Publications

TitleAbstractYear
Filter
PMID
Filter
effects of an infectious fungus, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, on amphibian predator-prey interactions.the effects of parasites and pathogens on host behaviors may be particularly important in predator-prey contexts, since few animal behaviors are more crucial for ensuring immediate survival than the avoidance of lethal predators in nature. we examined the effects of an emerging fungal pathogen of amphibians, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, on anti-predator behaviors of tadpoles of four frog species. we also investigated whether amphibian predators consumed infected prey, and whether b. dendrobat ...201121311771
regional decline of an iconic amphibian associated with elevation, land-use change, and invasive species.ecological theory predicts that species with restricted geographic ranges will have the highest probability of extinction, but species with extensive distributions and high population densities can also exhibit widespread population losses. in the western united states populations of northern leopard frogs (lithobates pipiens)-historically one of the most widespread frogs in north america-have declined dramatically in abundance and geographic distribution. to assess the status of leopard frogs i ...201121342266
prevalence of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in three species of wild frogs on prince edward island, canada.chytridiomycosis, caused by the fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), has resulted in the decline or extinction of approximately 200 frog species worldwide. it has been reported throughout much of north america, but its presence on prince edward island (pei), on the eastern coast of canada, was unknown. to determine the presence and prevalence of bd on pei, skin swabs were collected from 115 frogs from 18 separate sites across the province during the summer of 2009. the swabs were tested t ...201021387987
effects of temperature and hydric environment on survival of the panamanian golden frog infected with a pathogenic chytrid fungus.considerable controversy exists concerning whether or not climate changes (particularly global warming) are causing outbreaks of a lethal amphibian pathogen, the chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (longcore, pessier & d.k. nichols 1999). in the present study, groups of panamanian golden frogs (atelopus zeteki dunn, 1993), a critically endangered amphibian thought to be nearly extinct in panama, were exposed to varying dosages of zoospores of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, temperature ...201021392332
individual and combined effects of multiple pathogens on pacific treefrogs.in nature, individual hosts often encounter multiple pathogens simultaneously, which can lead to additive, antagonistic, or synergistic effects on hosts. synergistic effects on infection prevalence or severity could greatly affect host populations. however, ecologists and managers often overlook the influence of pathogen combinations on hosts. this is especially true in amphibian conservation, even though multiple pathogens coexist within amphibian populations, and several pathogens have been im ...201121400194
seasonal pattern of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection and mortality in lithobates areolatus: affirmation of vredenburg's "10,000 zoospore rule".to fully comprehend chytridiomycosis, the amphibian disease caused by the chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), it is essential to understand how bd affects amphibians throughout their remarkable range of life histories. crawfish frogs (lithobates areolatus) are a typical north american pond-breeding species that forms explosive spring breeding aggregations in seasonal and semipermanent wetlands. but unlike most species, when not breeding crawfish frogs usually live singly--in near ...201121423745
survey for the pathogenic chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in southwestern north carolina salamander populations.batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is a fungal pathogen responsible for a potentially fatal disease of amphibians. we conducted a survey for b. dendrobatidis in the appalachian mountains of southwestern north carolina, usa, from 10 june to 23 july 23 2009. ventral skin swabs were collected from plethodontid salamanders (n=278) and real-time pcr was performed to test for the presence of b. dendrobatidis. we found no evidence of b. dendrobatidis, suggesting that b. dendrobatidis is absent or present i ...201121441199
effects of atrazine, agricultural runoff, and selected effluents on antimicrobial activity of skin peptides in xenopus laevis.atrazine (technical and formulation), agricultural runoff containing atrazine, and treated sewage and landfill effluents were evaluated for their potential to modulate antimicrobial activity of xenopus laevis skin secretions against the chytrid fungus, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. this chytrid fungus is implicated in several localized mass mortality events, yet the cause of the susceptibility of amphibians to this newly emergent pathogen is unknown. antimicrobial peptides secreted from dermal ...201121453969
mitigating amphibian disease: strategies to maintain wild populations and control chytridiomycosis.abstract:201121496358
microbial pathogens in the fungal kingdom.the fungal kingdom is vast, spanning ~1.5 to as many as 5 million species diverse as unicellular yeasts, filamentous fungi, mushrooms, lichens, and both plant and animal pathogens. the fungi are closely aligned with animals in one of the six to eight supergroups of eukaryotes, the opisthokonts. the animal and fungal kingdoms last shared a common ancestor ~1 billion years ago, more recently than other groups of eukaryotes. as a consequence of their close evolutionary history and shared cellular m ...201121528015
exposure of juvenile green frogs (lithobates clamitans) in littoral enclosures to a glyphosate-based herbicide.the majority of studies on the toxicity of glyphosate-based herbicides to amphibians have focused on larval life stages exposed in aqueous media. however, adult and juvenile amphibians may also be exposed directly or indirectly to herbicides. the potential for such exposures is of particular interest in the littoral zone surrounding wetlands as this is preferred habitat for many amphibian species. moreover, it may be argued that potential herbicide effects on juvenile or adult amphibians could h ...201121536331
first record of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infecting four frog families from peninsular malaysia.the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) infects amphibians on every continent where they occur and is linked to the decline of over 200 amphibian species worldwide. at present, only three published bd surveys exist for mainland asia, and bd has been detected in south korea alone. in this article, we report the first survey for bd in peninsular malaysia. we swabbed 127 individuals from the six amphibian families that occur on peninsular malaysia, including two orders, 27 genera, a ...201121541819
coincident mass extirpation of neotropical amphibians with the emergence of the infectious fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.amphibians highlight the global biodiversity crisis because ∼40% of all amphibian species are currently in decline. species have disappeared even in protected habitats (e.g., the enigmatic extinction of the golden toad, bufo periglenes, from costa rica). the emergence of a fungal pathogen, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), has been implicated in a number of declines that have occurred in the last decade, but few studies have been able to test retroactively whether bd emergence was linked to e ...201121543713
tropical amphibian populations experience higher disease risk in natural habitats.habitat loss and disease are main drivers of global amphibian declines, yet the interaction between them remains largely unexplored. here we show that paradoxically, habitat loss is negatively associated with occurrence, prevalence, and infection intensity of the chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) in amphibian populations in the tropics. at a large spatial scale, increased habitat loss predicted lower disease risk in amphibian populations across costa rica and eastern australia, ...201121628560
comparison of sensitivity between real-time detection of a taqman assay for batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and conventional detection.a sensitive and quantitative taqman assay for the causative agent of chytridiomycosis in amphibians (batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) has been developed and is routinely used in diagnostic laboratories. we assessed whether the real time detection of the taqman assay was as sensitive as the detection of the pcr product by agarose gel electrophoresis and ethidium bromide staining. we found, for practical purposes, that gel-based detection of the diagnostic fragment produced by means of the taqman a ...201121648238
do frogs get their kicks on route 66? continental u.s. transect reveals spatial and temporal patterns of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection.the chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) has been devastating amphibians globally. two general scenarios have been proposed for the nature and spread of this pathogen: bd is an epidemic, spreading as a wave and wiping out individuals, populations, and species in its path; and bd is endemic, widespread throughout many geographic regions on every continent except antarctica. to explore these hypotheses, we conducted a transcontinental transect of united states department of defense ( ...201121811576
temperature, hydric environment, and prior pathogen exposure alter the experimental severity of chytridiomycosis in boreal toads.prevalence of the pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), implicated in amphibian population declines worldwide, is associated with habitat moisture and temperature, but few studies have varied these factors and measured the response to infection in amphibian hosts. we evaluated how varying humidity, contact with water, and temperature affected the manifestation of chytridiomycosis in boreal toads anaxyrus (bufo) boreas boreas and how prior exposure to bd affects the likelihood of survival ...201121797033
elevated temperature as a treatment for batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection in captive frogs.the amphibian chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) has been implicated in amphibian declines worldwide. in vitro laboratory studies and those done on wild populations indicate that bd grows best at cool temperatures between 17 and 25 degrees c. in the present study, we tested whether moderately elevating the ambient temperature to 30 degrees c could be an effective treatment for frogs infected with bd. we acquired 35 bullfrogs rana catesbeiana from breeding facilities and 36 northe ...201121790070
motile zoospores of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis move away from antifungal metabolites produced by amphibian skin bacteria.chytridiomycosis is an amphibian skin disease that threatens amphibian biodiversity worldwide. the fungal agent of chytridiomycosis is batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. there is considerable variation in disease outcomes such that some individuals and populations co-exist with the fungus and others quickly succumb to disease. amphibians in populations that co-exist with the b. dendrobatidis have sublethal infections on their skins. symbiotic skin bacteria have been shown in experiments and surveys ...201121769695
evidence for acquisition of virulence effectors in pathogenic chytrids.abstract:201121740557
examining the evidence for chytridiomycosis in threatened amphibian species.extinction risks are increasing for amphibians due to rising threats and minimal conservation efforts. nearly one quarter of all threatened/extinct amphibians in the iucn red list is purportedly at risk from the disease chytridiomycosis. however, a closer look at the data reveals that batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (the causal agent) has been identified and confirmed to cause clinical disease in only 14% of these species. primary literature surveys confirm these findings; ruling out major discre ...201121826233
amphibian immune defenses against chytridiomycosis: impacts of changing environments.eco-immunology is the field of study that attempts to understand the functions of the immune system in the context of the host's environment. amphibians are currently suffering devastating declines and extinctions in nearly all parts of the world due to the emerging infectious disease chytridiomycosis caused by the chytrid fungus, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. because chytridiomycosis is a skin infection and remains confined to the skin, immune defenses of the skin are critical for survival. s ...201121816807
ambient ultraviolet b radiation and prevalence of infection by batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in two amphibian species.ôçé chytridiomycosis, the emerging disease caused by the chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) is responsible for declines and extirpations of amphibian populations worldwide. environmental covariates modify the host-bd interaction and thus affect the ongoing spread of the pathogen. one such covariate may be the intensity of ultraviolet b (uv-b) radiation. in a field experiment conducted in laguna grande de pe+¦alara (central spain), a mountainous region where the presence of bd has ...201121676032
prevalence of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in agalychnis moreletii (hylidae) of el salvador and association with larval jaw sheath depigmentation.amphibian populations around the world have been declining at an alarming rate due to factors such as habitat destruction, pollution, and infectious diseases. between may and july 2008, we investigated a fungal pathogen in the critically endangered morelet's treefrog (agalychnis moreletii) at sites in el salvador. larvae were screened with a hand lens for indications of infection with batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), a fungus that can cause lethal chytridiomycosis in amphibians. subsets of i ...201121719819
antimicrobial peptide defenses in amphibian skin.one of the most urgent problems in conservation biology today is the continuing loss of amphibian populations on a global scale. recent amphibian population declines in australia, central america, the western united states, europe, and africa have been linked to a pathogenic chytrid fungus, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, which infects the skin. the skin of amphibians is critical for fluid balance, respiration, and transport of essential ions; and the immune defense of the skin must be integrate ...200521676754
differential host susceptibility toôçébatrachochytrium dendrobatidis, an emerging amphibian pathogen.ôçé the amphibian fungal pathogenôçébatrachochytrium dendrobatidisôçé(bd) has received considerable attention due to its role in amphibian population declines worldwide. although many amphibian species appear to be affected by bd, there is little information on species-specific differences in susceptibility to this pathogen. we used a comparative experimental approach to examine bd susceptibility in 6 amphibian species from the united states. we exposed postmetamorphic animals to bd for 30 days ...201121732979
Growth of the amphibian pathogen, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, in response to chemical properties of the aquatic environment.Water samples from two of 17 field sites in Arizona (USA) inhibited growth of the amphibian pathogen, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. Chemical analyses of samples revealed statistically significant facilitating or inhibitory activity of certain elements. Although low levels of copper were found in environmental samples demonstrating facilitated growth, growth was inhibited at concentrations of copper sulfate (CuSO(4)) at or greater than 100 ppm.201121719835
new records of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in chilean frogs.we used molecular techniques to examine 11 species of frogs in 6 localities in southern chile to ascertain the incidence of the chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd). we detected the fungus in 2 localities (coñaripe and raúl marín balmaceda) in 3 species: batrachyla leptopus, pleurodema thaul and rhinoderma darwinii. our findings expand the list of bd hosts to include b. leptopus and p. thaul and extend the spatial distribution in chile to include the southernmost bd record at raúl ...201121932539
varying responses of northeastern north american amphibians to the chytrid pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.chytridiomycosis, caused by batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), is widespread among amphibians in northeastern north america. it is unknown, however, whether bd has the potential to cause extensive amphibian mortalities in northeastern north america as have occurred elsewhere. in the laboratory, we exposed seven common northeastern north american amphibian species to bd to assess the likelihood of population-level effects from the disease. we exposed larval wood frogs (lithobates sylvaticus) an ...201122181933
historic occurrence of the amphibian chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in hellbender cryptobranchus alleganiensis populations from missouri.the pathogenic fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) was recently detected in missouri hellbender cryptobranchus alleganiensis populations that have declined precipitously for unclear reasons. the objective of this study was to determine whether bd occurred historically in missouri hellbender populations or is a relatively novel occurrence. epidermal tissue was removed from 216 archived hellbenders collected from 7 missouri streams between 1896 and 1994. histological techniques and an immun ...201121991660
Is chytridiomycosis an emerging infectious disease in Asia?The disease chytridiomycosis, caused by the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), has caused dramatic amphibian population declines and extinctions in Australia, Central and North America, and Europe. Bd is associated with >200 species extinctions of amphibians, but not all species that become infected are susceptible to the disease. Specifically, Bd has rapidly emerged in some areas of the world, such as in Australia, USA, and throughout Central and South America, causing population and s ...201121887238
dietary protein restriction impairs growth, immunity, and disease resistance in southern leopard frog tadpoles.the immune system is a necessary, but potentially costly, defense against infectious diseases. when nutrition is limited, immune activity may consume a significant amount of an organism's energy budget. levels of dietary protein affect immune system function; high levels can enhance disease resistance. we exposed southern leopard frog [lithobates sphenocephalus (=rana sphenocephala)] tadpoles to high and low protein diets crossed with the presence or absence of the pathogenic amphibian chytrid f ...201122038058
Detection of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in Mexican Bolitoglossine Salamanders Using an Optimal Sampling Protocol.The role of the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), which is the causal agent of chytridiomycosis, in the declines of Central American bolitoglossine salamanders is unknown. Here we establish a swabbing protocol to maximize the detection probability of Bd in salamanders. We then used this protocol to examine captive and wild Mexican bolitoglossine salamanders of 14 different species for the presence of Bd. Of the seven body parts sampled, the pelvic region, hindlimbs, forelimbs, ...201121912986
MHC genotypes associate with resistance to a frog-killing fungus.The emerging amphibian disease chytridiomycosis is caused by the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd). Amphibian populations and species differ in susceptibility to Bd, yet we know surprisingly little about the genetic basis of this natural variation. MHC loci encode peptides that initiate acquired immunity in vertebrates, making them likely candidates for determining disease susceptibility. However, MHC genes have never been characterized in the context of chytridiomycosis. Here, ...201121949385
Fluorescent probes as a tool for labelling and tracking the amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.The dissemination of the virulent pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) has contributed to the decline and extinction of many amphibian species worldwide. Several different strains have been identified, some of which are sympatric. Interactions between co-infecting strains of a pathogen can have significant influences on disease epidemiology and evolution; therefore the dynamics of multi-strain infections is an important area of research. We stained Bd cells with 2 fluorescent BODIPY fatt ...201122013756
nothing a hot bath won't cure: infection rates of amphibian chytrid fungus correlate negatively with water temperature under natural field settings.dramatic declines and extinctions of amphibian populations throughout the world have been associated with chytridiomycosis, an infectious disease caused by the pathogenic chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd). previous studies indicated that bd prevalence correlates with cooler temperatures in the field, and laboratory experiments have demonstrated that bd ceases growth at temperatures above 28°c. here we investigate how small-scale variations in water temperature correlate with bd ...201122205950
frog skin epithelium: electrolyte transport and chytridiomycosis.one unique physiological characteristic of frogs is that their main route for intake of water is across the skin. in these animals, the skin acts in concert with the kidney and urinary bladder to maintain electrolyte homeostasis. water absorption across the skin is driven by the osmotic gradient that develops as a consequence of solute transport. our recent study demonstrated that chytridiomycosis, an infection of amphibian skin by the fungal pathogen, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, inhibits ep ...201122182598
environmental refuge from disease-driven amphibian extinction.species that are tolerant of broad environmental gradients may be less vulnerable to epizootic outbreaks of disease. chytridriomycosis, caused by the fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, has been linked to extirpations and extinctions of amphibian species in many regions. the pathogen thrives in cool, moist environments, and high amphibian mortality rates have commonly occurred during chytridiomycosis outbreaks in amphibian populations in high-elevation tropical rainforests. in australia sever ...201121902719
a dilution effect in the emerging amphibian pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.global declines in biodiversity are altering disease dynamics in complex and multifaceted ways. changes in biodiversity can have several outcomes on disease risk, including dilution and amplification effects, both of which can have a profound influence on the effects of disease in a community. the dilution effect occurs when biodiversity and disease risk are inversely related, whereas the amplification effect is a positive relationship between biodiversity and disease risk. we tested these effec ...201121930900
can differences in host behavior drive patterns of disease prevalence in tadpoles?differences in host behavior and resistance to disease can influence the outcome of host-pathogen interactions. we capitalized on the variation in aggregation behavior of fowler's toads (anaxyrus [ = bufo] fowleri) and grey treefrogs (hyla versicolor) tadpoles and tested for differences in transmission of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) and host-specific fitness consequences (i.e., life history traits that imply fitness) of infection in single-species amphibian mesocosms. on average, a. fowl ...201121949824
Short-term exposure to warm microhabitats could explain amphibian persistence with Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.Environmental conditions can alter the outcomes of symbiotic interactions. Many amphibian species have declined due to chytridiomycosis, caused by the pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), but many others persist despite high Bd infection prevalence. This indicates that Bd's virulence is lower, or it may even be a commensal, in some hosts. In the Australian Wet Tropics, chytridiomycosis extirpated Litoria nannotis from high-elevation rain forests in the early 1990 s. Although th ...201122028834
health and habitat quality assessment for the eastern hellbender (cryptobranchus alleganiensis alleganiensis) in indiana, usa.the eastern hellbender (cryptobranchus alleganiensis alleganiensis) has experienced precipitous population declines throughout its range. numerous factors are speculated to be involved, but no empirical evidence has been presented for any. we implemented a population-wide health assessment in indiana, usa, examining both the physical well-being of individuals and the quality of their habitat. physicochemical parameters were analyzed directly in the field and later in the laboratory, when appropr ...201122102654
batrachochytrium dendrobatidis can infect and cause mortality in the nematode caenorhabditis elegans.batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) has been identified as a causative agent in the precipitous decline of amphibians worldwide. studies on the fungus including its ability to infect and kill the host require use of frogs, a precious resource. therefore, the development of an alternate host model to study the virulence of the fungus would be useful. here, we show that bd can cause mortality in the nematode caenorhabditis elegans. incubation of bd with c. elegans resulted ...201122002554
Genomic transition to pathogenicity in chytrid fungi.Understanding the molecular mechanisms of pathogen emergence is central to mitigating the impacts of novel infectious disease agents. The chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) is an emerging pathogen of amphibians that has been implicated in amphibian declines worldwide. Bd is the only member of its clade known to attack vertebrates. However, little is known about the molecular determinants of - or evolutionary transition to - pathogenicity in Bd. Here we sequence the genome of Bd's ...201122072962
Multiple emergences of genetically diverse amphibian-infecting chytrids include a globalized hypervirulent recombinant lineage.Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) is a globally ubiquitous fungal infection that has emerged to become a primary driver of amphibian biodiversity loss. Despite widespread effort to understand the emergence of this panzootic, the origins of the infection, its patterns of global spread, and principle mode of evolution remain largely unknown. Using comparative population genomics, we discovered three deeply diverged lineages of Bd associated with amphibians. Two of these lineages were found in mu ...201122065772
polymorphic repetitive loci of the amphibian pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), the cause of a fatal fungal skin disease of amphibians that has led to massive die-offs, global declines and extinctions, has spread internationally as a pandemic clone with low genetic diversity. a need exists to develop highly polymorphic markers to determine centers of origin and patterns of spread to assist in the development of management strategies. comparison of paralogous sequences, obtained from the 2 sequenced bd genomes, indicates useful levels of ...201122235589
norepinephrine depletion of antimicrobial peptides from the skin glands of xenopus laevis.the dermal granular glands of the south african clawed frog, xenopus laevis, contain antimicrobial peptides (amps) that are secreted following local nerve stimulation. these natural antibiotics are active against bacteria and fungi including batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, a fungal pathogen that causes the skin disease chytridiomycosis. granular gland secretion can be stimulated in the laboratory by norepinephrine injection. we found that two injections of 80nmol/g norepinephrine were necessary ...201122227319
towards a better understanding of the use of probiotics for preventing chytridiomycosis in panamanian golden frogs.populations of native panamanian golden frogs (atelopus zeteki) have collapsed due to a recent chytridiomycosis epidemic. reintroduction efforts from captive assurance colonies are unlikely to be successful without the development of methods to control chytridiomycosis in the wild. in an effort to develop a protective treatment regimen, we treated golden frogs with janthinobacterium lividum, a skin bacterium that has been used to experimentally prevent chytridiomycosis in north american amphibia ...201122328095
reptiles as potential vectors and hosts of the amphibian pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in panama.chytridiomycosis, the disease caused by batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, is considered to be a disease exclusively of amphibians. however, b. dendrobatidis may also be capable of persisting in the environment, and non-amphibian vectors or hosts may contribute to disease transmission. reptiles living in close proximity to amphibians and sharing similar ecological traits could serve as vectors or reservoir hosts for b. dendrobatidis, harbouring the organism on their skin without succumbing to disea ...201122303629
stability and permanence in gender- and stage-structured models for the boreal toad.the boreal toad bufo boreas boreas, once common in the western usa, is listed as an endangered species in colorado and new mexico, and protected in wyoming. populations have dramatically declined due to the presence of the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd). a gender- and stage-structured model for the boreal toad is formulated which depends on its life cycle and breeding strategies. in addition, an epizootic model for the spread of bd is formulated. analysis of these models pro ...201122877227
amphibian pathogens in southeast asian frog trade.amphibian trade is known to facilitate the geographic spread of pathogens. here we assess the health of amphibians traded in southeast asia for food or as pets, focusing on batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), ranavirus and general clinical condition. samples were collected from 2,389 individual animals at 51 sites in lao pdr, cambodia, vietnam and singapore for bd screening, and 74 animals in cambodia and vietnam for ranavirus screening. bd was found in one frog (n = 347) in cambodia and 13 in ...201223404036
changes in cutaneous microbial abundance with sloughing: possible implications for infection and disease in amphibians.the emergence of disease as a significant global threat to amphibian diversity has generated considerable interest in amphibian defenses against cutaneous microbial infection and disease. to date, however, the influence of sloughing on the susceptibility of amphibians to infection and disease has been largely overlooked. to investigate the potential for sloughing to regulate topical microbial loads, the abundance of cultivable cutaneous bacteria and fungi in the cane toad rhinella marina were co ...201223324420
there is no evidence for a temporal link between pathogen arrival and frog extinctions in north-eastern australia.pathogen spread can cause population declines and even species extinctions. nonetheless, in the absence of tailored monitoring schemes, documenting pathogen spread can be difficult. in the case of worldwide amphibian declines the best present understanding is that the chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) has recently spread, causing amphibian declines and extinction in the process. however, good evidence demonstrating pathogen arrival followed by amphibian decline is rare, and anal ...201223300687
laboratory and field exposure of two species of juvenile amphibians to a glyphosate-based herbicide and batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.herbicides are commonly used in agriculture and silviculture to reduce interspecific competition among plants and thereby enhance crop growth, quality, and volume. internationally, formulations of glyphosate-based herbicides are the most widely used herbicides in both these sectors. a large amount of work has focused on the effects of these herbicides on amphibians. several laboratory and mesocosm studies have demonstrated that various formulations of glyphosate herbicides can be acutely toxic t ...201223262329
partitioning the net effect of host diversity on an emerging amphibian pathogen.the 'dilution effect' (de) hypothesis predicts that diverse host communities will show reduced disease. the underlying causes of pathogen dilution are complex, because they involve non-additive (driven by host interactions and differential habitat use) and additive (controlled by host species composition) mechanisms. here, we used measures of complementarity and selection traditionally employed in the field of biodiversity-ecosystem function (bef) to quantify the net effect of host diversity on ...201425297867
inhibition of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis caused by bacteria isolated from the skin of boreal toads, anaxyrus (bufo) boreas boreas, from grand teton national park, wyoming, usa.the chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is a significant cause of the worldwide decline in amphibian populations; however, various amphibian species are capable of coexisting with b. dendrobatidis. among them are boreal toads (anaxyrus (bufo) boreas boreas) located in grand teton national park (gtnp) in wyoming, usa. the purpose of this study was to identify cultivable bacterial isolates from the skin microbiota of boreal toads from gtnp and determine if they were capable of inhibiting ...201424826077
surviving chytridiomycosis: differential anti-batrachochytrium dendrobatidis activity in bacterial isolates from three lowland species of atelopus.in the neotropics, almost every species of the stream-dwelling harlequin toads (genus atelopus) have experienced catastrophic declines. the persistence of lowland species of atelopus could be explained by the lower growth rate of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) at temperatures above 25 °c. we tested the complementary hypothesis that the toads' skin bacterial microbiota acts as a protective barrier against the pathogen, perhaps delaying or impeding the symptomatic phase of chytridiomycosis. w ...201222970314
interactions between amphibians' symbiotic bacteria cause the production of emergent anti-fungal metabolites.amphibians possess beneficial skin bacteria that protect against the disease chytridiomycosis by producing secondary metabolites that inhibit the pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd). metabolite production may be a mechanism of competition between bacterial species that results in host protection as a by-product. we expect that some co-cultures of bacterial species or strains will result in greater bd inhibition than mono-cultures. to test this, we cultured four bacterial isolates (bacil ...201425191317
cool temperatures reduce antifungal activity of symbiotic bacteria of threatened amphibians--implications for disease management and patterns of decline.chytridiomycosis, caused by the fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), is a widespread disease of amphibians responsible for population declines and extinctions. some bacteria from amphibians' skins produce antimicrobial substances active against bd. supplementing populations of these cutaneous antifungal bacteria might help manage chytridiomycosis in wild amphibians. however, the activity of protective bacteria may depend upon environmental conditions. biocontrol of bd in nature thus requi ...201424941262
amphibian chytridiomycosis: a review with focus on fungus-host interactions.amphibian declines and extinctions are emblematic for the current sixth mass extinction event. infectious drivers of these declines include the recently emerged fungal pathogens batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (chytridiomycota). the skin disease caused by these fungi is named chytridiomycosis and affects the vital function of amphibian skin. not all amphibians respond equally to infection and host responses might range from resistant, over tolerant to suscept ...201526607488
microbial community dynamics and effect of environmental microbial reservoirs on red-backed salamanders (plethodon cinereus).beneficial cutaneous bacteria on amphibians can protect against the lethal disease chytridiomycosis, which has devastated many amphibian species and is caused by the fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. we describe the diversity of bacteria on red-backed salamanders (plethodon cinereus) in the wild and the stability of these communities through time in captivity using culture-independent illumina 16s rrna gene sequencing. after field sampling, salamanders were housed with soil from the field o ...201324335825
the search for violacein-producing microbes to combat batrachochytrium dendrobatidis: a collaborative research project between secondary school and college research students.in this citizen science-aided, college laboratory-based microbiology research project, secondary school students collaborate with college research students on an investigation centered around bacterial species in the local watershed. this study specifically investigated the prevalence of violacein-producing bacterial isolates, as violacein has been demonstrated as a potential bioremediation treatment for outbreaks of the worldwide invasive chytrid, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd). the impact ...201627047594
disentangling host, pathogen, and environmental determinants of a recently emerged wildlife disease: lessons from the first 15 years of amphibian chytridiomycosis research.the amphibian fungal disease chytridiomycosis, which affects species across all continents, recently emerged as one of the greatest threats to biodiversity. yet, many aspects of the basic biology and epidemiology of the pathogen, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), are still unknown, such as when and from where did bd emerge and what is its true ecological niche? here, we review the ecology and evolution of bd in the americas and highlight controversies that make this disease so enigmatic. we e ...201526445660
selected emerging diseases of amphibia.this review summarizes the most recent updates on emerging infectious diseases of amphibia. a brief summary of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis history, epidemiology, pathogenesis, life cycle, diagnosis, treatment, and biosecurity is provided. ambystoma tigrinum virus, common midwife toad virus, frog virus 3, rana grylio virus, rana catesbeiana ranavirus, mahaffey road virus, rana esculenta virus, bohle iridovirus, and tiger frog virus ranaviruses are extensively reviewed. emerging bacterial patho ...201323642863
antifungal efficacy of f10sc veterinary disinfectant against batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.the infectious disease chytridiomycosis, which is caused by the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, has been identified as one of the most important drivers of amphibian declines and extinction. in vitro b. dendrobatidis is susceptible to a range of disinfectants, but not all have been tested on animals and some that have been proven effective have harmful side effects on the surrounding environment or the animals being treated. we tested the efficacy of f10sc veterinary disinfectant ...201728371902
unlocking the story in the swab: a new genotyping assay for the amphibian chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.one of the most devastating emerging pathogens of wildlife is the chytrid fungus, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), which affects hundreds of amphibian species around the world. genomic data from pure bd cultures has advanced our understanding of bd phylogenetics, genomic architecture, and mechanisms of virulence. however pure cultures are laborious to obtain and whole genome sequencing is comparatively expensive, so relatively few isolates have been genetically characterized. thus we still k ...201728371384
evidence of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection in amphibians from serbian lowlands.we investigated presence of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in the republic of serbia. seven out of 88 samples (8%) tested positive, all belonging to the frog genus pelophylax. two positive sites were located directly on the danube river. the danube river could be an important disease corridor, and distribution of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis along this river should be further explored.201728368677
complex interactive effects of water mold, herbicide, and the fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis on pacific treefrog hyliola regilla hosts.infectious diseases pose a serious threat to global biodiversity. however, their ecological impacts are not independent of environmental conditions. for example, the pathogenic fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), which has contributed to population declines and extinctions in many amphibian species, interacts with several environmental factors to influence its hosts, but potential interactions with other pathogens and environmental contaminants are understudied. we examined the combined ...201728322209
prevalence and pathogen load estimates for the fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis are impacted by its dna copy number variation.the ribosomal gene complex is a multi-copy region that is widely used for phylogenetic analyses of organisms from all 3 domains of life. in fungi, the copy number of the internal transcribed spacer (its) is used to detect abundance of pathogens causing diseases such as chytridiomycosis in amphibians and white nose syndrome in bats. chytridiomycosis is caused by the fungi batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) and b. salamandrivorans (bsal), and is responsible for declines and extinctions of amphibi ...201728322208
characterization of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis inhibiting bacteria from amphibian populations in costa rica.global amphibian declines and extinction events are occurring at an unprecedented rate. while several factors are responsible for declines and extinction, the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) has been cited as a major constituent in these events. while the effects of this chytrid fungus have been shown to cause broad scale population declines and extinctions, certain individuals and relict populations have shown resistance. this resistance has been attributed in part to the cu ...201728293222
batrachochytrium salamandrivorans is the predominant chytrid fungus in vietnamese salamanders.the amphibian chytrid fungi, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) and b. salamandrivorans (bsal), pose a major threat to amphibian biodiversity. recent evidence suggests southeast asia as a potential cradle for both fungi, which likely resulted in widespread host-pathogen co-existence. we sampled 583 salamanders from 8 species across vietnam in 55 locations for bsal and bd, determined scaled mass index as a proxy for fitness and collected environmental data. bsal was found within 14 of the 55 hab ...201728287614
effects of corticosterone on infection and disease in salamanders exposed to the amphibian fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.although it is well established that glucocorticoid hormones (gcs) alter immune function and disease resistance in humans and laboratory animal models, fewer studies have linked elevated gcs to altered immune function and disease resistance in wild animals. the chytrid fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) infects amphibians and can cause the disease chytridiomycosis, which is responsible for worldwide amphibian declines. it is hypothesized that long-term exposure to environmental ...201728262636
long-term monitoring of tropical alpine habitat change, andean anurans, and chytrid fungus in the cordillera vilcanota, peru: results from a decade of study.the cordillera vilcanota in southern peru is the second largest glacierized range in the tropics and home to one of the largest high-alpine lakes, sibinacocha (4,860 m). here, telmatobius marmoratus (marbled water frog), rhinella spinulosa (andean toad), and pleurodema marmoratum (marbled four-eyed frog) have expanded their range vertically within the past century to inhabit newly formed ponds created by ongoing deglaciation. these anuran populations, geographically among the highest (5,200-5,40 ...201728261462
impact of asynchronous emergence of two lethal pathogens on amphibian assemblages.emerging diseases have been increasingly associated with population declines, with co-infections exhibiting many types of interactions. the chytrid fungus (batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) and ranaviruses have extraordinarily broad host ranges, however co-infection dynamics have been largely overlooked. we investigated the pattern of co-occurrence of these two pathogens in an amphibian assemblage in serra da estrela (portugal). the detection of chytridiomycosis in portugal was linked to populatio ...201728240267
integral projection models for host-parasite systems with an application to amphibian chytrid fungus.host parasite models are typically constructed under either a microparasite or macroparasite paradigm. however, this has long been recognized as a false dichotomy because many infectious disease agents, including most fungal pathogens, have attributes of both microparasites and macroparasites.we illustrate how integral projection models (ipm)s provide a novel, elegant modeling framework to represent both types of pathogens. we build a simple host-parasite ipm that tracks both the number of susce ...201628239442
antifungal bacteria on woodland salamander skin exhibit high taxonomic diversity and geographic variability.diverse bacteria inhabit amphibian skin, some of which inhibit growth of the fungal pathogen, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd). yet, there has been no systematic survey of anti-bd bacteria across localities, species and elevations. this is important given geographic and taxonomic variation in amphibian susceptibility to bd. our sites were within the appalachian mountains where previous sampling indicated low bd prevalence. we determined the number and identity of anti-bd bacteria on 61 pletho ...201728213545
historical amphibian declines and extinctions in brazil linked to chytridiomycosis.the recent increase in emerging fungal diseases is causing unprecedented threats to biodiversity. the origin of spread of the frog-killing fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) is a matter of continued debate. to date, the historical amphibian declines in brazil could not be attributed to chytridiomycosis; the high diversity of hosts coupled with the presence of several bd lineages predating the reported declines raised the hypothesis that a hypervirulent bd genotype spread from brazil to o ...201728179514
no evidence for effects of infection with the amphibian chytrid fungus on populations of yellow-bellied toads.the parasitic chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) can cause the lethal disease chytridiomycosis in amphibians and therefore may play a role in population declines. the yellow-bellied toad bombina variegata suffered strong declines throughout western and northwestern parts of its range and is therefore listed as highly endangered for germany and the federal state of hesse. whether chytridiomycosis may play a role in the observed local declines of this strictly protected anuran spec ...201728177293
the thermal mismatch hypothesis explains host susceptibility to an emerging infectious disease.parasites typically have broader thermal limits than hosts, so large performance gaps between pathogens and their cold- and warm-adapted hosts should occur at relatively warm and cold temperatures, respectively. we tested this thermal mismatch hypothesis by quantifying the temperature-dependent susceptibility of cold- and warm-adapted amphibian species to the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) using laboratory experiments and field prevalence estimates from 15 410 individuals in ...201728111904
variation in metabolite profiles of amphibian skin bacterial communities across elevations in the neotropics.both the structure and function of host-associated microbial communities are potentially impacted by environmental conditions, just as the outcomes of many free-living species interactions are context-dependent. many amphibian populations have declined around the globe due to the fungal skin pathogen, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), but enivronmental conditions may influence disease dynamics. for instance, in panamá, the most severe bd outbreaks have occurred at high elevation sites. some a ...201728105509
linking ecology and epidemiology to understand predictors of multi-host responses to an emerging pathogen, the amphibian chytrid fungus.variation in host responses to pathogens can have cascading effects on populations and communities when some individuals or groups of individuals display disproportionate vulnerability to infection or differ in their competence to transmit infection. the fungal pathogen, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) has been detected in almost 700 different amphibian species and is implicated in numerous global amphibian population declines. identifying key hosts in the amphibian-bd system-those who are a ...201728095428
detection of the amphibian chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in museum specimens of andean aquatic birds: implications for pathogen dispersal.the occurrence of the pathogenic chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) in the feet of live waterfowl has been documented, but the potential role of birds as dispersers has not been studied. we report the presence of bd in the feet of preserved aquatic birds in the bolivian high andes during the time of drastic amphibian declines in the country. we sampled 48 aquatic birds from the bolivian andes that were preserved in museum collections. birds were sampled for the presence of bd dna ...201728094607
climate forcing of an emerging pathogenic fungus across a montane multi-host community.changes in the timings of seasonality as a result of anthropogenic climate change are predicted to occur over the coming decades. while this is expected to have widespread impacts on the dynamics of infectious disease through environmental forcing, empirical data are lacking. here, we investigated whether seasonality, specifically the timing of spring ice-thaw, affected susceptibility to infection by the emerging pathogenic fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) across a montane community of ...201628080980
greater species richness of bacterial skin symbionts better suppresses the amphibian fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.the symbiotic microbes that grow in and on many organisms can play important roles in protecting their hosts from pathogen infection. while species diversity has been shown to influence community function in many other natural systems, the question of how species diversity of host-associated symbiotic microbes contributes to pathogen resistance is just beginning to be explored. understanding diversity effects on pathogen resistance could be particularly helpful in combating the fungal pathogen b ...201728064360
effects of amphibian phylogeny, climate and human impact on the occurrence of the amphibian-killing chytrid fungus.chytridiomycosis, due to the fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), has been associated with the alarming decline and extinction crisis of amphibians worldwide. because conservation programs are implemented locally, it is essential to understand how the complex interactions among host species, climate and human activities contribute to bd occurrence at regional scales. using weighted phylogenetic regressions and model selection, we investigated geographic patterns of bd occurrence along a l ...201728055125
disassembly of a tadpole community by a multi-host fungal pathogen with limited evidence of recovery.emerging infectious diseases can cause host community disassembly, but the mechanisms driving the order of species declines and extirpations following a disease outbreak are unclear. we documented the community disassembly of a neotropical tadpole community during a chytridiomycosis outbreak, triggered by the generalist fungal pathogen, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd). within the first 11 months of bd arrival, tadpole density and occupancy rapidly declined. species rarity, in terms of tadpol ...201728052493
characterization of mhc class ia in the endangered southern corroboree frog.southern corroboree frogs (pseudophryne corroboree) have declined to near extinction in the wild after the emergence of the amphibian chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in southeastern australia in the 1980s. a major captive breeding and reintroduction program is underway to preserve this iconic species, but improving resistance to b. dendrobatidis would help the wild population to be self-sustaining. using 3' and 5' rapid amplification of complementary dna ends (race), we characteriz ...201728028562
effect of simultaneous amphibian exposure to pesticides and an emerging fungal pathogen, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.amphibian declines have been linked to numerous factors, including pesticide use and the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd). moreover, research has suggested a link between amphibian sensitivity to bd and pesticide exposure. we simultaneously exposed postmetamorphic american toads (anaxyrus americanus), western toads (a. boreas), spring peepers (pseudacris crucifer), pacific treefrogs (p. regilla), leopard frogs (lithobates pipiens), and cascades frogs (rana cascadae) to a facto ...201728001054
tracking the amphibian pathogens batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and batrachochytrium salamandrivorans using a highly specific monoclonal antibody and lateral-flow technology.the fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) causes chytridiomycosis, a lethal epizootic disease of amphibians. rapid identification of the pathogen and biosecurity is essential to prevent its spread, but current laboratory-based tests are time-consuming and require specialist equipment. here, we describe the generation of an igm monoclonal antibody (mab), 5c4, specific to bd as well as the related salamander and newt pathogen batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (bsal). the mab, which binds to a ...201727995742
recent emergence of a chytrid fungal pathogen in california cascades frogs (rana cascadae).the pathogenic fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) has been associated with global amphibian declines, but it is often difficult to discern the relative importance of bd as a causal agent in declines that have already occurred. retrospective analyses of museum specimens have allowed researchers to associate the timing of bd arrival with the timing of past amphibian declines. cascades frogs (rana cascadae) have experienced dramatic declines in northern california, but it is not clear wheth ...201727957606
environmental fluctuations and host skin bacteria shift survival advantage between frogs and their fungal pathogen.fluctuating environments can modulate host-pathogen interactions by providing a temporary advantage to one of the interacting organisms. however, we know very little about how environmental conditions facilitate beneficial interactions between hosts and their microbial communities, resulting in individual persistence with a particular pathogen. here, we experimentally infected eleutherodactylus coqui frogs with the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) under environmental condition ...201727935596
what is your diagnosis? skin scraping from a hellbender. 201727870070
first in vivo batrachochytrium dendrobatidis transcriptomes reveal mechanisms of host exploitation, host-specific gene expression, and expressed genotype shifts.for generalist pathogens, host species represent distinct selective environments, providing unique challenges for resource acquisition and defense from host immunity, potentially resulting in host-dependent differences in pathogen fitness. gene expression modulation should be advantageous, responding optimally to a given host and mitigating the costs of generalism. batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), a fungal pathogen of amphibians, shows variability in pathogenicity among isolates, and within- ...201727856699
jumping into a trap: high prevalence of chytrid fungus in the preferred microhabitats of a bromeliad-specialist frog.the chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) has been identified as a major threat to several amphibian populations in tropical forests. amphibians that inhabit the phytotelmata (water tanks) of bromeliads may be especially at risk of bd infection since the humid, environmentally buffered microhabitat that they prefer might also be favorable for bd persistence on the host. to test this hypothesis, we sampled adults and tadpoles of the bromeligenous anuran phyllodytes edelmoi (endemic t ...201627786160
does physiological response to disease incur cost to reproductive ecology in a sexually dichromatic amphibian species?it is well known that the disease chytridiomycosis, caused by the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) has contributed to amphibian declines worldwide. the impact of bd varies, with some species being more susceptible to infection than others. recent evidence has shown that bd can have sub-lethal effects, whereby increases in stress hormones have been associated with infection. could this increased stress response, which is a physiological adaptation that provides an increased res ...201727712921
high adult mortality in disease-challenged frog populations increases vulnerability to drought.pathogen emergence can drive major changes in host population demography, with implications for population dynamics and sensitivity to environmental fluctuations. the amphibian disease chytridiomycosis, caused by infection with the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), is implicated in the severe decline of over 200 amphibian species. in species that have declined but not become extinct, bd persists and can cause substantial ongoing mortality. high rates of mortality associated wi ...201627380945
comparative study of host response to chytridiomycosis in a susceptible and a resistant toad species.in the past century, recently emerged infectious diseases have become major drivers of species decline and extinction. the fungal disease chytridiomycosis has devastated many amphibian populations and exacerbated the amphibian conservation crisis. biologists are beginning to understand what host traits contribute to disease susceptibility, but more work is needed to determine why some species succumb to chytridiomycosis while others do not. we conducted an integrative laboratory experiment to ex ...201627696594
survey of pathogenic chytrid fungi (batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and b. salamandrivorans) in salamanders from three mountain ranges in europe and the americas.batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (bsal) is a virulent fungal pathogen that infects salamanders. it is implicated in the recent collapse of several populations of fire salamanders in europe. this pathogen seems much like that of its sister species, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), the agent responsible for anuran extinctions and extirpations worldwide, and is considered to be an emerging global threat to salamander communities. bsal thrives at temperatures found in many mountainous regions r ...201627709310
exposure to corticosterone affects host resistance, but not tolerance, to an emerging fungal pathogen.host responses to pathogens include defenses that reduce infection burden (i.e., resistance) and traits that reduce the fitness consequences of an infection (i.e., tolerance). resistance and tolerance are affected by an organism's physiological status. corticosterone ("cort") is a hormone that is associated with the regulation of many physiological processes, including metabolism and reproduction. because of its role in the stress response, cort is also considered the primary vertebrate stress h ...201727690360
xenopus laevis and emerging amphibian pathogens in chile.amphibians face an extinction crisis with no precedence. two emerging infectious diseases, ranaviral disease caused by viruses within the genus ranavirus and chytridiomycosis due to batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), have been linked with amphibian mass mortalities and population declines in many regions of the globe. the african clawed frog (xenopus laevis) has been indicated as a vector for the spread of these pathogens. since the 1970s, this species has been invasive in central chile. we co ...201627682604
Refresh
firstprev
1234567
nextlast
Displaying items 201 - 300 of 699