| epidemiology of documented viral respiratory infections and acute otitis media in a cohort of children followed from two to twenty-four months of age. | viral upper respiratory infections (uris) are considered major risk factors for acute otitis media (aom) in young children. we studied the epidemiology and relative roles of different viruses in respiratory infections in a cohort of 329 finnish children followed from 2 months to 2 years of age. | 2001 | 11419498 |
| phylogenetic analysis of the l and hn gene of ophidian paramyxoviruses. brief report. | two reptilian paramyxoviruses, isolated from a neotropical rattlesnake (neotropical virus, ntv, atcc vr-1408) and a bush viper (bush viper virus, bvv, atcc vr- 1409), respectively, were analysed to determine their taxonomic position among other reptilian paramyxoviruses investigated previously by ahne et al.. a 679 bp long region of the hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (hn) gene and a 627 bp long region of the large (l) gene were reverse transcribed, amplified by polymerase chain reaction (pcr), and ... | 2001 | 11448022 |
| human parainfluenza virus-associated hospitalizations among children less than five years of age in the united states. | human parainfluenza viruses 1 through 3 (hpiv-1-3) are important causes of respiratory tract infections in young children. this study sought to provide current estimates of hpiv-1-3-associated hospitalizations among us children. | 2001 | 11465835 |
| evaluation of the prodesse hexaplex multiplex pcr assay for direct detection of seven respiratory viruses in clinical specimens. | we evaluated the hexaplex assay (prodesse, waukesha, wi) for the detection of 7 respiratory viruses (influenza a and b, parainfluenza 1-3, and respiratory syncytial virus [rsv] a and b). the hexaplex assay was performed on 300 respiratory samples during the 1999-2000 respiratory virus season. results of this assay were compared with shell vial cell culture and/or direct fluorescent antibody stain. the overall sensitivity and specificity of the assay were 96.6% and 94.1%, respectively. the respec ... | 2001 | 11488068 |
| high resistance of human parainfluenza type 2 virus protein-expressing cells to the antiviral and anti-cell proliferative activities of alpha/beta interferons: cysteine-rich v-specific domain is required for high resistance to the interferons. | human parainfluenza type 2 virus (hpiv-2)-infected hela (hela-ca) cells and hpiv-2 v-expressing hela (hela-v) cells show high resistance to alpha/beta interferons (ifn-alpha/beta) irrespective of whether vesicular stomatitis virus or sindbis virus is used as a challenge virus. when sindbis virus is used, these cells show high susceptibility to human ifn-gamma. furthermore, the multiplication of hela-v cells is not inhibited by ifn-alpha/beta. hela cells expressing the n-terminally truncated v pr ... | 2001 | 11533180 |
| the epidemiology of parainfluenza virus infection in lung transplant recipients. | human parainfluenza virus (hpiv) is a common cause of seasonal respiratory tract infections. however, little is known about the clinical presentation and impact of hpiv infections in lung transplant recipients. we reviewed hpiv infections at the university of pittsburgh medical center. from january 1990 through may 2000, 32 cases of hpiv infection were identified. hpiv infection was found in 24 lung transplant recipients (75%), all of whom were included in the study group. diagnosis was establis ... | 2001 | 11702289 |
| development of internal controls for the luminex instrument as part of a multiplex seven-analyte viral respiratory antibody profile. | the ability of the luminex system to simultaneously quantitate multiple analytes from a single sample source has proven to be a feasible and cost-effective technology for assay development. in previous studies, my colleagues and i introduced two multiplex profiles consisting of 20 individual assays into the clinical laboratory. with the luminex instrument's ability to classify up to 100 distinct microspheres, however, we have only begun to realize the enormous potential of this technology. by ut ... | 2002 | 11777827 |
| development of hypertrophic osteodystrophy and antibody response in a litter of vaccinated weimaraner puppies. | two different vaccination protocols were compared with regard to the development of hypertrophic osteodystrophy (hod) (also termed metaphyseal osteopathy) and effectiveness of immunisation in a litter of 10 weimaraner puppies. five puppies (group 1) were vaccinated with a modified live canine parvovirus vaccine (cpv) and then two weeks later with a trivalent vaccine containing modified live canine distemper virus and adenovirus type 2 combined with a leptospira bacterin (dhl). the cpv and dhl va ... | 2002 | 11833821 |
| degradation of stat1 and stat2 by the v proteins of simian virus 5 and human parainfluenza virus type 2, respectively: consequences for virus replication in the presence of alpha/beta and gamma interferons. | human cell lines were isolated that express the v protein of either simian virus 5 (sv5) or human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hpiv2); the cell lines were termed 2f/sv5-v and 2f/piv2-v, respectively. stat1 was not detectable in 2f/sv5-v cells, and the cells failed to signal in response to either alpha/beta interferons (ifn-alpha and ifn-beta, or ifn-alpha/beta) or gamma interferon (ifn-gamma). in contrast, stat2 was absent from 2f/piv2-v cells, and ifn-alpha/beta but not ifn-gamma signaling was b ... | 2002 | 11836393 |
| paramyxovirus accessory proteins as interferon antagonists. | a new role of the paramyxovirus accessory proteins has been uncovered. the p gene of the subfamily paramyxovirinae encodes accessory proteins including the v and/or c protein by means of pseudotemplated nucleotide addition (rna editing) or by overlapping open reading frame. the respirovirus (sendai virus and human parainfluenza virus (hpiv)3) and rubulavirus (simian virus (sv)5, sv41, mumps virus and hpiv2) circumvent the interferon (ifn) response by inhibiting ifn signaling. the responsible gen ... | 2001 | 11838896 |
| selective stat protein degradation induced by paramyxoviruses requires both stat1 and stat2 but is independent of alpha/beta interferon signal transduction. | the alpha/beta interferon (ifn-alpha/beta)-induced stat signal transduction pathway leading to activation of the isgf3 transcription complex and subsequent antiviral responses is the target of viral pathogenesis strategies. members of the rubulavirus genus of the paramyxovirus family of rna viruses have acquired the ability to specifically target either stat1 or stat2 for proteolytic degradation as a countermeasure for evading ifn responses. while type ii human parainfluenza virus induces stat2 ... | 2002 | 11932384 |
| stat2 acts as a host range determinant for species-specific paramyxovirus interferon antagonism and simian virus 5 replication. | the antiviral state induced by alpha/beta interferon (ifn-alpha/beta) is a powerful selective pressure for virus evolution of evasive strategies. the paramyxoviruses simian virus 5 (sv5) and human parainfluenza virus 2 (hpiv2) overcome ifn-alpha/beta responses through the actions of their v proteins, which induce proteasomal degradation of cellular ifn-alpha/beta-activated signal transducers and activators of transcription stat1 and stat2. sv5 infection induces stat1 degradation and ifn-alpha/be ... | 2002 | 12050355 |
| evaluation of the replication and immunogenicity of recombinant human parainfluenza virus type 3 vectors expressing up to three foreign glycoproteins. | the level of replication and immunogenicity of recombinant parainfluenza virus type 3 (rhpiv3) bearing one, two, or three gene insertions expressing foreign protective antigens was examined. cdna-derived recombinant hpiv3s bearing genes encoding the open reading frames (orfs) of the hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (hn) of hpiv1, the hn of hpiv2, or the hemagglutinin (ha) of measles virus replicated efficiently in vitro, including the largest recombinant, which had three gene unit insertions and whic ... | 2002 | 12083844 |
| severe lower respiratory tract infections associated with human parainfluenza viruses 1-3 in children infected and noninfected with hiv type 1. | the aim of this study was to compare the clinical course of severe lower respiratory tract infections associated with human parainfluenza virus types 1-3 (hpiv 1-3) in hospitalised children infected with the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (hiv-1) versus that in hospitalised children not infected with hiv-1. children were enrolled prospectively as part of a broader study that evaluated the aetiology of lower respiratory tract infections in hiv-1-infected and -noninfected children from march ... | 2002 | 12172740 |
| the carboxyl segment of the mumps virus v protein associates with stat proteins in vitro via a tryptophan-rich motif. | viruses of the paramyxovirinae, similar to other viruses, have evolved specific proteins that interdict ifn action as part of a general strategy to counteract host innate immunity. in many (but not all) cases, this interdiction is accompanied by a lowering of the intracellular levels of the stat proteins. among rubulaviruses, there is a notable variation in how they interfere with ifn action. whereas sv41, sv5, and muv all act by lowering stat1, hpiv2 acts by lowering stat2. here, we show that t ... | 2002 | 12202209 |
| the value of polymerase chain reaction for the diagnosis of viral respiratory tract infections in lung transplant recipients. | respiratory viruses cause severe infections in lung transplant recipients, which require rapid and accurate diagnosis for appropriate management. | 2002 | 12367651 |
| the p127 subunit (ddb1) of the uv-dna damage repair binding protein is essential for the targeted degradation of stat1 by the v protein of the paramyxovirus simian virus 5. | the v protein of simian virus 5 (sv5) blocks interferon signaling by targeting stat1 for proteasome-mediated degradation. here we present three main pieces of evidence which demonstrate that the p127 subunit (ddb1) of the uv damage-specific dna binding protein (ddb) plays a central role in this degradation process. first, the v protein of an sv5 mutant which fails to target stat1 for degradation does not bind ddb1. second, mutations in the n and c termini of v which abolish the binding of v to d ... | 2002 | 12388698 |
| paramyxovirus strategies for evading the interferon response. | two genera, the respirovirus (sendai virus (sev) and human parainfluenza virus (hpiv3) and the rubulavirus (simian virus (sv) 5, sv41, mumps virus and hpiv2), of the three in the subfamily paramyxovirinae inhibit interferon (ifn) signalling to circumvent the ifn response. the viral protein responsible for the inhibition is the c protein for respirovirus sev and the v protein for the rubulaviruses, both of which are multifunctional accessory proteins expressed from the p gene. sev suppresses ifn- ... | 2002 | 12410527 |
| the genome length of human parainfluenza virus type 2 follows the rule of six, and recombinant viruses recovered from non-polyhexameric-length antigenomic cdnas contain a biased distribution of correcting mutations. | members of the paramyxovirinae subfamily of the paramyxoviridae family of viruses have the unusual requirement that the nucleotide length of the viral genome must be an even multiple of six in order for efficient rna replication, and hence virus replication, to occur. human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hpiv2) is the only member of the genus that has been reported to have a genome length that is not an even multiple of six, and it has also been recovered from a full-length antigenomic-sense cdna t ... | 2003 | 12477832 |
| newcastle disease virus (ndv)-based assay demonstrates interferon-antagonist activity for the ndv v protein and the nipah virus v, w, and c proteins. | we have generated a recombinant newcastle disease virus (ndv) that expresses the green fluorescence protein (gfp) in infected chicken embryo fibroblasts (cefs). this virus is interferon (ifn) sensitive, and pretreatment of cells with chicken alpha/beta ifn (ifn-alpha/beta) completely blocks viral gfp expression. prior transfection of plasmid dna induces an ifn response in cefs and blocks ndv-gfp replication. however, transfection of known inhibitors of the ifn-alpha/beta system, including the in ... | 2003 | 12502864 |
| paramyxoviruses sv5 and hpiv2 assemble stat protein ubiquitin ligase complexes from cellular components. | signal transducer and activator of transcription (stat) proteins are normally long-lived, but infection with certain paramyxoviruses results in efficient loss of ifn-responsive stat1 or stat2. expression of a virus-encoded protein called "v" is sufficient to mediate the destruction of stat proteins. stat degradation is blocked by proteasome inhibitors, strongly implicating the ubiquitin (ub)-proteasome targeting system. we demonstrate that cellular expression of v proteins from simian virus 5 (s ... | 2002 | 12504558 |
| development and evaluation of nuclisens basic kit nasba for diagnosis of parainfluenza virus infection with 'end-point' and 'real-time' detection. | new methods for the detection of human parainfluenza viruses (hpivs) were developed. these were based on nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (nasba) and utilised the nuclisens basic kit. primers and probes were selected from the haemagglutinin neuraminidase (hn) gene of hpiv1, hpiv2 and hpiv3, and from the phosphoprotein (p) of hpiv4a and -4b. synthetic rna, titrated control virus stocks and respiratory specimens (n=44) were utilised to evaluate performance of the assays. detection of nasb ... | 2003 | 12609681 |
| parainfluenza viruses. | human parainfluenza viruses (hpiv) were first discovered in the late 1950s. over the last decade, considerable knowledge about their molecular structure and function has been accumulated. this has led to significant changes in both the nomenclature and taxonomic relationships of these viruses. hpiv is genetically and antigenically divided into types 1 to 4. further major subtypes of hpiv-4 (a and b) and subgroups/genotypes of hpiv-1 and hpiv-3 have been described. hpiv-1 to hpiv-3 are major caus ... | 2003 | 12692097 |
| optimized detection of respiratory viruses in nasopharyngeal secretions. | nasopharyngeal secretions (nps) from 121 (110 pediatric) patients with acute respiratory infections were examined for respiratory virus detection by: i) conventional virus isolation in cell cultures (cc) using hep-2, llc-mk2, and mdck cells; ii) rapid virus isolation using shell vial cultures (svc) of a mixture (mix) of mink lung epithelial cells (mv1lu) and human lung carcinoma (a549) cells in comparison to llc-mk2 and mdck cells; iii) direct fluorescent antibody (dfa) assay on nps cells. a poo ... | 2003 | 12737194 |
| antiviral potency of mistletoe (viscum album ssp. album) extracts against human parainfluenza virus type 2 in vero cells. | various extracts from the leaves of mistletoe (viscum album l. ssp. album) were investigated for their antiviral activity on human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hpiv-2) growth in vero cells. plant extracts were prepared using distilled water, 50% ethanol, petroleum ether, chloroform and acetone. the 50% effective dose (ed(50)) of aqueous extract for hpiv-2 replication was 0.53 +/- 0.12 micro g/ml, and the antiviral index (ai), which was based on the ratio of the 50% inhibitory concentration (cd(50 ... | 2003 | 12749000 |
| broad spectrum anti-rna virus activities of titanium and vanadium substituted polyoxotungstates. | seven polyoxotungstates substituted with vanadium or titanium atoms were examined for their activity against flaviviridae (dengue fever virus, dfv), orthomyxoviridae (influenza virus type a, fluv-a), paramyxoviridae (respiratory syncytial virus, rsv, parainfluenza virus type 2, pfluv-2 and canine distemper virus, cdv) and lentiviridae (human immunodeficiency virus type 1, hiv-1) families. among the seven polyoxotungstates examined, pm-43 [k(5)[sivw(11)o(40)]], pm-47 [k(7)[bvw(11)o(40)]], and pm- ... | 2003 | 12767474 |
| simian virus 5 is a poor inducer of chemokine secretion from human lung epithelial cells: identification of viral mutants that activate interleukin-8 secretion by distinct mechanisms. | we have compared chemokine secretion from human lung a549 cells infected with simian virus 5 (sv5) with other members of the rubulavirus genus of paramyxoviruses. high levels of the chemokines interleukin-8 (il-8) and macrophage chemoattractant protein-1 (mcp-1) were secreted from a549 cells infected with human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hpiv-2) but not from cells infected with wild-type (wt) sv5. the lack of il-8 secretion from sv5-infected cells was not due to a global block in all signal tra ... | 2003 | 12768033 |
| genescan reverse transcription-pcr assay for detection of six common respiratory viruses in young children hospitalized with acute respiratory illness. | a reverse transcription-pcr (rt-pcr) assay based on automated fluorescent capillary electrophoresis and genescan software analysis was developed to detect six common respiratory viruses in clinical specimens from young children. assays for human respiratory syncytial virus (hrsv); human parainfluenza viruses 1, 2, and 3 (hpiv1, -2, and -3, respectively); and influenza a and b viruses were incorporated into a single standard assay format. the optimized assay panel was used to test 470 respiratory ... | 2003 | 12958260 |
| acute laryngotracheobronchitis. | | 2003 | 12959114 |
| the neuraminidase of parainfluenza virus (type 2). | | 1964 | 14230354 |
| substituted benzimidazoles with nanomolar activity against respiratory syncytial virus. | a cell-based assay was used to discover compounds inhibiting respiratory syncytial virus (rsv)-induced fusion in hela/m cells. a lead compound was identified and subsequent synthesis of >300 analogues led to the identification of jnj 2408068 (r170591), a low molecular weight (mw 395) benzimidazole derivative with an ec(50) (0.16 nm) against some lab strains almost 100,000 times better than that of ribavirin (15 microm). antiviral activity was confirmed for subgroup a and b clinical isolates of h ... | 2003 | 14638397 |
| detection of influenza, parainfluenza, adenovirus and respiratory syncytial virus during asthma attacks in children older than 2 years old. | viral upper respiratory tract infections (urti) have been correlated with the onset of asthma attacks in children and viral identification was reported in 14-49 % of nasal samples. the aim of the present study was to detect influenza, parainfluenza, adenovirus and respiratory syncytial virus (rsv) in older children during acute asthma attacks. | 2003 | 14670285 |
| [prevalence of respiratory viruses in elderly people]. | we analysed the presence of respiratory tract viruses in 206 elderly people (more than 65 years old). to identify viruses we used immunofluorescence method. the study revealed respiratory virus infection in about one third of examined patients. we found the most frequent infection with parainfluenza viruses. we found also more frequent prevalence of respiratory viruses in the oldest subgroup (more than 75 years old). no correlation between presence of respiratory viruses and smoking, diabetes or ... | 2003 | 14682158 |
| identification of amino acids essential for the human parainfluenza type 2 virus v protein to lower the intracellular levels of the stat2. | the v protein of sv41 targets stat1, while a specific loss of stat2 is induced by the hpiv2 v protein. we established hela cells constitutively expressing various chimeric proteins between the hpiv2 and sv41 v proteins, and which stat (stat1 or 2) was expressed in these cells was analyzed. both the p-v common domain and the v specific domain of hpiv2 v protein are necessary for stat2 lowering. the internal domain (aa145-173) containing a large number of nonidentical amino acids between hpiv2 and ... | 2003 | 14698661 |
| sensitivity of respiratory virus culture when screening with r-mix fresh cells. | use of r-mix fresh cells has been shown to be a rapid and sensitive method for the detection and identification of respiratory viruses. we prospectively evaluated the impact of incorporation of r-mix shell vials on the sensitivity and time to detection of seven respiratory viruses recovered in a comprehensive culture during the course of an entire respiratory season in a high-volume clinical laboratory. in this study, r-mix shell vials were used as part of the culture of 3803 respiratory specime ... | 2004 | 14715735 |
| simultaneous detection of fourteen respiratory viruses in clinical specimens by two multiplex reverse transcription nested-pcr assays. | there is a need for rapid, sensitive, and accurate diagnosis of lower respiratory tract infections in children, elderly, and immunocompromised patients, who are susceptible to serious complications. the multiplex rt-nested pcr assay has been used widely for simultaneous detection of non-related viruses involved in infectious diseases because of its high specificity and sensitivity. a new multiplex rt-pcr assay is described in this report. this approach includes nested primer sets targeted to con ... | 2004 | 14748074 |
| the value of virus serology in epidemiological studies of acute otitis media in children. | acute otitis media (aom) is a major health problem in young children. there is a general conception that aom is a bacterial disease but with the availability of sensitive diagnostic methods, it has gradually become evident that viruses play an important role in the pathogenesis of aom. paired blood samples are seldom taken from infants although valuable information could be obtained by serological methods. during the recent finnish otitis media (finom) cohort study, in addition to nasopharyngeal ... | 2004 | 15018861 |
| rapid and sensitive method using multiplex real-time pcr for diagnosis of infections by influenza a and influenza b viruses, respiratory syncytial virus, and parainfluenza viruses 1, 2, 3, and 4. | laboratory diagnosis of viral respiratory infections is generally performed by virus isolation in cell culture and immunofluorescent assays. reverse transcriptase pcr is now recognized as a sensitive and specific alternative for detection of respiratory rna viruses. a rapid real-time multiplex pcr assay was developed for the detection of influenza a and influenza b viruses, human respiratory syncytial virus (rsv), parainfluenza virus 1 (piv1), piv2, piv3, and piv4 in a two-tube multiplex reactio ... | 2004 | 15071005 |
| evaluation of r-mix shell vials for the diagnosis of viral respiratory tract infections. | respiratory viruses cause significant morbidity and mortality. the management of these infections can be improved by a rapid diagnosis and administration of available virus-specific therapy. the goal of this study was to compare r-mix, an engineered tissue monolayer for rapid shell vial (sv) diagnosis of viral respiratory infections, with conventional tissue culture (tc) and conventional respiratory sv (primary rhesus monkey kidney (rhmk) and hep2 monolayers). the primary outcome measure was sen ... | 2004 | 15072762 |
| a sensitive, specific, and cost-effective multiplex reverse transcriptase-pcr assay for the detection of seven common respiratory viruses in respiratory samples. | cell culture and direct fluorescent antibody (dfa) assays have been traditionally used for the laboratory diagnosis of respiratory viral infections. multiplex reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (m-rt-pcr) is a sensitive, specific, and rapid method for detecting several dna and rna viruses in a single specimen. we developed a m-rt-pcr assay that utilizes multiple virus-specific primer pairs in a single reaction mix combined with an enzyme-linked amplicon hybridization assay (elaha) u ... | 2004 | 15096568 |
| efficacy of novel hemagglutinin-neuraminidase inhibitors bcx 2798 and bcx 2855 against human parainfluenza viruses in vitro and in vivo. | human parainfluenza viruses are important respiratory tract pathogens, especially of children. however, no vaccines or specific therapies for infections caused by these viruses are currently available. in the present study we characterized the efficacy of the novel parainfluenza virus inhibitors bcx 2798 and bcx 2855, which were designed based on the three-dimensional structure of the hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (hn) protein. the compounds were highly effective in inhibiting hemagglutinin (ha) a ... | 2004 | 15105096 |
| investigation of atypical bacteria and virus antigens in respiratory tract infections by use of an immunofluorescence method. | in this study an immunofluorescence (if) method was used to investigate the antigens of viruses and atypical bacteria in respiratory tract infections (rti) in pediatric and adult age groups. in this prospective study of 2 years (1998-2000), if was used to investigate the antigens of 7 viral and 3 atypical bacteria to be used for the etiological diagnosis of rti. sputum (33.6%) and nasopharyngeal aspirate specimens were obtained from pediatric patients (group i, 76 cases) and adults (group ii, 13 ... | 2004 | 15118204 |
| prospective population-based study of viral lower respiratory tract infections in children under 3 years of age (the pri.de study). | population-based incidence data from europe on the disease burden of lower respiratory tract infections (lrti) due to respiratory syncytial viruses (rsv), parainfluenza viruses (piv) and influenzaviruses (iv) are lacking, especially with respect to the disease burden. in a 2-year prospective multicentre study of children aged <3 years in germany, we registered population-based cases as outpatients (n=2386), inpatients (n=2924), and nosocomially-acquired (n=141). nasopharyngeal secretions were te ... | 2004 | 15372233 |
| sudden infant death syndrome due to parainfluenza virus 2 associated with hemophagocytic syndrome. | we report a child with sudden infant death syndrome (sids), aged 16 months. the histological findings of tonsils, spleen, and bone marrow revealed many hemophagocytic cells. parainfluenza virus type 2 (piv2) was cultured in the nasopharynx and detected by reverse-transcription (rt)-pcr in liver tissue and bone marrow. his laboratory data of elevated level of ferritin and il-6 suggested hemophagocytic syndrome (hps). it is suspected that piv2 infection in infants is a risk factor for sids. | 2004 | 15474632 |
| viral croup: a current perspective. | viral croup is the most common cause of upper airway obstruction in children 6 months to 6 years of age. parainfluenza virus accounts for the majority of cases. the disease is characterized by varying degrees of inspiratory stridor, barking cough, and hoarseness because of laryngeal and/or tracheal obstruction. the diagnosis is mainly a clinical one and diagnostic studies usually are not necessary. the management has altered dramatically in the past decade. good evidence exists to support the ro ... | 2004 | 15523420 |
| the v proteins of paramyxoviruses bind the ifn-inducible rna helicase, mda-5, and inhibit its activation of the ifn-beta promoter. | most paramyxoviruses circumvent the ifn response by blocking ifn signaling and limiting the production of ifn by virus-infected cells. here we report that the highly conserved cysteine-rich c-terminal domain of the v proteins of a wide variety of paramyxoviruses binds melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5 (mda-5) product. mda-5 is an ifn-inducible host cell dexd/h box helicase that contains a caspase recruitment domain at its n terminus. overexpression of mda-5 stimulated the basal activity ... | 2004 | 15563593 |
| in vitro and in vivo specificity of ubiquitination and degradation of stat1 and stat2 by the v proteins of the paramyxoviruses simian virus 5 and human parainfluenza virus type 2. | previous work has documented that the v protein of simian virus 5 (sv5) targets stat1 for proteasome-mediated degradation, whilst the v protein of human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hpiv2) targets stat2. here, it was shown that the processes of ubiquitination and degradation could be reconstructed in vitro by using programmed rabbit reticulocyte lysates. using this system, the addition of bacterially expressed and purified sv5 v protein to programmed lysates was demonstrated to result in the poly ... | 2005 | 15604442 |
| sudden death from human parainfluenza virus 2. | | 2005 | 15845440 |
| development of three multiplex rt-pcr assays for the detection of 12 respiratory rna viruses. | three multiplex hemi-nested rt-pcr assays were developed to detect simultaneously 12 rna respiratory viruses: influenza viruses a, b and c, human respiratory syncytial virus (hrsv), human metapneumovirus (hmpv), parainfluenza virus types 1-4 (piv-1, -2, -3 and -4), human coronavirus oc43 and 229e (hcov) and rhinovirus (hrv). an internal amplification control was included in one of the rt-pcr assays. the rt-pcr multiplex 1 and the hemi-nested multiplex 1 detected 1 and 0.1 tcid50 of rsv a, respec ... | 2005 | 15847919 |
| identification of paramyxovirus v protein residues essential for stat protein degradation and promotion of virus replication. | some paramyxovirus v proteins induce stat protein degradation, and the amino acids essential for this process in the human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hpiv2) v protein have been studied. various recombinant hpiv2s and cell lines constitutively expressing various mutant v proteins were generated. we found that v proteins with replacement of cys residues of the cys cluster were still able to bind stats but were unable to induce their degradation. the hpiv2 v protein binds stats via a w-(x)3-w-(x)9 ... | 2005 | 15956600 |
| live-attenuated intranasal parainfluenza virus type 2 vaccine candidates developed by reverse genetics containing l polymerase protein mutations imported from heterologous paramyxoviruses. | live-attenuated recombinant human parainfluenza virus type 2 (rhpiv2) vaccine candidates were created using reverse genetics by importing known attenuating mutations in the l polymerase protein from heterologous paramyxoviruses into the homologous sites of the hpiv2 l protein. four recombinants (rf460l, ry948h, rl1566i, and rs1724i) were recovered and three were attenuated for replication in hamsters. the genetic stability of the imported mutations at three of the four sites was enhanced by use ... | 2005 | 15964103 |
| composition and assembly of stat-targeting ubiquitin ligase complexes: paramyxovirus v protein carboxyl terminus is an oligomerization domain. | transcription regulators stat1 and stat2 are key components of the interferon signaling system leading to innate antiviral immunity. the related stat3 protein is a regulator of interleukin-6-type cytokine signals and can contribute to both cell growth and death important for cancer gene regulation and tumor survival. these three stat proteins are targeted for proteasome-mediated degradation by rna viruses in the rubulavirus genus of the paramyxoviridae. a single viral protein, the v protein, ass ... | 2005 | 16051811 |
| identification of rna-binding regions on the p and v proteins of human parainfluenza virus type 2. | we have shown that the p and v proteins of human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hpiv-2) bind to genomic rna by using northwestern blot analysis. to identify the rna-binding regions on the p and v proteins, we used a set of deletion mutants produced in escherichia coli. one region required for the rna-binding was found in the p-v common domain (aa 1-82). others were found in the p protein-specific region (aa 249-354) and the v protein-specific region (aa 176-225). in addition, we have shown that sub ... | 2006 | 16078080 |
| [diagnostic tests: parainfluenza virus 1, 2, 3, 4]. | | 2005 | 16111271 |
| differentiating stridor in children at triage: it's not always croup. | | 2005 | 16198742 |
| interferon-induced alterations in the pattern of parainfluenza virus 5 transcription and protein synthesis and the induction of virus inclusion bodies. | although parainfluenza virus 5 (simian virus 5 [sv5]) circumvents the interferon (ifn) response by blocking ifn signaling and by reducing the amount of ifn released by infected cells, its ability to circumvent the ifn response is not absolute. the effects of ifn on sv5 infection were examined in vero cells, which do not produce but can respond to ifn, using a strain of sv5 (cpi-) which does not block ifn signaling. thus, by infecting vero cells with cpi- and subsequently treating the cells with ... | 2005 | 16254346 |
| human parainfluenza virus type 4 is incapable of evading the interferon-induced antiviral effect. | the v proteins of some paramyxoviruses have developed the ability to efficiently inactivate stat protein function as a countermeasure for evading interferon (ifn) responses. human parainfluenza virus type 4 (hpiv4) is one of the rubulaviruses, which are members of the family paramyxoviridae, and has a v protein with a highly conserved cysteine-rich domain that is the hallmark of paramyxovirus v proteins. in order to study the function of the hpiv4 v protein, we established hela cells expressing ... | 2005 | 16282476 |
| impact of human metapneumovirus and human cytomegalovirus versus other respiratory viruses on the lower respiratory tract infections of lung transplant recipients. | viral respiratory tract infections in lung transplant recipients may be severe. during three consecutive winter-spring seasons, 49 symptomatic lung transplant recipients with suspected respiratory viral infection, and 26 asymptomatic patients were investigated for presence of respiratory viruses either in 56 nasopharyngeal aspirate or 72 bronchoalveolar lavage samples taken at different times after transplantation. on the whole, 1 asymptomatic (3.4%) and 28 symptomatic (57.1%) patients were posi ... | 2006 | 16419110 |
| cytokine regulation in sars coronavirus infection compared to other respiratory virus infections. | the pathogenesis of severe acute respiratory syndrome (sars) is poorly understood and cytokine dysregulation has been suggested as one relevant mechanism to be explored. we compared the cytokine profile in caco2 cells after infection of sars coronavirus (sars-cov) with other respiratory viruses including respiratory syncytial virus (rsv), influenza a virus (fluav), and human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hpiv2). interferon (ifn) system (production and response) was not suppressed by sars-cov infec ... | 2006 | 16482545 |
| bronchiolitis in abha, southwest saudi arabia: viral etiology and predictors for hospital admission. | bronchiolitis is the most common lower respiratory tract infection in children less than 24 months of age and the most frequent cause of hospitalization in infants under 6 months of age. | 2005 | 16483044 |
| comparison of real-time pcr assays with fluorescent-antibody assays for diagnosis of respiratory virus infections in children. | conventional fluorescent-antibody (fa) methods were compared to real-time pcr assays for detection of respiratory syncytial virus (rsv), influenza virus type a (flua), parainfluenza virus types 1, 2, and 3 (piv1, piv2, and piv3), human metapneumovirus (mpv), and adenovirus (adv) in 1,138 specimens from children with respiratory illnesses collected over a 1-year period. at least one virus was detected in 436 (38.3%) specimens by fa and in 608 (53.4%) specimens by pcr (p<0.001). specimen quality w ... | 2006 | 16825353 |
| viral etiology of pneumonia in a cohort of newborns till 24 months of age in rural mirzapur, bangladesh. | limited information is available on the etiology of acute lower respiratory infection (alri) particularly pneumonia in the rural community of developing countries since most etiological studies are carried out in the hospital settings. this study examined the etiology of pneumonia among young children in a rural community of bangladesh. a cohort of 252 newborns was followed till 24 months of age during 1993-1996. community health workers (chws) identified cases of alri during household surveilla ... | 2006 | 16857616 |
| seasonal trends of human parainfluenza viral infections: united states, 1990-2004. | human parainfluenza viruses (hpivs) are important causes of upper and lower respiratory tract illness among children and adults. | 2006 | 16983614 |
| exposure to human respiratory viruses among urban performing monkeys in indonesia. | performing monkeys, a common phenomena in asia, occupy a unique urban niche that comprises a number of factors influencing the likelihood of cross-species transmission of pathogens. here we present the first documented evidence of exposure to measles, rubella, and parainfluenza in a population of performing monkeys. evidence of exposure to these endemic human respiratory viruses in the performing monkeys confirms human-to-primate transmission and suggests the possibility of primate-to-human tran ... | 2006 | 17038700 |
| an improved method for the recovery of recombinant paramyxovirus vaccine candidates suitable for use in human clinical trials. | we describe a method for the generation of clinical grade, live-attenuated vaccines in vero cells entirely from cdna plasmids. the entire electroporation procedure can be completed in less than 15 minutes and this is a significant improvement over previous lipid or electroporation based transfection techniques that also involve a heat-shock step. importantly, the virus preparations can be generated with a minimal use of animal product derived materials, an important consideration for a vaccine c ... | 2007 | 17210187 |
| virological and immunological characteristics of fatal virus-associated haemophagocytic syndrome (vahs). | we report three infants and one teenager with fatal virus-associated haemophagocytic syndrome (vahs). two infants were admitted to our hospital because of cardio-pulmonary arrest (cpa). the third infant was admitted to our department because of fever and liver dysfunction, and he was diagnosed as combined immunodeficiency with predominant t cell defect. the teenager was diagnosed as systemic lupus erythema (sle) when she was 10 years old and admitted to our department because of fever and thromb ... | 2007 | 17237599 |
| the conserved carboxyl terminus of human parainfluenza virus type 2 v protein plays an important role in virus growth. | our previous results have shown that some residues of v protein-specific domain in human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hpiv2) are essential not only for stat protein degradation but also for promoting virus growth. here, we demonstrated that the virus growth of these recombinant hpiv2s (rpiv2) expressing mutated v proteins were improved in hela cell transiently expressing the wild-type v protein, but not in the cells constitutively expressing it. consequently, we identified the region of the v pro ... | 2007 | 17250865 |
| antiviral activity and rna polymerase degradation following hsp90 inhibition in a range of negative strand viruses. | we have analyzed the effectiveness of hsp90 inhibitors in blocking the replication of negative-strand rna viruses. in cells infected with the prototype negative strand virus vesicular stomatitis virus (vsv), inhibiting hsp90 activity reduced viral replication in cells infected at both high and low multiplicities of infection. this inhibition was observed using two hsp90 inhibitors geldanamycin and radicicol. silencing of hsp90 expression using sirna also reduced viral replication. hsp90 inhibiti ... | 2007 | 17258257 |
| [human parainfluenza virus infections in infants and young children with acute respiratory infections in beijing]. | to understand the impact of human parainfluenza virus (hpiv) on acute respiratory infections in infants and young children in beijing. | 2007 | 17456334 |
| simultaneous detection and high-throughput identification of a panel of rna viruses causing respiratory tract infections. | clinical presentations for viral respiratory tract infections are often nonspecific, and a rapid, high-throughput laboratory technique that can detect a panel of common viral pathogens is clinically desirable. we evaluated two multiplex reverse transcription-pcr (rt-pcr) products coupled with microarray-based systems for simultaneous detection of common respiratory tract viral pathogens. the ngen respiratory virus analyte-specific assay (nanogen, san diego, ca) detects influenza a virus (flu-a) ... | 2007 | 17507510 |
| drug-induced hypersensitivity syndrome associated with a marked increase in anti-paramyxovirus antibody titers in a scleroderma patient. | drug-induced hypersensitivity syndrome (dihs) is characterized by a severe multiorgan hypersensitivity reaction that usually appears after prolonged exposure to certain drugs and may be related to reactivation of herpes viruses. there have been few reports regarding the clinical association of dihs with pathogens other than herpes viruses. | 2007 | 17519584 |
| a prospective three-year cohort study of the epidemiology and virology of acute respiratory infections of children in rural india. | acute respiratory infection (ari) is a major killer of children in developing countries. although the frequency of ari is similar in both developed and developing countries, mortality due to ari is 10-50 times higher in developing countries. viruses are common causes of ari among such children, yet the disease burden of these infections in rural communities is unknown. | 2007 | 17551572 |
| ten years' experience with year-round active surveillance of up to 19 respiratory pathogens in children. | surveillance systems for acute respiratory infections (ari) in children currently are often limited in terms of the panel of pathogens and the age range investigated or are only syndromic and at times only active in the winter season. | 2007 | 17569085 |
| failure of multinucleated giant cell formation in k562 cells infected with newcastle disease virus and human parainfluenza type 2 virus. | when k562 cells were infected with newcastle disease virus (ndv) or human parainfluenza type 2 virus (hpiv-2), polykaryocyte formation could not be detected. failure of multinucleated giant cell formation in k562 cells infected with either ndv or hpiv-2 is due to disturbance of the viral envelope-cell fusion step or to defect in the cell-cell fusion step, respectively. especially, ndv completely replicated in k562 cells, and the hemagglutinin-neuraminidase and fusion proteins expressed on the ce ... | 2007 | 17579271 |
| recombinant human parainfluenza virus type 2 vaccine candidates containing a 3' genomic promoter mutation and l polymerase mutations are attenuated and protective in non-human primates. | previously, we identified several attenuating mutations in the l polymerase protein of human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hpiv2) and genetically stabilized those mutations using reverse genetics [nolan sm, surman s, amaro-carambot e, collins pl, murphy br, skiadopoulos mh. live-attenuated intranasal parainfluenza virus type 2 vaccine candidates developed by reverse genetics containing l polymerase protein mutations imported from heterologous paramyxoviruses. vaccine 2005;39(23):4765-74]. here we ... | 2007 | 17658669 |
| virucidal activities of medium- and long-chain fatty alcohols and lipids against respiratory syncytial virus and parainfluenza virus type 2: comparison at different ph levels. | recent studies have shown that some lipids and fatty alcohols have microbicidal activities against a broad variety of pathogens. in this study, virucidal activities of fatty acids, monoglycerides and fatty alcohols were tested against respiratory syncytial virus (rsv) and human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hpiv2) at different concentrations, times and ph levels. the most active compounds were mixed with milk products and fruit juices and the mixtures tested for virucidal effects. the aim was to d ... | 2007 | 17891329 |
| identification of upper respiratory tract pathogens using electrochemical detection on an oligonucleotide microarray. | bacterial and viral upper respiratory infections (uri) produce highly variable clinical symptoms that cannot be used to identify the etiologic agent. proper treatment, however, depends on correct identification of the pathogen involved as antibiotics provide little or no benefit with viral infections. here we describe a rapid and sensitive genotyping assay and microarray for uri identification using standard amplification and hybridization techniques, with electrochemical detection (ecd) on a se ... | 2007 | 17895966 |
| the effect of epinephrine by nebulization on measures of airway obstruction in patients with acute severe croup. | to demonstrate that tests of pulmonary function applicable to sick infants and small children with acute severe viral croup would provide clear, objective evidence of responsiveness to therapy with nebulized epinephrine. | 2008 | 17912497 |
| surveillance of eight respiratory viruses in clinical samples of pediatric patients in southeast brazil. | detection of the eight most common respiratory viruses: human respiratory syncytial virus (hrsv), influenza virus a and b (ia and ib), parainfluenza viruses 1, 2 and 3 (hpiv1, 2 and 3), adenovirus (ad) and human metapneumovirus (hmpv), in order to establish the etiology of acute respiratory infections (aris) and the epidemiology of these viruses in young children seen at hospital universitário, universidade de são paulo, in são paulo, brazil, during 2003. | 2007 | 17940688 |
| [seroepidemiological surveillance of human parainfluenza viruses (hpivs) types 2 and 3 in an infantile population selected in havana city]. | the presence of antibodies against human parainfluenza viruses type 2 and 3 was studied in 1 793 sera from an infantile population under 14 years old. the hemagglutination inhibition technique was used for screening the clinical samples. of the total of analyzed sera, 1 382 (77.1%) were positive. the presence of antibodies against type 2 was confirmed in 320 of them (17.8%), and against type 3 in 334 (18.6%). the simultaneous seropositivity predominated in 805 (44.9%). the circulation of human p ... | 2005 | 17969268 |
| [clinical and epidemiological manifestations of parainfluenza infection in hospitalized children]. | human parainfluenza viruses (hpiv) are a common cause of respiratory illness of children but published data on clinical characteristics of hpiv infection in south america is scarce. | 2007 | 17989842 |
| comparison of nasopharyngeal flocked swabs and aspirates for rapid diagnosis of respiratory viruses in children. | the quality of clinical specimens is a crucial determinant for virological diagnosis. | 2008 | 18242124 |
| respifinder: a new multiparameter test to differentially identify fifteen respiratory viruses. | broad-spectrum analysis for pathogens in patients with respiratory tract infections is becoming more relevant as the number of potential infectious agents is still increasing. here we describe the new multiparameter respifinder assay, which is based on the multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (mlpa) technology. this assay detects 15 respiratory viruses in one reaction. the mlpa reaction is preceded by a preamplification step which ensures the detection of both rna and dna viruses wit ... | 2008 | 18256230 |
| respiratory viruses in hiv-infected patients with suspected respiratory opportunistic infection. | to assess the incidence and epidemiological pattern of respiratory viruses in hiv-infected patients and to evaluate their potential clinical impact. | 2008 | 18356599 |
| select paramyxoviral v proteins inhibit irf3 activation by acting as alternative substrates for inhibitor of kappab kinase epsilon (ikke)/tbk1. | v accessory proteins from paramyxoviruses are important in viral evasion of the innate immune response. here, using a cell survival assay that identifies both inhibitors and activators of interferon regulatory factor 3 (irf3)-mediated gene induction, we identified select paramyxoviral v proteins that inhibited double-stranded rna-mediated signaling; these are encoded by mumps virus (muv), human parainfluenza virus 2 (hpiv2), and parainfluenza virus 5 (piv5), all members of the genus rubulavirus. ... | 2008 | 18362155 |
| human parainfluenza virus type 2 v protein inhibits genome replication by binding to the l protein: possible role in promoting viral fitness. | the human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hpiv2) v protein plays important roles in inhibiting the host interferon response and promoting virus growth, but its role in hpiv2 replication and transcription is not clear. a green fluorescent protein (gfp)-expressing a negative-sense minigenomic construct of hpiv2 has been established by standard technology, with helper plasmids expressing the nucleocapsid protein (np), phosphoprotein (p), and large rna polymerase (l) protein, to examine the role of v pr ... | 2008 | 18417591 |
| differential mechanisms of complement-mediated neutralization of the closely related paramyxoviruses simian virus 5 and mumps virus. | the complement system is an important component of the innate immune response to virus infection. the role of human complement pathways in the in vitro neutralization of three closely related paramyxoviruses, simian virus 5 (sv5), mumps virus (muv) and human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hpiv2) was investigated. sera from ten donors showed high levels of neutralization against hpiv2 that was largely complement-independent, whereas nine of ten donor sera were found to neutralize sv5 and muv only in ... | 2008 | 18440578 |
| long-term care facilities: a cornucopia of viral pathogens. | to determine the frequency and types of respiratory viruses circulating in boston long-term care facilities (ltcfs) during a 3-year period. | 2008 | 18557966 |
| effects of hemagglutinin-neuraminidase protein mutations on cell-cell fusion mediated by human parainfluenza type 2 virus. | the monoclonal antibody m1-1a, specific for the hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (hn) protein of human parainfluenza type 2 virus (hpiv2), blocks virus-induced cell-cell fusion without affecting the hemagglutinating and neuraminidase activities. f13 is a neutralization escape variant selected with m1-1a and contains amino acid mutations n83y and m186i in the hn protein, with no mutation in the fusion protein. intriguingly, f13 exhibits reduced ability to induce cell-cell fusion despite its multistep ... | 2008 | 18562539 |
| characterization of naturally occurring parainfluenza virus type 2 (hpiv-2) variants. | human parainfluenza viruses (hpiv) are respiratory pathogens responsible for upper and lower respiratory tract infections. in most labs, the clinical diagnosis of hpiv is routinely done using techniques based on the detection of viral antigens such as immunofluorescence assay or/and viral isolation. | 2008 | 18579437 |
| current status of vaccines for parainfluenza virus infections. | parainfluenza viruses (piv) have been generally disregarded as pathogens in spite of their importance in pediatric lower respiratory illness. because pivs account for 17% of hospitalized illness associated virus isolation, the development of piv vaccine would be a major advance in preventing lower respiratory tract infection in infants and young children. we will review in detail several piv vaccine candidates and recent newer approaches to piv vaccine development. intranasally administered bovi ... | 2008 | 18820572 |
| parainfluenza virus infections in a tropical city: clinical and epidemiological aspects. | little information on the epidemiology and clinical characteristics of human parainfluenza virus (hpiv) infections, especially in children from tropical countries, has been published. the aim of this study was to determine the frequency of hpiv infections in children attended at a large hospital in fortaleza in northeast brazil, and describe seasonal patterns, clinical and epidemiological characteristics of these infections. from january 2001 to december 2006, a total of 3070 nasopharyngeal aspi ... | 2008 | 18833402 |
| severe parainfluenza virus type 2 supraglottitis in an immunocompetent adult host: an unusual cause of a paramyxoviridae viral infection. | parainfluenza virus is a major cause of respiratory illness in humans, manifesting from mild upper respiratory tract infection to bronchiolitis and pneumonia, especially in children. we report - to our knowledge - the first case of a nonimmunocompromised adult patient with human parainfluenza type 2 supraglottitis immediately after returning from china. | 2009 | 19019183 |
| viral pathogens of acute lower respiratory tract infection in china. | to document the viral etiology of acute lower respiratory tract infection (alris) in chinese children. | 2008 | 19129564 |
| fucoidan inhibits parainfluenza virus type 2 infection to llcmk2 cells. | the effects of fucoidan and l-fucose, a fundamental major component of fucoidan, on the growth of human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hpiv-2) in llcmk(2) cells were investigated. fucoidan inhibited cell fusion and hemadsorption, but l-fucose only partly inhibited both. virus rna was not detected in the hpiv-2 infected cells cultured with fucoidan. however, l-fucose did not inhibit virus rna synthesis. indirect immunofluorescence study showed that virus protein synthesis was inhibited by fucoidan, ... | 2008 | 19129677 |
| demonstration of 1-year duration of immunity for attenuated bordetella bronchiseptica vaccines in dogs. | three groups of healthy dogs with low antibody titers to bordetella bronchiseptica (bb), canine parainfluenza virus (cpi), and canine adenovirus type 2 (cav-2) were used in this study. one group was vaccinated with a single dose of monovalent attenuated bb vaccine and one group with a trivalent vaccine containing attenuated bb, cpi, and cav-2; dogs were vaccinated intranasally with a single dose of the respective vaccines. the third group served as unvaccinated controls. all vaccinated dogs subs ... | 2008 | 19177330 |
| human piv-2 recombinant sendai virus (rsev) elicits durable immunity and combines with two additional rsevs to protect against hpiv-1, hpiv-2, hpiv-3, and rsv. | the human parainfluenza viruses (hpivs) and respiratory syncytial viruses (rsvs) are the leading causes of hospitalizations due to respiratory viral disease in infants and young children, but no vaccines are yet available. here we describe the use of recombinant sendai viruses (rsevs) as candidate vaccine vectors for these respiratory viruses in a cotton rat model. two new sendai virus (sev)-based hpiv-2 vaccine constructs were generated by inserting the fusion (f) gene or the hemagglutinin-neur ... | 2009 | 19200447 |
| human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hpiv2) induced host adam8 expression in human salivary adenocarcinoma cell line (hsy) during cell fusion. | the aim of the study was to investigate expression of adams (a disintegrin and a metalloproteinase) of host cell origin during cell-cell fusion induced by human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hpiv2). | 2009 | 19284887 |
| [use of multiplex pcr method with real-time detection for differential diagnosis of respiratory viral infections]. | multiplex real-time polymerase chain reaction test-system with fluorescent detection (rt-pcr) for simultaneous identification of main agents of acute respiratory viral infections: influenza a (iav) and b viruses (ibv), parainfluenza viruses types 1, 2, 3, 4 (piv 1 - 4), adenoviruses (adv), respiratory syncitial virus (rsv), rhinoviruses (rv) and enteroviruses (ev), in presence internal positive control (ipc) represented by vaccine strain of rubella virus ra 27/3. using multiplex rt-pcr method, r ... | 2009 | 19338239 |
| a shared interface mediates paramyxovirus interference with antiviral rna helicases mda5 and lgp2. | diverse members of the paramyxovirus family of negative-strand rna viruses effectively suppress host innate immune responses through the actions of their v proteins. the v protein mediates interference with the interferon regulatory rna helicase mda5 to avoid cellular antiviral responses. analysis of the interaction interface revealed the mda5 helicase c domain as necessary and sufficient for association with v proteins from human parainfluenza virus type 2, parainfluenza virus type 5, measles v ... | 2009 | 19403670 |