| infection prevention and mass vaccination training for u.s. point of dispensing staff and volunteers: a national study. | points of dispensing (pods) are deployed for medical countermeasure mass dispensing. however, infection prevention and vaccine administration pre-event training offered and just-in-time (jit) education planned for pod workers have not been assessed. | 2015 | 25637434 |
| micromotors to capture and destroy anthrax simulant spores. | towards addressing the need for detecting and eliminating biothreats, we describe a micromotor-based approach for screening, capturing, isolating and destroying anthrax simulant spores in a simple and rapid manner with minimal sample processing. the b. globilli antibody-functionalized micromotors can recognize, capture and transport b. globigii spores in environmental matrices, while showing non-interactions with excess of non-target bacteria. efficient destruction of the anthrax simulant spores ... | 2015 | 25622851 |
| anthrax: a disease of biowarfare and public health importance. | bioterrorism has received a lot of attention in the first decade of this century. biological agents are considered attractive weapons for bioterrorism as these are easy to obtain, comparatively inexpensive to produce and exhibit widespread fear and panic than the actual potential of physical damage. bacillus anthracis (b. anthracis), the etiologic agent of anthrax is a gram positive, spore forming, non-motile bacterium. this is supposed to be one of the most potent bw agents because its spores a ... | 2015 | 25610847 |
| comparison of eleven commercially available rapid tests for detection of bacillus anthracis, francisella tularensis and yersinia pestis. | yersinia pestis, bacillus anthracis and francisella tularensis cause serious zoonotic diseases and have the potential to cause high morbidity and mortality in humans. in case of natural outbreaks and deliberate or accidental release of these pathogens rapid detection of the bacteria is crucial for limitation of negative effects of the release. in the present study, we evaluated 11 commercially available rapid test kits for the detection of y. pestis, b. anthracis and f. tularensis in terms of se ... | 2015 | 25598285 |
| activity of quinolone cp-115,955 against bacterial and human type ii topoisomerases is mediated by different interactions. | cp-115,955 is a quinolone with a 4-hydroxyphenyl at c7 that displays high activity against both bacterial and human type ii topoisomerases. to determine the basis for quinolone cross-reactivity between bacterial and human enzymes, the activity of cp-115,955 and a series of related quinolones and quinazolinediones against bacillus anthracis topoisomerase iv and human topoisomerase iiα was analyzed. results indicate that the activity of cp-115,955 against the bacterial and human enzymes is mediate ... | 2015 | 25586498 |
| glassy-state stabilization of a dominant negative inhibitor anthrax vaccine containing aluminum hydroxide and glycopyranoside lipid a adjuvants. | during transport and storage, vaccines may be exposed to temperatures outside of the range recommended for storage, potentially causing efficacy losses. to better understand and prevent such losses, dominant negative inhibitor (dni), a recombinant protein antigen for a candidate vaccine against anthrax, was formulated as a liquid and as a glassy lyophilized powder with the adjuvants aluminum hydroxide and glycopyranoside lipid a (gla). freeze-thawing of the liquid vaccine caused the adjuvants to ... | 2015 | 25581103 |
| impacts of sporulation temperature, exposure to compost matrix and temperature on survival of bacillus cereus spores during livestock mortality composting. | to investigate impact of sporulation and compost temperatures on feasibility of composting for disposal of carcasses contaminated with bacillus anthracis. | 2015 | 25580774 |
| [management of furuncle, furunculosis and anthrax]. | | 2015 | 25579772 |
| following natures lead: on the construction of membrane-inserted toxins in lipid bilayer nanodiscs. | bacterial toxin or viral entry into the cell often requires cell surface binding and endocytosis. the endosomal acidification induces a limited unfolding/refolding and membrane insertion reaction of the soluble toxins or viral proteins into their translocation competent or membrane inserted states. at the molecular level, the specific orientation and immobilization of the pre-transitioned toxin on the cell surface is often an important prerequisite prior to cell entry. we propose that structures ... | 2015 | 25578459 |
| new insights into gastrointestinal anthrax infection. | bacterial infections are the primary cause of gastrointestinal (gi) disorders in both developing and developed countries, and are particularly dangerous for infants and children. bacillus anthracis is the 'archetype zoonotic' pathogen; no other infectious disease affects such a broad range of species, including humans. importantly, there are more case reports of gi anthrax infection in children than inhalational disease. early diagnosis is difficult and widespread systemic disease develops rapid ... | 2015 | 25577136 |
| regulatory mechanisms of anthrax toxin receptor 1-dependent vascular and connective tissue homeostasis. | it is well known that angiogenesis is linked to fibrotic processes in fibroproliferative diseases, but insights into pathophysiological processes are limited, due to lack of understanding of molecular mechanisms controlling endothelial and fibroblastic homeostasis. we demonstrate here that the matrix receptor anthrax toxin receptor 1 (antxr1), also known as tumor endothelial marker 8 (tem8), is an essential component of these mechanisms. loss of tem8 function in mice causes reduced synthesis of ... | 2015 | 25572963 |
| genomic analysis of three african strains of bacillus anthracis demonstrates that they are part of the clonal expansion of an exclusively pathogenic bacterium. | bacillus anthracis is the causative agent of anthrax and is classified as a 'category a' biological weapon. six complete genomes of b. anthracis (a0248, ames, ames ancestor, cdc684, h0491, and sterne) are currently available. in this report, we add three african strain genomes: sen2col2, sen3 and gmb1. to study the pan-genome of b. anthracis, we used bioinformatics tools, such as cluster of orthologous groups, and performed phylogenetic analysis. we found that the three african strains contained ... | 2014 | 25566394 |
| a heterodimer of a vhh (variable domains of camelid heavy chain-only) antibody that inhibits anthrax toxin cell binding linked to a vhh antibody that blocks oligomer formation is highly protective in an anthrax spore challenge model. | anthrax disease is caused by a toxin consisting of protective antigen (pa), lethal factor, and edema factor. antibodies against pa have been shown to be protective against the disease. variable domains of camelid heavy chain-only antibodies (vhhs) with affinity for pa were obtained from immunized alpacas and screened for anthrax neutralizing activity in macrophage toxicity assays. two classes of neutralizing vhhs were identified recognizing distinct, non-overlapping epitopes. one class recognize ... | 2015 | 25564615 |
| neutrophils negatively regulate induction of mucosal iga responses after sublingual immunization. | induction of mucosal immunoglobulin-a (iga) capable of providing a first line of defense against bacterial and viral pathogens remains a major goal of needle-free vaccines given via mucosal routes. innate immune cells are known to play a central role in induction of iga responses by mucosal vaccines, but the relative contribution of myeloid cell subsets to these responses has not firmly been established. using an in vivo model of sublingual vaccination with bacillus anthracis edema toxin (edtx) ... | 2015 | 25563500 |
| [chemical, physical and biological risks in law enforcement]. | chemical, physical and biological risks among public safety and security forces. law enforcement personnel, involved in routine tasks and in emergency situations, are exposed to numerous and several occupational hazards (chemical, physical and biological) whith likely health and security consequences. these risks are particularly high when the organization and preparation are inadequate, there is a lacking or insufficient coordination, information, education and communication and safety and pers ... | 2015 | 25558740 |
| in silico genomic fingerprints of the bacillus anthracis group obtained by virtual hybridization. | in this study we evaluate the capacity of virtual hybridization to identify between highly related bacterial strains. eight genomic fingerprints were obtained by virtual hybridization for the bacillus anthracis genome set, and a set of 15,264 13-nucleotide short probes designed to produce genomic fingerprints unique for each organism. the data obtained from each genomic fingerprint were used to obtain hybridization patterns simulating a dna microarray. two virtual hybridization methods were used ... | 2015 | 27600214 |
| [a method for differentiation of bacillus anthracis strains and phylogenetically related species based on determination of the structural differencesbetween chromosomal genes for biosynthesis of flagellin and methionine]. | nucleotide sequence analysis of several genes responsible for the anthrax pathogen definitive properties--motility and penicillinase activity--determined a chromosomal locus promising for interspecies differentiation. we demonstrated that the gene flic encoding flagellin synthesis contains extended region, distinguishing b. anthracis strains from the majority of non-pathogenic and opportunistic bacilli. a novel method for the anthrax pathogen indication and identification based on determination ... | 2015 | 27192817 |
| evaluation of inhaled versus deposited dose using the exponential dose-response model for inhalational anthrax in nonhuman primate, rabbit, and guinea pig. | the application of the exponential model is extended by the inclusion of new nonhuman primate (nhp), rabbit, and guinea pig dose-lethality data for inhalation anthrax. because deposition is a critical step in the initiation of inhalation anthrax, inhaled doses may not provide the most accurate cross-species comparison. for this reason, species-specific deposition factors were derived to translate inhaled dose to deposited dose. four nhp, three rabbit, and two guinea pig data sets were utilized. ... | 2015 | 25545587 |
| the design and statistical analysis of animal experiments: introduction to this issue. | animal research has made major contributions to the health and welfare of humans and domestic animals. immunization, first developed against rabies and anthrax by pasteur using dogs, sheep, and rabbits, is now used to control many infectious diseases. the first drug, salvarsan, was developed by ehrlich using rabbits infected with the organism causing syphilis. this was the forerunner of the many drugs developed by the pharmaceutical industry today. the discovery of vitamins using rats has almost ... | 2014 | 25541539 |
| efficient cell-specific uptake of binding proteins into the cytoplasm through engineered modular transport systems. | through advances in protein scaffold engineering and selection technologies, highly specific binding proteins, which fold under reducing conditions, can be generated against virtually all targets. despite tremendous therapeutic opportunities, intracellular applications are hindered by difficulties associated with achieving cytosolic delivery, compounded by even correctly measuring it. here, we addressed cytosolic delivery systematically through the development of a biotin ligase-based assay that ... | 2015 | 25526701 |
| structure-based design of bacterial nitric oxide synthase inhibitors. | inhibition of bacterial nitric oxide synthase (bnos) has the potential to improve the efficacy of antimicrobials used to treat infections by gram-positive pathogens staphylococcus aureus and bacillus anthracis. however, inhibitor specificity toward bnos over the mammalian nos (mnos) isoforms remains a challenge because of the near identical nos active sites. one key structural difference between the nos isoforms is the amino acid composition of the pterin cofactor binding site that is adjacent t ... | 2015 | 25522110 |
| prevalence of antibiotic resistance genes and bacterial pathogens in long-term manured greenhouse soils as revealed by metagenomic survey. | antibiotic resistance genes (args), human pathogenic bacteria (hpb), and hpb carrying args pose a high risk to soil ecology and public health. here, we used a metagenomic approach to investigate their diversity and abundance in chicken manures and greenhouse soils collected from guli, pulangke, and hushu vegetable bases with different greenhouse planting years in nanjing, eastern china. there was a positive correlation between the levels of antibiotics, args, hpb, and hpb carrying args in manure ... | 2015 | 25514174 |
| production and cell surface display of recombinant anthrax protective antigen on the surface layer of attenuated bacillus anthracis. | to investigate the surface display of the anthrax protective antigen (pa) on attenuated bacillus anthracis, a recombinant b. anthracis strain, named ap429 was constructed by integrating into the chromosome a translational fusion harboring the dna fragments encoding the cell wall-targeting domain of the s-layer protein ea1 and the anthrax pa. crerecombinase action at the loxp sites excised the antibiotic marker. western blot analysis, fluorescence-activated cell sorting and immunofluorescence ana ... | 2015 | 25504373 |
| inhibitory effects of nisin-coated multi-walled carbon nanotube sheet on biofilm formation from bacillus anthracis spores. | multi-walled carbon nanotube (mwcnt) sheet was fabricated from a drawable mwcnt forest and then deposited on poly(methyl methacrylate) film. the film was further coated with a natural antimicrobial peptide nisin. we studied the effects of nisin coating on the attachment of bacillus anthracis spores, the germination of attached spores, and the subsequent biofilm formation from attached spores. it was found that the strong adsorptivity and the super hydrophobicity of mwcnts provided an ideal platf ... | 2014 | 25499501 |
| added benefit of raxibacumab to antibiotic treatment of inhalational anthrax. | although antibiotics treat bacteremia in inhalational anthrax, pathogenesis is mainly driven by bacterial exotoxins. raxibacumab, an igg1 monoclonal antibody, binds the protective antigen (pa) of bacillus anthracis, thus blocking toxin effects and leading to improved survival in the rabbit and monkey models of inhalational anthrax. to assess raxibacumab's added benefit over levofloxacin (lvx) alone, rabbits surviving to 84 h after a challenge with 200 times the median (50%) lethal dose of b. ant ... | 2015 | 25487792 |
| using poly i:c as an adjuvant does not induce or exacerbate models of systemic lupus erythematosus. | subunit vaccines are typically poorly immunogenic when administered alone, and require adjuvants for robust responses. triggering tlrs to boost antigen-specific adaptive immunity is an attractive approach to increase the potency and quality of vaccines. however, recent reports suggest that alterations in tlr expression are associated with the pathogenesis of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. to compare genetic studies with adjuvant studies, we examined whether stimulation through a tlr agoni ... | 2015 | 25483245 |
| mapping of major diseases and devising prevention and control regimen to common diseases in cattle and shoats in dassenech district of south omo zone, south-western ethiopia. | livestock production system, particularly in pastoral areas, is mainly constrained by rampant livestock diseases and seasonal feed and water shortages. in areas like dassenech, bordering kenya and south sudan, this risks are pronounced due to the unavailability of appropriate prevention and control. the research was conducted with the objectives of identifying major rampant diseases and designing appropriate prevention and control strategies. a cross-sectional study was employed, conducted using ... | 2015 | 25480484 |
| armies of pestilence: cns infections as potential weapons of mass destruction. | infectious agents have been investigated, developed, and used by both governments and terrorist groups as weapons of mass destruction. cns infections, though traditionally considered less often than respiratory diseases in this scenario, may be very important. viruses responsible for encephalitides can be highly infectious in aerosol form. cns involvement in anthrax is ominous but should change treatment. brucellosis, plague, q fever, and other bacteria can uncommonly manifest with meningoenceph ... | 2015 | 25477355 |
| combination of two candidate subunit vaccine antigens elicits protective immunity to ricin and anthrax toxin in mice. | in an effort to develop combination vaccines for biodefense, we evaluated a ricin subunit antigen, rivax, given in conjunction with an anthrax protective antigen, dni. the combination led to high endpoint titer antibody response, neutralizing antibodies, and protective immunity against ricin and anthrax lethal toxin. this is a natural combination vaccine, since both antigens are recombinant subunit proteins that would be given to the same target population. | 2015 | 25475957 |
| fate of bacillus anthracis during production of laboratory-scale cream cheese and homemade-style yoghurt. | the viability of bacillus anthracis during production and storage of cream cheese and yoghurt was evaluated. experimental cheeses were manufactured from whole milk inoculated with a suspension of b. anthracis vegetative cells and spores at a final concentration of 10(4) cfu/ml. lactic acid bacteria (lab) and lab ferment were used to induce milk ripening and milk coagulation. the ph-value of the contaminated milk dropped below 4.5 within the first 6 h and the amount of lab increased by approximat ... | 2015 | 25475304 |
| bacillus anthracis genomic dna enhances lethal toxin-induced cytotoxicity through tnf-α production. | bacillus anthracis is the etiological agent of anthrax. lethal toxin (lt) produced by b. anthracis is a well-known key virulence factor for anthrax because of its strong cytotoxic activity. however, little is known about the role of b. anthracis genomic dna (bag) in anthrax pathogenesis. | 2014 | 25472474 |
| composite sampling of a bacillus anthracis surrogate with cellulose sponge surface samplers from a nonporous surface. | a series of experiments was conducted to explore the utility of composite-based collection of surface samples for the detection of a bacillus anthracis surrogate using cellulose sponge samplers on a nonporous stainless steel surface. two composite-based collection approaches were evaluated over a surface area of 3716 cm2 (four separate 929 cm2 areas), larger than the 645 cm2 prescribed by the standard centers for disease control (cdc) and prevention cellulose sponge sampling protocol for use on ... | 2014 | 25470365 |
| infantile systemic hyalinosis complicated with right atrial thrombus and pericardial effusion in an infant. | infantile systemic hyalinosis (ish) is a rare multisystem fatal autosomal recessive disorder that involves widespread deposition of hyaline on connective tissues and certain internal organs. the major manifestations include painful articular contractures, hyperpigmentation, subcutaneous nodules, gingival hypertrophy, failure to thrive secondary to protein-losing enteropathy, and osteolytic bone lesions. in this paper, we report a 12-month-old girl with ish presenting with recurrent diarrhea, fai ... | 2017 | 25458638 |
| ecthyma: a potential mimicker of zoonotic infections in a returning traveler. | the cutaneous ulcer in a patient with a history of international travel poses a vexing diagnostic dilemma for the clinician. while streptococcus and staphylococcus are common causes of cutaneous ecthyma, the necrotizing ulcer can have a vast differential diagnosis including ulcerating zoonoses. | 2014 | 25449255 |
| medical science and the cruelty to animals act 1876: a re-examination of anti-vivisectionism in provincial britain. | the cruelty to animals act 1876 was an important but ambiguous piece of legislation. for researchers it stymied british science, yet ensured that vivisection could continue under certain restrictions. for anti-vivisection protestors it was positive proof of the influence of their campaigns, yet overly deferent to britain's scientific elite. in previous accounts of the act and the rise of anti-vivisectionism, scientific medicine central to these debates has been treated as monolithic rather than ... | 2015 | 25437634 |
| modified 2,4-diaminopyrimidine-based dihydrofolate reductase inhibitors as potential drug scaffolds against bacillus anthracis. | the current letter describes the synthesis and biological evaluation of dihydrophthalazine-appended 2,4-diaminopyrimidine (dap) inhibitors (1) oxidized at the methylene bridge linking the dap ring to the central aromatic ring and (2) modified at the central ring ether groups. structures 4a-b incorporating an oxidized methylene bridge showed a decrease in activity, while slightly larger alkyl groups (ch2ch3 vs ch3) on the central ring oxygen atoms (r(2) and r(3)) had a minimal impact on the inhib ... | 2015 | 25435253 |
| quantitative analysis of the thermal stability of the gamma phage endolysin plyg: a biophysical and kinetic approach to assaying therapeutic potential. | endolysins are lytic enzymes encoded by bacteriophage that represent an emerging class of protein therapeutics. considering macromolecular thermoresistance correlates with shelf life, plyg, a bacillus anthracis endolysin, was thermally characterized to further evaluate its therapeutic potential. results from a biophysical thermal analysis revealed full-length plyg and its isolated domains comprised thermal denaturation temperatures exceeding 63°c. in the absence of reducing agent, plyg was deter ... | 2015 | 25432575 |
| bacillus anthracis pxo1 plasmid encodes a putative membrane-bound bacteriocin. | evolutionary advantages over cousin cells in bacterial pathogens may decide about the success of a specific cell in its environment. bacteria use a plethora of methods to defend against other cells and many devices to attack their opponents when competing for resources. bacteriocins are antibacterial proteins that are used to eliminate competition. we report the discovery of a putative membrane-bound bacteriocin encoded by the bacillus anthracis pathogenic pxo1 plasmid. we analyze the genomic st ... | 2014 | 25426338 |
| total syntheses of linear polythiazole/oxazole plantazolicin a and its biosynthetic precursor plantazolicin b. | plantazolicin a, a linear decacyclic natural product, exhibits desirable selective activity against the causative agent of anthrax toxicity. the total synthesis of plantazolicin a and its biosynthetic precursor plantazolicin b was successfully achieved by an efficient, unified, and highly convergent route featuring dicyclizations to form 2,4-concatenated oxazoles and the mild synthesis of thiazoles from natural amino acids. this report represents the first synthesis of plantazolicin b and includ ... | 2015 | 25424526 |
| cytochrome c551 and the cytochrome c maturation pathway affect virulence gene expression in bacillus cereus atcc 14579. | loss of the cytochrome c maturation system in bacillus cereus results in increased transcription of the major enterotoxin genes nhe, hbl, and cytk and the virulence regulator plcr. increased virulence factor production occurs at 37°c under aerobic conditions, similar to previous findings in bacillus anthracis. unlike b. anthracis, much of the increased virulence gene expression can be attributed to loss of only c551, one of the two small c-type cytochromes. additional virulence factor expression ... | 2015 | 25422307 |
| comparing electronic news media reports of potential bioterrorism-related incidents involving unknown white powder to reports received by the united states centers for disease control and prevention and the federal bureau of investigation: u.s.a., 2009-2011. | there have been periodic electronic news media reports of potential bioterrorism-related incidents involving unknown substances (often referred to as "white powder") since the 2001 intentional dissemination of bacillus anthracis through the u.s. postal system. this study reviewed the number of unknown "white powder" incidents reported online by the electronic news media and compared them with unknown "white powder" incidents reported to the u.s. centers for disease control and prevention (cdc) a ... | 2015 | 25420771 |
| influence of protein formulation and carrier solution on asymmetrical flow field-flow fractionation: a case study of the plant-produced recombinant anthrax protective antigen pp-pa83. | asymmetrical flow field-flow fractionation (affff) was used to investigate the properties of a plant-produced anthrax toxin protective antigen, pp-pa83. the affff fractogram consisted of two main peaks with molar masses similar to the molecular mass of pp-pa83 monomer. affff carrier solutions strongly influenced the ratio and the intensity of the two main peaks. these differences indicate that conformation changes in the pp-pa83 molecule occurred during the affff analysis. similar fractograms we ... | 2015 | 25417936 |
| caspase-1 autoproteolysis is differentially required for nlrp1b and nlrp3 inflammasome function. | inflammasomes are caspase-1-activating multiprotein complexes. the mouse nucleotide-binding domain and leucine rich repeat pyrin containing 1b (nlrp1b) inflammasome was identified as the sensor of bacillus anthracis lethal toxin (lt) in mouse macrophages from sensitive strains such as balb/c. upon exposure to lt, the nlrp1b inflammasome activates caspase-1 to produce mature il-1β and induce pyroptosis. both processes are believed to depend on autoproteolysed caspase-1. in contrast to human nlrp1 ... | 2014 | 25404286 |
| crystal structure of bacillus anthracis virulence regulator atxa and effects of phosphorylated histidines on multimerization and activity. | the bacillus anthracis virulence regulator atxa controls transcription of the anthrax toxin genes and capsule biosynthetic operon. atxa activity is elevated during growth in media containing glucose and co(2)/bicarbonate, and there is a positive correlation between the co(2)/bicarbonate signal, atxa activity and homomultimerization. atxa activity is also affected by phosphorylation at specific histidines. we show that atxa crystallizes as a dimer. distinct folds associated with predicted dna-bin ... | 2015 | 25402841 |
| host immunity to bacillus anthracis lethal factor and other immunogens: implications for vaccine design. | infections of humans with bacillus anthracis are an issue with respect to the biothreat both to civilians and military personnel, infections of individuals by infected livestock in endemic regions and, recently, infections of intravenous drug users injecting anthrax-contaminated heroin. existing vaccination regimens are reliant on protective antigen neutralization induced by repeated boosts with the ava or avp vaccines. however, there is ongoing interest in updated approaches in light of the int ... | 2015 | 25400140 |
| multiplexed genotyping of bacillus anthracis by luminex xmap suspension array. | the luminex® xtag technology is a medium to high throughput, open methodology able to test many single nucleotide polymorphisms (snps) in a single reaction and a minimum time. multiplex snps interrogation are conducted on the luminex xmap system, which uses lasers to read universal tag, color-coded microspheres that attach to specific nucleic acid sequences. the present method describes a multiplex oligonucleotide ligation-pcr procedure (mol-pcr) for the simultaneous interrogation of 13 phylogen ... | 2015 | 25399112 |
| single-nucleotide polymorphism discrimination using high-resolution melting analysis for the genotyping of bacillus anthracis. | high-resolution melting (hrm) is a post-pcr technique that determines with high precision the melt profile of pcr products using a new generation of double-stranded dna-binding dyes and accurate fluorescence data acquisition over small temperature increments. the method can be used to interrogate small sets of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (snps). here, we describe a simple and cost-effective hrm-based method for the screening of 14 phylogenetically informative snps within the genome of bacill ... | 2015 | 25399109 |
| splitmem: a graphical algorithm for pan-genome analysis with suffix skips. | genomics is expanding from a single reference per species paradigm into a more comprehensive pan-genome approach that analyzes multiple individuals together. a compressed de bruijn graph is a sophisticated data structure for representing the genomes of entire populations. it robustly encodes shared segments, simple single-nucleotide polymorphisms and complex structural variations far beyond what can be represented in a collection of linear sequences alone. | 2014 | 25398610 |
| inhibitory effects of single-walled carbon nanotubes on biofilm formation from bacillus anthracis spores. | this study reports the inhibitory effect of single walled carbon nanotubes (swcnts) on biofilm formation from bacillus anthracis spores. although the presence of 50 to 100 μg ml(-1) of swcnts in the suspension increased spore attachment in the wells of 96-well plates, the presence of 200 μg ml(-1) of swcnts in the germination solution decreased the germination percentage of the attached spores by 93.14%, completely inhibiting subsequent biofilm formation. the inhibition kinetics of 50 μg ml(-1) ... | 2014 | 25389559 |
| gastrointestinal helminths may affect host susceptibility to anthrax through seasonal immune trade-offs. | most vertebrates experience coinfections, and many pathogen-pathogen interactions occur indirectly through the host immune system. these interactions are particularly strong in mixed micro-macroparasite infections because of immunomodulatory effects of helminth parasites. while these trade-offs have been examined extensively in laboratory animals, few studies have examined them in natural systems. additionally, many wildlife pathogens fluctuate seasonally, at least partly due to seasonal host im ... | 2014 | 25388877 |
| lytr-cpsa-psr enzymes as determinants of bacillus anthracis secondary cell wall polysaccharide assembly. | bacillus anthracis, the causative agent of anthrax, replicates as chains of vegetative cells by regulating the separation of septal peptidoglycan. surface (s)-layer proteins and associated proteins (bsls) function as chain length determinants and bind to the secondary cell wall polysaccharide (scwp). in this study, we identified the b. anthracis lcpd mutant, which displays increased chain length and s-layer assembly defects due to diminished scwp attachment to peptidoglycan. in contrast, the b. ... | 2015 | 25384480 |
| htrc is involved in proteolysis of ypeb during germination of bacillus anthracis and bacillus subtilis spores. | bacterial endospores can remain dormant for decades yet can respond to nutrients, germinate, and resume growth within minutes. an essential step in the germination process is degradation of the spore cortex peptidoglycan wall, and the sleb protein in bacillus species plays a key role in this process. stable incorporation of sleb into the spore requires the ypeb protein, and some evidence suggests that the two proteins interact within the dormant spore. early during germination, ypeb is proteolyt ... | 2015 | 25384476 |
| erythrocytic mobilization enhanced by the granulocyte colony-stimulating factor is associated with reduced anthrax-lethal-toxin-induced mortality in mice. | anthrax lethal toxin (lt), one of the primary virulence factors of bacillus anthracis, causes anthrax-like symptoms and death in animals. experiments have indicated that levels of erythrocytopenia and hypoxic stress are associated with disease severity after administering lt. in this study, the granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (g-csf) was used as a therapeutic agent to ameliorate anthrax-lt- and spore-induced mortality in c57bl/6j mice. we demonstrated that g-csf promoted the mobilization o ... | 2014 | 25384016 |
| specific activation of dendritic cells enhances clearance of bacillus anthracis following infection. | dendritic cells are potent activators of the immune system and have a key role in linking innate and adaptive immune responses. in the current study we have used ex vivo pulsed bone marrow dendritic cells (bmdc) in a novel adoptive transfer strategy to protect against challenge with bacillus anthracis, in a murine model. pre-pulsing murine bmdc with either recombinant protective antigen (pa) or cpg significantly upregulated expression of the activation markers cd40, cd80, cd86 and mhc-ii. passiv ... | 2014 | 25380285 |
| the central nervous system as target of bacillus anthracis toxin independent virulence in rabbits and guinea pigs. | infection of the central nervous system is considered a complication of anthrax and was reported in humans and non-human primates. previously we have reported that bacillus anthracis possesses a toxin-independent virulent trait that, like the toxins, is regulated by the major virulence regulator, atxa, in the presence of pxo2. this toxin-independent lethal trait is exhibited in rabbits and guinea pigs following significant bacteremia and organ dissemination. various findings, including meningiti ... | 2014 | 25375158 |
| immunopotentiation for bacterial biodefense. | activation of the innate immune system can enhance resistance to a variety of bacterial and viral infections. in situations where the etiological agent of disease is unknown, such as a bioterror attack, stimulation of innate immunity may be particularly useful as induced immune responses are often capable of providing protection against a broad range of pathogens. in particular, the threat of an intentional release of a highly virulent bacterial pathogen that is either intrinsically resistant to ... | 2014 | 25373479 |
| statistical analysis, optimization, and prioritization of virtual screening parameters for zinc enzymes including the anthrax toxin lethal factor. | the anthrax toxin lethal factor (lf) and matrix metalloproteinase-3 (mmp-3, stromelysin-1) are popular zinc metalloenzyme drug targets, with lf primarily responsible for anthrax-related toxicity and host death, while mmp-3 is involved in cancer- and rheumatic disease-related tissue remodeling. a number of in silico screening techniques, most notably docking and scoring, have proven useful for identifying new potential drug scaffolds targeting lf and mmp-3, as well as for optimizing lead compound ... | 2014 | 25373478 |
| elucidation of the bicarbonate binding site and insights into the carboxylation mechanism of (n(5))-carboxyaminoimidazole ribonucleotide synthase (purk) from bacillus anthracis. | structures of (n(5))-carboxyaminoimidazole ribonucleotide synthase (purk) from bacillus anthracis with various combinations of atp, adp, mg(2+), bicarbonate and aminoimidazole ribonucleotide (air) in the active site are presented. the binding site of bicarbonate has only been speculated upon previously, but is shown here for the first time. the binding involves interactions with the conserved residues arg272, his274 and lys348. these structures provide insights into each ligand in the active sit ... | 2014 | 25372694 |
| anthrax toxin lethal factor domain 3 is highly mobile and responsive to ligand binding. | the secreted anthrax toxin consists of three components: the protective antigen (pa), edema factor (ef) and lethal factor (lf). lf, a zinc metalloproteinase, compromises the host immune system primarily by targeting mitogen-activated protein kinase kinases in macrophages. peptide substrates and small-molecule inhibitors bind lf in the space between domains 3 and 4 of the hydrolase. domain 3 is attached on a hinge to domain 2 via residues ile300 and pro385, and can move through an angular arc of ... | 2014 | 25372673 |
| being prepared: bioterrorism and mass prophylaxis: part ii. | although several biological agents have been recognized as presenting a significant threat to public health if used in a bioterrorist attack, those that are of greatest importance are known as the category a agents: bacillus anthracis (anthrax); variola major (smallpox); yersinia pestis (plague); francisella tularensis (tularemia); ribonucleic acid viruses (hemorrhagic fevers); and clostridium botulinum (botulism toxin). in the previous issue, part i of this review focused on the clinical presen ... | 2014 | 25356890 |
| a reaction path study of the catalysis and inhibition of the bacillus anthracis capd γ-glutamyl transpeptidase. | the capd enzyme of bacillus anthracis is a γ-glutamyl transpeptidase from the n-terminal nucleophile hydrolase superfamily that covalently anchors the poly-γ-d-glutamic acid (pdga) capsule to the peptidoglycan. the capsule hinders phagocytosis of b. anthracis by host cells and is essential for virulence. the role capd plays in capsule anchoring and remodeling makes the enzyme a promising target for anthrax medical countermeasures. although the structure of capd is known, and a covalent inhibitor ... | 2014 | 25334088 |
| whole proteome analysis of mouse lymph nodes in cutaneous anthrax. | this study aimed to characterize a soluble proteome of popliteal lymph nodes during lymphadenitis induced by intradermal injection of bacillus anthracis sterne spores in mice using tandem lc-ms/ms and reverse-phase protein microarray with antibodies specific to epitopes of phosphorylated proteins. more than 380 proteins were detected in the normal intra-nodal lymph, while the infectious process resulted in the profound changes in the protein abundances and appearance of 297 unique proteins. thes ... | 2014 | 25329596 |
| [bacillus anthracis]. | | 2014 | 25327200 |
| antibiofilm activity of biosurfactant producing coral associated bacteria isolated from gulf of mannar. | coral associated bacteria (cab) (n = 22) isolated from the mucus of the coral acropora digitifera were screened for biosurfactants using classical screening methods; hemolysis test, lipase production, oil displacement, drop collapse test and emulsifying activity. six cab (u7, u9, u10, u13, u14, and u16) were found to produce biosurfactants and were identified by 16s ribosomal rna gene sequencing as providencia rettgeri, psychrobacter sp., bacillus flexus, bacillus anthracis, psychrobacter sp., a ... | 2014 | 25320434 |
| preparation and evaluation of human-murine chimeric antibody against protective antigen of bacillus anthracis. | the aim of this research is to develop a human/murine chimeric fab antibody which neutralizes the anthrax toxin, protective antigen (pa). the chimeric fab was constructed using variable regions of murine anti-pa monoclonal antibody in combination with constant regions of human igg. the chimeric pa6-fab was expressed in e. coli. bl21 and evaluated by elisa and co-immunoprecipitation- mass spectra. the potency of pa6-fab to neutralize letx was examined in j774a.1 cell viability in vitro and in fis ... | 2014 | 25318053 |
| polylysine-mediated translocation of the diphtheria toxin catalytic domain through the anthrax protective antigen pore. | the protective antigen (pa) moiety of anthrax toxin forms oligomeric pores in the endosomal membrane, which translocate the effector proteins of the toxin to the cytosol. effector proteins bind to oligomeric pa via their respective n-terminal domains and undergo n- to c-terminal translocation through the pore. earlier we reported that a tract of basic amino acids fused to the n-terminus of an unrelated effector protein (the catalytic domain diphtheria toxin, dta) potentiated that protein to unde ... | 2014 | 25317832 |
| counteracting suppression of cftr and voltage-gated k+ channels by a bacterial pathogenic factor with the natural product tannic acid. | mutations in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (cftr) cause recurring bacterial infection in cf patients' lungs. however, the severity of cf lung disease correlates poorly with genotype. antibiotic treatment helps dramatically prolong patients' life. the lung disease generally determines prognosis and causes most morbidity and mortality; early control of infections is thus critical. staphylococcus aureus is a main cause of early infection in cf lungs. it secretes sphingomye ... | 2014 | 25313718 |
| terror medicine as part of the medical school curriculum. | terror medicine, a field related to emergency and disaster medicine, focuses on medical issues ranging from preparedness to psychological manifestations specifically associated with terrorist attacks. calls to teach aspects of the subject in american medical schools surged after the 2001 jetliner and anthrax attacks. although the threat of terrorism persists, terror medicine is still addressed erratically if at all in most medical schools. this paper suggests a template for incorporating the sub ... | 2014 | 25309891 |
| twenty whole-genome bacillus sp. assemblies. | bacilli are genetically and physiologically diverse, ranging from innocuous to highly pathogenic. here, we present annotated genome assemblies for 20 strains belonging to bacillus anthracis, b. atrophaeus, b. cereus, b. licheniformis, b. macerans, b. megaterium, b. mycoides, and b. subtilis. | 2014 | 25301645 |
| draft genome sequence of strain bf-4, a lysinibacillus-like bacillus isolated during an anthrax outbreak in bavaria. | we report the draft genome sequence of lysinibacillus sp. strain bf-4. strain bf-4 has a notably small genome for a free-living bacillus, with a size of 2.63 mbp. in agreement with phenotypic observations, the genome lacks genes essential for endospore formation. | 2014 | 25301643 |
| bacillus anthracis. | | 2014 | 25295335 |
| detection of bacillus anthracis spores by super-paramagnetic lateral-flow immunoassays based on "road closure". | detection of bacillus anthracis in the field, whether as a natural infection or as a biothreat remains challenging. here we have developed a new lateral-flow immunochromatographic assay (lfia) for b. anthracis spore detection based on the fact that conjugates of b. anthracis spores and super-paramagnetic particles labeled with antibodies will block the pores of chromatographic strips and form retention lines on the strips, instead of the conventionally reported test lines and control lines in cl ... | 2015 | 25294802 |
| screening for anthrax occurrence in soil of flooded rural areas in poland after rainfalls in spring 2010. | anthrax spores remain viable and infectious in soil for decades. flood water can percolate towards the surface the spores buried in soil. moreover, the flood water might transport spores to areas previously unaffected. after the water recedes the spores located on the surface of the ground can be consumed by grazing animals and cause outbreaks of anthrax. | 2014 | 25292110 |
| [travel-associated pneumonias]. | respiratory infections are responsible for up to 11% of febrile infections in travellers or immigrants from tropical and subtropical regions. the main pathogens are the same as in temperate climate zones: streptococcus pneumoniae, haemophilus influenzae, mycoplasma pneumoniae, chlamydophila pneumoniae, influenza viruses, legionella pneumophila. however, some pulmonary diseases can be attributed to bacterial, parasitic, viral or fungal pathogens that are endemic in tropical and subtropical region ... | 2014 | 25290923 |
| water-driven micromotors for rapid photocatalytic degradation of biological and chemical warfare agents. | threats of chemical and biological warfare agents (cbwa) represent a serious global concern and require rapid and efficient neutralization methods. we present a highly effective micromotor strategy for photocatalytic degradation of cbwa based on light-activated tio2/au/mg microspheres that propel autonomously in natural water and obviate the need for external fuel, decontaminating reagent, or mechanical agitation. the activated tio2/au/mg micromotors generate highly reactive oxygen species respo ... | 2014 | 25289459 |
| [molecular aspects of anthrax pathogenesis]. | a model of anthrax infection with the role determined for main pathogenicity factors of bacillus anthracis exotoxin and capsule is presented. after spore phagocytosis by macrophages, synthesis of the main exotoxin component begins - a protective antigen that in oligomeric form disrupts phagosome membrane. this accelerates the transition of the pathogen from phagosome into the macrophage cytoplasm. poly-d-glutamine capsule synthesized by the pathogen triggers the exit (exocytosis) of vegetative c ... | 2014 | 25286538 |
| [immunogenicity and safety of a prototype chemical anthrax vaccine in laboratory animal models]. | evaluation of immune stimulating and toxic effects of a vaccine prototype protein components. | 2014 | 25286524 |
| lethal factor, but not edema factor, is required to cause fatal anthrax in cynomolgus macaques after pulmonary spore challenge. | inhalational anthrax is caused by inhalation of bacillus anthracis spores. the ability of b. anthracis to cause anthrax is attributed to the plasmid-encoded a/b-type toxins, edema toxin (edema factor and protective antigen) and lethal toxin (lethal factor and protective antigen), and a poly-d-glutamic acid capsule. to better understand the contribution of these toxins to the disease pathophysiology in vivo, we used b. anthracis ames strain and isogenic toxin deletion mutants derived from the ame ... | 2014 | 25285720 |
| fatal attraction: vegetation responses to nutrient inputs attract herbivores to infectious anthrax carcass sites. | parasites can shape the foraging behaviour of their hosts through cues indicating risk of infection. when cues for risk co-occur with desired traits such as forage quality, individuals face a trade-off between nutrient acquisition and parasite exposure. we evaluated how this trade-off may influence disease transmission in a 3-year experimental study of anthrax in a guild of mammalian herbivores in etosha national park, namibia. at plains zebra (equus quagga) carcass sites we assessed (i) carcass ... | 2014 | 25274365 |
| [the experiments conducted by japanese on human guinea pigs, and the use of biological weapons during the sino-japanese war (1937-1945)]. | starting from the end of the nineteenth century, and during the first four decades of the past century, japan showed considerable military expansion, on the back of a pan-asiatic and imperialistic ideology, comparable only to those expressed by wilhelmian and nazi germany. this growth led to japan playing an extremely important role in the asia-pacific continent, which unavoidably brought the country onto a collision course with the british empire and the united states of america. the japanese g ... | 2014 | 25269971 |
| residues involved in the pore-forming activity of the clostridium perfringens iota toxin. | clostridium perfringens iota toxin is a binary toxin that is organized into enzyme (ia) and binding (ib) components. ib forms channels in lipid bilayers and mediates the transport of ia into the target cells. here we show that ib residues 334-359 contain a conserved pattern of alternating hydrophobic and hydrophilic residues forming two amphipathic β-strands involved in membrane insertion and channel formation. this stretch of amino acids shows remarkable structural and functional analogies with ... | 2015 | 25266274 |
| combinations of various cpg motifs cloned into plasmid backbone modulate and enhance protective immunity of viral replicon dna anthrax vaccines. | dna vaccines are generally weak stimulators of the immune system. fortunately, their efficacy can be improved using a viral replicon vector or by the addition of immunostimulatory cpg motifs, although the design of these engineered dna vectors requires optimization. our results clearly suggest that multiple copies of three types of cpg motifs or combinations of various types of cpg motifs cloned into a viral replicon vector backbone with strong immunostimulatory activities on human pbmc are effi ... | 2015 | 25265876 |
| selective detection of 1000 b. anthracis spores within 15 minutes using a peptide functionalized sers assay. | a surface-enhanced raman spectroscopy (sers) assay has been designed to detect bacillus anthracis spores. the assay consists of silver nanoparticles embedded in a porous glass structure that have been functionalized with atyplpir, a peptide developed to discriminately bind b. anthracis versus other species of bacillus. once bound, acetic acid was used to release the biomarker dipicolinic acid from the spores, which was detected by sers through the addition of silver colloids. this sers assay was ... | 2014 | 25263740 |
| anthrax lethal factor inhibitors as potential countermeasure of the infection. | anthrax lethal factor (lf) is a zinc-dependent metalloprotease, one of the virulence factor of anthrax infection. three forms of the anthrax infection have been identified: cutaneous (through skin), gastrointestinal (through alimentary tract), and pulmonary (by inhalation of spores). anthrax toxin is composed of protective antigen (pa), lethal factor (lf), and edema factor (ef). protective antigen mediates the entry of lethal factor/edema factor into the cytosol of host cells. lethal factor (lf) ... | 2014 | 25262802 |
| semiquinone-induced maturation of bacillus anthracis ribonucleotide reductase by a superoxide intermediate. | ribonucleotide reductases (rnrs) catalyze the conversion of ribonucleotides to deoxyribonucleotides, and represent the only de novo pathway to provide dna building blocks. three different classes of rnr are known, denoted i-iii. class i rnrs are heteromeric proteins built up by α and β subunits and are further divided into different subclasses, partly based on the metal content of the β-subunit. in subclass ib rnr the β-subunit is denoted nrdf, and harbors a manganese-tyrosyl radical cofactor. t ... | 2014 | 25262022 |
| identification of potential drug targets by subtractive genome analysis of bacillus anthracis a0248: an in silico approach. | bacillus anthracis is a gram positive, spore forming, rod shaped bacteria which is the etiologic agent of anthrax - cutaneous, pulmonary and gastrointestinal. a recent outbreak of anthrax in a tropical region uncovered natural and in vitro resistance against penicillin, ciprofloxacin, quinolone due to over exposure of the pathogen to these antibiotics. this fact combined with the ongoing threat of using b. anthracis as a biological weapon proves that the identification of new therapeutic targets ... | 2014 | 25254941 |
| environmental airborne contact dermatoses. | this chapter is complementary to chapter 4 published in the same series. airborne contact dermatitis (abcd) is considered a prototype in the field of environmental dermatology. it is often underestimated in most textbooks of general dermatology, despite its frequent occurrence in daily life. abcd may be irritant, allergic, phototoxic, or photoallergic. airborne contact urticaria is another example. a particular clinical aspect is the "head and neck dermatitis", which occurs in atopic adult patie ... | 2014 | 25252746 |
| possible use of bacteriophages active against bacillus anthracis and other b. cereus group members in the face of a bioterrorism threat. | anthrax is an infectious fatal disease with epidemic potential. nowadays, bioterrorism using bacillus anthracis is a real possibility, and thus society needs an effective weapon to neutralize this threat. the pathogen may be easily transmitted to human populations. it is easy to store, transport, and disseminate and may survive for many decades. recent data strongly support the effectiveness of bacteriophage in treating bacterial diseases. moreover, it is clear that bacteriophages should be cons ... | 2014 | 25247187 |
| investigation of the essentiality of glutamate racemase in mycobacterium smegmatis. | the mycobacterial cell wall frequently has been used as a target for drug development, and d-glutamate, synthesized by glutamate racemase (muri), is an important component of peptidoglycan. while the essentiality of the muri gene has been shown in several bacterial species, including escherichia coli, bacillus anthracis, and streptococcus pneumoniae, studies in mycobacteria have not yet provided definitive results. this study aimed to determine whether muri is indeed essential and can serve as a ... | 2014 | 25246478 |
| bacillus anthracis grlav96a topoisomerase iv, a quinolone resistance mutation that does not affect the water-metal ion bridge. | the rise in quinolone resistance is threatening the clinical use of this important class of broad-spectrum antibacterials. quinolones kill bacteria by increasing the level of dna strand breaks generated by the type ii topoisomerases gyrase and topoisomerase iv. most commonly, resistance is caused by mutations in the serine and acidic amino acid residues that anchor a water-metal ion bridge that facilitates quinolone-enzyme interactions. although other mutations in gyrase and topoisomerase iv hav ... | 2014 | 25246407 |
| immunogenicity and safety of four different dosing regimens of anthrax vaccine adsorbed for post-exposure prophylaxis for anthrax in adults. | strategies to implement post exposure prophylaxis (pep) in case of an anthrax bioterror event are needed. to increase the number of doses of vaccine available we evaluated reducing the amount of vaccine administered at each of the vaccinations, and reducing the number of doses administered. | 2014 | 25239484 |
| genome sequence of bacillus anthracis sti, a sterne-like georgian/soviet vaccine strain. | the bacillus anthracis strain sti is a soviet vaccine strain that lacks the pxo2 plasmid. previous data indicate that this isolate forms a new branch within the b. anthracis sub-group originally identified as a. br.008/009. | 2014 | 25237016 |
| spxa2, encoding a regulator of stress resistance in bacillus anthracis, is controlled by sair, a new member of the rrf2 protein family. | spx, a member of the arsc (arsenate reductase) protein family, is conserved in gram-positive bacteria, and interacts with rna polymerase to activate transcription in response to toxic oxidants. in bacillus anthracis str. sterne, resistance to oxidative stress requires the activity of two paralogues, spxa1 and spxa2. suppressor mutations were identified in spxa1 mutant cells that conferred resistance to hydrogen peroxide. the mutations generated null alleles of the sair gene and resulted in eleva ... | 2014 | 25231235 |
| phylogenetic and clonality analysis of bacillus pumilus isolates uncovered a highly heterogeneous population of different closely related species and clones. | bacillus pumilus is a gram-positive bacterium with a wide range of attributed applications, namely as a plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (pgpr), animal, and human probiotic. however, a rare putative role in human diseases has been reported, namely in food poisoning or as anthrax-like cutaneous infectious agent. this species is difficult to distinguish from its closely related species on the basis of phenotypic or biochemical characteristics and 16s rrna gene sequences. in this study, the phy ... | 2014 | 25230950 |
| combination therapy with antibiotics and anthrax immune globulin intravenous (aigiv) is potentially more effective than antibiotics alone in rabbit model of inhalational anthrax. | we have evaluated the therapeutic efficacy of aigiv when given in combination with levofloxacin and the effective window of treatment to assess the added benefit provided by aigiv over standard antibiotic treatment alone in a new zealand white rabbit model of inhalational anthrax. | 2014 | 25226075 |
| potentiality of eisenia fetida to degrade disposable paper cups-an ecofriendly solution to solid waste pollution. | the aim of the present study was to subject the post-consumer waste, namely paper cups for vermicomposting along with cow dung in three different ratios for a period of 90-140 days employing eisenia fetida. the post-consumer wastes are a menace in many developing countries including india. this waste was provided as feed for earthworms and was converted to vermicompost. vermicompost prepared with paper cup waste was analyzed for their physicochemical properties. based on the physicochemical prop ... | 2015 | 25220767 |
| efficacy of sporicidal wipes for inactivation of a bacillus anthracis surrogate. | to evaluate five commercially available sporicidal wipes and two disinfecting wipes for their ability to inactivate bacillus atrophaeus spores deposited onto various material surfaces. | 2014 | 25220421 |
| the impact of inducing germination of bacillus anthracis and bacillus thuringiensis spores on potential secondary decontamination strategies. | decontamination and remediation of a site contaminated by the accidental or intentional release of fully virulent bacillus anthracis spores are difficult, costly and potentially damaging to the environment. development of novel decontamination strategies that have minimal environmental impacts remains a high priority. although ungerminated spores are amongst the most resilient organisms known, once exposed to germinants, the germinating spores, in some cases, become susceptible to antimicrobial ... | 2014 | 25196092 |
| creating a state medical response system for medical disaster management: the north carolina experience. | the purpose of this work was to examine the creation and evolution of the north carolina state medical response system (smrs). during the past 30 years, states and local communities have developed a somewhat incongruent patchwork of medical disaster response systems. several local or regional programs participated in the national disaster medical system; however, aside from the disaster medical assistance teams, most of these local resources lacked national standards and national direction. the ... | 2014 | 25188616 |
| delineation of interfaces on human alpha-defensins critical for human adenovirus and human papillomavirus inhibition. | human α-defensins are potent anti-microbial peptides with the ability to neutralize bacterial and viral targets. single alanine mutagenesis has been used to identify determinants of anti-bacterial activity and binding to bacterial proteins such as anthrax lethal factor. similar analyses of α-defensin interactions with non-enveloped viruses are limited. we used a comprehensive set of human α-defensin 5 (hd5) and human neutrophil peptide 1 (hnp1) alanine scan mutants in a combination of binding an ... | 2014 | 25188351 |