcba) are located on the chromosome of the secondary endosymbiont "candidatus serratia symbiotica." thus, we propose that a symbiotic consortium is necessary to provide tryptophan. | 2008 | 18586942 |
| toxic introns and parasitic intein in coxiella burnetii: legacies of a promiscuous past. | the genome of the obligate intracellular pathogen coxiella burnetii contains a large number of selfish genetic elements, including two group i introns (cbu.l1917 and cbu.l1951) and an intervening sequence that interrupts the 23s rrna gene, an intein (cbu.dnab) within dnab and 29 insertion sequences. here, we describe the ability of the intron-encoded rnas (ribozymes) to retard bacterial growth rate (toxicity) and examine the functionality and phylogenetic history of cbu.dnab. when expressed in e ... | 2008 | 18606739 |
| borrelia burgdorferi vlse antigenic variation is not mediated by reca. | reca is a key protein linking genetic recombination to dna replication and repair in bacteria. previous functional characterization of borrelia burgdorferi reca indicated that the protein is mainly involved in genetic recombination rather than dna repair. genetic recombination may play a role in b. burgdorferi persistence by generation of antigenic variation. we report here the isolation of a reca null mutant in an infectious b. burgdorferi strain. comparison of the in vitro growth characteristi ... | 2008 | 18606826 |
| tuberculosis vaccine strain mycobacterium bovis bcg russia is a natural reca mutant. | the current tuberculosis vaccine is a live vaccine derived from mycobacterium bovis and attenuated by serial in vitro passaging. all vaccine substrains in use stem from one source, strain bacille calmette-guérin. however, they differ in regions of genomic deletions, antigen expression levels, immunogenicity, and protective efficacy. | 2008 | 18637199 |
| an insecticidal groel protein with chitin binding activity from xenorhabdus nematophila. | xenorhabdus nematophila secretes insecticidal proteins to kill its larval prey. we have isolated an approximately 58-kda groel homolog, secreted in the culture medium through outer membrane vesicles. the protein was orally insecticidal to the major crop pest helicoverpa armigera with an lc50 of approximately 3.6 microg/g diet. for optimal insecticidal activity all three domains of the protein, apical, intermediate, and equatorial, were necessary. the apical domain alone was able to bind to the l ... | 2008 | 18667427 |
| complete rpob gene sequencing as a suitable supplement to dna-dna hybridization for bacterial species and genus delineation. | dna-dna hybridization (ddh), the gold standard for bacterial species delineation, is a laborious method and the alternative, average nucleotide identity (ani), a genomic sequence-derived parameter, is not applicable to non-sequenced species. a universal cut-off value to delineate bacterial species does not exist, yet a ddh value <70 % and ani <95+/-0.5 % have proved useful in selected examples. we herein compare published values for ddh and ani with sequence similarity of rpob gene sequences ret ... | 2008 | 18676461 |
| the obligate mutualist wigglesworthia glossinidia influences reproduction, digestion, and immunity processes of its host, the tsetse fly. | tsetse flies (diptera: glossinidae) are vectors for trypanosome parasites, the agents of the deadly sleeping sickness disease in africa. tsetse also harbor two maternally transmitted enteric mutualist endosymbionts: the primary intracellular obligate wigglesworthia glossinidia and the secondary commensal sodalis glossinidius. both endosymbionts are transmitted to the intrauterine progeny through the milk gland secretions of the viviparous female. we administered various antibiotics either contin ... | 2008 | 18689507 |
| the insecticidal activity of recombinant garlic lectins towards aphids. | the heterodimeric and homodimeric garlic lectins asai and asaii were produced as recombinant proteins in the yeast pichia pastoris. the proteins were purified as functional dimeric lectins, but underwent post-translational proteolysis. recombinant asaii was a single homogenous polypeptide which had undergone c-terminal processing similar to that occurring in planta. the recombinant asai was glycosylated and subject to variable and heterogenous proteolysis. both lectins showed insecticidal effect ... | 2008 | 18707000 |
| comparative phylogenomics and multi-gene cluster analyses of the citrus huanglongbing (hlb)-associated bacterium candidatus liberibacter. | huanglongbing (hlb, previously known as citrus greening), is associated with candidatus liberibacter species and is a serious threat to citrus production world-wide. the pathogen is a gram negative, unculturable, phloem-limited bacterium with limited known genomic information. expanding the genetic knowledge of this organism may provide better understanding of the pathogen and possibly develop effective strategies for control and management of hlb. | 2008 | 18755041 |
| fine-scale cospeciation between brachycaudus and buchnera aphidicola: bacterial genome helps define species and evolutionary relationships in aphids. | aphids harbour an obligatory symbiont, buchnera aphidicola, providing essential amino acids not supplied by their diet. these bacteria are transmitted vertically and phylogenic analyses suggest that they have 'cospeciated' with their hosts. we investigated this cospeciation phenomenon at a fine taxonomic level, within the aphid genus brachycaudus. we used dna-based methods of species delimitation in both organisms, to avoid biases in the definition of aphid and buchnera species and to infer asso ... | 2009 | 18782748 |
| fine-scale cospeciation between brachycaudus and buchnera aphidicola: bacterial genome helps define species and evolutionary relationships in aphids. | aphids harbour an obligatory symbiont, buchnera aphidicola, providing essential amino acids not supplied by their diet. these bacteria are transmitted vertically and phylogenic analyses suggest that they have 'cospeciated' with their hosts. we investigated this cospeciation phenomenon at a fine taxonomic level, within the aphid genus brachycaudus. we used dna-based methods of species delimitation in both organisms, to avoid biases in the definition of aphid and buchnera species and to infer asso ... | 2009 | 18782748 |
| endosymbiont gene functions impaired and rescued by polymerase infidelity at poly(a) tracts. | among host-dependent bacteria that have evolved by extreme reductive genome evolution, long-term bacterial endosymbionts of insects have the smallest (160-790 kb) and most a + t-rich (>70%) bacterial genomes known to date. these genomes are riddled with poly(a) tracts, and 5-50% of genes contain tracts of 10 as or more. here, we demonstrate transcriptional slippage at poly(a) tracts within genes of buchnera aphidicola associated with aphids and blochmannia pennsylvanicus associated with ants. se ... | 2008 | 18815381 |
| suppression of deltabipa phenotypes in escherichia coli by abolishment of pseudouridylation at specific sites on the 23s rrna. | the bipa protein of escherichia coli has intriguing similarities to the elongation factor subfamily of gtpases, including ef-tu, ef-g, and lepa. in addition, phenotypes of a bipa deletion mutant suggest that bipa is involved in regulation of a variety of pathways. these two points have led to speculation that bipa may be a novel regulatory protein that affects efficient translation of target genes through direct interaction with the ribosome. we isolated and characterized suppressors of the cold ... | 2008 | 18820021 |
| bioinformatics identification of murj (mvin) as the peptidoglycan lipid ii flippase in escherichia coli. | peptidoglycan is a cell-wall glycopeptide polymer that protects bacteria from osmotic lysis. whereas in gram-positive bacteria it also serves as scaffold for many virulence factors, in gram-negative bacteria, peptidoglycan is an anchor for the outer membrane. for years, we have known the enzymes required for the biosynthesis of peptidoglycan; what was missing was the flippase that translocates the lipid-anchored precursors across the cytoplasmic membrane before their polymerization into mature p ... | 2008 | 18832143 |
| accounting for horizontal gene transfers explains conflicting hypotheses regarding the position of aquificales in the phylogeny of bacteria. | despite a large agreement between ribosomal rna and concatenated protein phylogenies, the phylogenetic tree of the bacterial domain remains uncertain in its deepest nodes. for instance, the position of the hyperthermophilic aquificales is debated, as their commonly observed position close to thermotogales may proceed from horizontal gene transfers, long branch attraction or compositional biases, and may not represent vertical descent. indeed, another view, based on the analysis of rare genomic c ... | 2008 | 18834516 |
| preferred and avoided codon pairs in three domains of life. | alternative synonymous codons are not used with equal frequencies. in addition, the contexts of codons - neighboring nucleotides and neighboring codons - can have certain patterns. the codon context can influence both translational accuracy and elongation rates. however, it is not known how strong or conserved the codon context preferences in different organisms are. we analyzed 138 organisms (bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes) to find conserved patterns of codon pairs. | 2008 | 18842120 |
| chlamydia trachomatis diversity viewed as a tissue-specific coevolutionary arms race. | the genomes of pathogens are thought to have evolved under selective pressure provided by the host in a coevolutionary arms race (the 'red queen's hypothesis'). traditionally, adaptation by pathogens is thought to rely not on whole chromosome dynamics but on gain/loss of specific genes, yielding differential abilities to infect distinct tissues. thus, it is not known whether distinct host organs differently shape the genome of the same pathogen. we tested this hypothesis using chlamydia trachoma ... | 2008 | 18947394 |
| using mahalanobis distance to compare genomic signatures between bacterial plasmids and chromosomes. | plasmids are ubiquitous mobile elements that serve as a pool of many host beneficial traits such as antibiotic resistance in bacterial communities. to understand the importance of plasmids in horizontal gene transfer, we need to gain insight into the 'evolutionary history' of these plasmids, i.e. the range of hosts in which they have evolved. since extensive data support the proposal that foreign dna acquires the host's nucleotide composition during long-term residence, comparison of nucleotide ... | 2008 | 18953039 |
| a genomic distance based on mum indicates discontinuity between most bacterial species and genera. | the fundamental unit of biological diversity is the species. however, a remarkable extent of intraspecies diversity in bacteria was discovered by genome sequencing, and it reveals the need to develop clear criteria to group strains within a species. two main types of analyses used to quantify intraspecies variation at the genome level are the average nucleotide identity (ani), which detects the dna conservation of the core genome, and the dna content, which calculates the proportion of dna share ... | 2009 | 18978054 |
| a genomic distance based on mum indicates discontinuity between most bacterial species and genera. | the fundamental unit of biological diversity is the species. however, a remarkable extent of intraspecies diversity in bacteria was discovered by genome sequencing, and it reveals the need to develop clear criteria to group strains within a species. two main types of analyses used to quantify intraspecies variation at the genome level are the average nucleotide identity (ani), which detects the dna conservation of the core genome, and the dna content, which calculates the proportion of dna share ... | 2009 | 18978054 |
| whole-genome mutational biases in bacteria. | a fundamental biological question is what forces shape the guanine plus cytosine (gc) content of genomes. we studied the specificity and rate of different mutational biases in real time in the bacterium salmonella typhimurium under conditions of strongly reduced selection and in the absence of the major dna repair systems involved in repairing common spontaneous mutations caused by oxidized and deaminated dna bases. the mutational spectrum was determined by whole-genome sequencing of two s. typh ... | 2008 | 19001264 |
| selection for translational robustness in buchnera aphidicola, endosymbiotic bacteria of aphids. | its strong intergenerational bottlenecks and effectively asexual reproduction have led buchnera aphidicola, the endocellular symbiotic bacterium of aphids, to spectacular evolutionary and genomic changes in comparison with its free-living bacterial cousins. these changes summarize into high fixation rates of mildly deleterious destabilizing mutations. this predicts a sharp decline of its fitness and the consequent early demise of this endosymbiotic bacterium. its survival for hundreds of million ... | 2009 | 19126868 |
| symbiotic bacteria enable insect to use a nutritionally inadequate diet. | animals generally require a dietary supply of various nutrients (vitamins, essential amino acids, etc.) because their biosynthetic capabilities are limited. the capacity of aphids to use plant phloem sap, with low essential amino acid content, has been attributed to their symbiotic bacteria, buchnera aphidicola, which can synthesize these nutrients; but this has not been demonstrated empirically. we demonstrate here that phloem sap obtained from the severed stylets of pea aphids acyrthosiphon pi ... | 2009 | 19129128 |
| symbiotic bacteria enable insect to use a nutritionally inadequate diet. | animals generally require a dietary supply of various nutrients (vitamins, essential amino acids, etc.) because their biosynthetic capabilities are limited. the capacity of aphids to use plant phloem sap, with low essential amino acid content, has been attributed to their symbiotic bacteria, buchnera aphidicola, which can synthesize these nutrients; but this has not been demonstrated empirically. we demonstrate here that phloem sap obtained from the severed stylets of pea aphids acyrthosiphon pi ... | 2009 | 19129128 |
| host-symbiont co-speciation and reductive genome evolution in gut symbiotic bacteria of acanthosomatid stinkbugs. | host-symbiont co-speciation and reductive genome evolution have been commonly observed among obligate endocellular insect symbionts, while such examples have rarely been identified among extracellular ones, the only case reported being from gut symbiotic bacteria of stinkbugs of the family plataspidae. considering that gut symbiotic communities are vulnerable to invasion of foreign microbes, gut symbiotic associations have been thought to be evolutionarily not stable. stinkbugs of the family aca ... | 2009 | 19146674 |
| the dynamics and time scale of ongoing genomic erosion in symbiotic bacteria. | among cellular organisms, symbiotic bacteria provide the extreme examples of genome degradation and reduction. however, only isolated snapshots of eroding symbiont genomes have previously been available. we documented the dynamics of symbiont genome evolution by sequencing seven strains of buchnera aphidicola from pea aphid hosts. we estimated a spontaneous mutation rate of at least 4 x 10(-9) substitutions per site per replication, which is more than 10 times as high as the rates previously est ... | 2009 | 19150844 |
| codon usages of genes on chromosome, and surprisingly, genes in plasmid are primarily affected by strand-specific mutational biases in lawsonia intracellularis. | in this study, the factors driving genome-wide patterns of codon usages in lawsonia intracellularis genome are determined. for genes on the chromosome of the bacterium, it is found that the most important source of variation results from strand-specific mutational biases. a lesser trend of variation is attributable to genes that are presumed as horizontally transferred. these putative alien genes are unusually gc richer than the other genes, whereas horizontally transferred genes have been obser ... | 2009 | 19221094 |
| a fragile metabolic network adapted for cooperation in the symbiotic bacterium buchnera aphidicola. | in silico analyses provide valuable insight into the biology of obligately intracellular pathogens and symbionts with small genomes. there is a particular opportunity to apply systems-level tools developed for the model bacterium escherichia coli to study the evolution and function of symbiotic bacteria which are metabolically specialised to overproduce specific nutrients for their host and, remarkably, have a gene complement that is a subset of the e. coli genome. | 2009 | 19232131 |
| genome sequences of three agrobacterium biovars help elucidate the evolution of multichromosome genomes in bacteria. | the family rhizobiaceae contains plant-associated bacteria with critical roles in ecology and agriculture. within this family, many rhizobium and sinorhizobium strains are nitrogen-fixing plant mutualists, while many strains designated as agrobacterium are plant pathogens. these contrasting lifestyles are primarily dependent on the transmissible plasmids each strain harbors. members of the rhizobiaceae also have diverse genome architectures that include single chromosomes, multiple chromosomes, ... | 2009 | 19251847 |
| structure and biological function of the rna pyrophosphohydrolase bdrpph from bdellovibrio bacteriovorus. | until recently, the mechanism of mrna decay in bacteria was thought to be different from that of eukaryotes. this paradigm changed with the discovery that rpph (orf176/nudh/ygdp), an escherichia coli enzyme that belongs to the nudix superfamily, is an rna pyrophosphohydrolase that initiates mrna decay by cleaving pyrophosphate from the 5'-triphosphate. here we report the 1.9 angstroms resolution structure of the nudix hydrolase bdrpph from bdellovibrio bacteriovorus, a bacterium that feeds on ot ... | 2009 | 19278661 |
| aphids acquired symbiotic genes via lateral gene transfer. | aphids possess bacteriocytes, which are cells specifically differentiated to harbour the obligate mutualist buchnera aphidicola (gamma-proteobacteria). buchnera has lost many of the genes that appear to be essential for bacterial life. from the bacteriocyte of the pea aphid acyrthosiphon pisum, we previously identified two clusters of expressed sequence tags that display similarity only to bacterial genes. southern blot analysis demonstrated that they are encoded in the aphid genome. in this stu ... | 2009 | 19284544 |
| global distribution and evolution of a toxinogenic burkholderia-rhizopus symbiosis. | toxinogenic endobacteria were isolated from a collection of rhizopus spp. representing highly diverse geographic origins and ecological niches. all endosymbionts belonged to the burkholderia rhizoxinica complex according to matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight biotyping and multilocus sequence typing, suggesting a common ancestor. comparison of host and symbiont phylogenies provides insights into possible cospeciation and horizontal-transmission events. | 2009 | 19286793 |
| the universal yrdc/sua5 family is required for the formation of threonylcarbamoyladenosine in trna. | threonylcarbamoyladenosine (t(6)a) is a universal modification found at position 37 of ann decoding trnas, which imparts a unique structure to the anticodon loop enhancing its binding to ribosomes in vitro. using a combination of bioinformatic, genetic, structural and biochemical approaches, the universal protein family yrdc/sua5 (cog0009) was shown to be involved in the biosynthesis of this hypermodified base. contradictory reports on the essentiality of both the yrdc wild-type gene of escheric ... | 2009 | 19287007 |
| in silico prioritisation of candidate genes for prokaryotic gene function discovery: an application of phylogenetic profiles. | in silico candidate gene prioritisation (cgp) aids the discovery of gene functions by ranking genes according to an objective relevance score. while several cgp methods have been described for identifying human disease genes, corresponding methods for prokaryotic gene function discovery are lacking. here we present two prokaryotic cgp methods, based on phylogenetic profiles, to assist with this task. | 2009 | 19292914 |
| mutational meltdown in primary endosymbionts: selection limits muller's ratchet. | primary bacterial endosymbionts of insects (p-endosymbionts) are thought to be undergoing the process of muller's ratchet where they accrue slightly deleterious mutations due to genetic drift in small populations with negligible recombination rates. if this process were to go unchecked over time, theory predicts mutational meltdown and eventual extinction. although genome degradation is common among p-endosymbionts, we do not observe widespread p-endosymbiont extinction, suggesting that muller's ... | 2009 | 19305500 |
| promoter characterization in the at-rich genome of the obligate endosymbiont "candidatus blochmannia floridanus". | the characterization of transcriptional start sites of 14 genes encoded by the extremely at-rich genome of "candidatus blochmannia floridanus" revealed a high degree of conservation with the rpod promoter consensus sequence of the free-living relative escherichia coli. moreover, in agreement with the presence of the alternative heat shock sigma factor rpoh in "ca. blochmannia," typical rpoh-dependent promoters were identified. however, no heat shock response resembling that of e. coli could be d ... | 2009 | 19329646 |
| genome-wide functional divergence after the symbiosis of proteobacteria with insects unraveled through a novel computational approach. | symbiosis has been among the most important evolutionary steps to generate biological complexity. the establishment of symbiosis required an intimate metabolic link between biological systems with different complexity levels. the strict endo-cellular symbiotic bacteria of insects are beautiful examples of the metabolic coupling between organisms belonging to different kingdoms, a eukaryote and a prokaryote. the host (eukaryote) provides the endosymbiont (prokaryote) with a stable cellular enviro ... | 2009 | 19343224 |
| a unique group i intron in coxiella burnetii is a natural splice mutant. | cbu.l1917, a group i intron present in the 23s rrna gene of coxiella burnetii, possesses a unique 3'-terminal adenine in place of a conserved guanine. here, we show that, unlike all other group i introns, cbu.l1917 utilizes a different cofactor for each splicing step and has a decreased self-splicing rate in vitro. | 2009 | 19376857 |
| patterns and rates of nucleotide substitution, insertion and deletion in the endosymbiont of ants blochmannia floridanus. | genome reduction is a general process that has been studied in numerous symbiotic bacteria associated with insects. we investigated the last stages of genome degradation in blochmannia floridanus, a mutualistic bacterial endosymbiont of the ant camponotus floridanus. we determined the tempo (rates of insertion and deletion) and mode (size and number of insertion-deletion events) of the process in the last 200,000 years by analysing a total of 16 intergenic regions in several strains of this endo ... | 2008 | 19378410 |