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current status of taxonomy of pathogenic yeasts.fungal taxonomy has been reconstructed on the basis of genome information, and new nomenclatural rules have been enacted from 2013. it has been proposed that cryptococcus neoformans and cryptococcus gattii be reclassified into two species (c. neoformans and cryptococcus deneoformans) and five species (c. gattii, cryptococcus bacillisporus, cryptococcus deuterogattii, cryptococcus tetragattii, and cryptococcus decagattii), respectively. the genus trichosporon has been reclassified into five gener ...201728855483
molecular epidemiology and in vitro antifungal susceptibility testing of 108 clinical cryptococcus neoformans sensu lato and cryptococcus gattii sensu lato isolates from denmark.cryptococcosis is mainly caused by members of the cryptococcus gattii/cryptococcus neoformans species complexes. here, we report the molecular characterisation and in vitro antifungal susceptibility of danish clinical cryptococcal isolates. species, genotype, serotype and mating type were determined by amplified fragment length polymorphism (aflp) fingerprinting and qpcr. eucast e.def 7.2 mics were determined for amphotericin b, flucytosine, fluconazole, voriconazole and isavuconazole. most isol ...201627061834
mlst and whole-genome-based population analysis of cryptococcus gattii vgiii links clinical, veterinary and environmental strains, and reveals divergent serotype specific sub-populations and distant ancestors.the emerging pathogen cryptococcus gattii causes life-threatening disease in immunocompetent and immunocompromised hosts. of the four major molecular types (vgi-vgiv), the molecular type vgiii has recently emerged as cause of disease in otherwise healthy individuals, prompting a need to investigate its population genetic structure to understand if there are potential genotype-dependent characteristics in its epidemiology, environmental niche(s), host range and clinical features of disease. multi ...201627494185
cryptococcus gattii vgiii isolates causing infections in hiv/aids patients in southern california: identification of the local environmental source as arboreal.ongoing cryptococcus gattii outbreaks in the western united states and canada illustrate the impact of environmental reservoirs and both clonal and recombining propagation in driving emergence and expansion of microbial pathogens. c. gattii comprises four distinct molecular types: vgi, vgii, vgiii, and vgiv, with no evidence of nuclear genetic exchange, indicating these represent distinct species. c. gattii vgii isolates are causing the pacific northwest outbreak, whereas vgiii isolates frequent ...201425144534
temperate climate niche for cryptococcus gattii in northern europe.to the editor: cryptococcus gattii was considered to be geographically restricted to countries with tropical and subtropical climates until 1999, when an outbreak of cryptococcosis in humans and animals occurred in the temperate climate of vancouver island, british columbia, canada (1). montagna et al. reported the first environmental c. gattii in europe from the mediterranean region of italy; these authors isolated it from 11 (4.3%) of 255 samples of plant detritus of eucalyptus camaldulensis t ...201222261398
capsules from pathogenic and non-pathogenic cryptococcus spp. manifest significant differences in structure and ability to protect against phagocytic cells.capsule production is common among bacterial species, but relatively rare in eukaryotic microorganisms. members of the fungal cryptococcus genus are known to produce capsules, which are major determinants of virulence in the highly pathogenic species cryptococcus neoformans and cryptococcus gattii. although the lack of virulence of many species of the cryptococcus genus can be explained solely by the lack of mammalian thermotolerance, it is uncertain whether the capsules from these organisms are ...201222253734
Cryptococcus gattii Infection in Healthy Hosts: A Sentinel for Subclinical Immunodeficiency? 201222075791
cryptococcus gattii: a resurgent fungal pathogen.cryptococcus gattii and cryptococcus neoformans are causal agents of cryptococcosis, which manifests as pneumonia and meningitis. c. gattii has recently received widespread attention owing to outbreaks in british columbia, canada and the us pacific northwest. the biology of this tree-dwelling yeast is relatively unexplored, and there are few clues about how it causes infections in humans and animals. in this review, we summarize recent discoveries about c. gattii genetics and its ecological nich ...201121880492
taxonomic analysis of cryptococcus species complex strain s8012 revealed cryptococcus gattii with high heterogeneity on the genetics.initially, cryptococcus (c.) neoformans was previously divided into two varieties comprising c. neoformans var. neoformans and c. neoformans var. gattii. currently, taxonomic studies defined c. neoformans as c. species complex, which contains c. neoformans var. neoformans (serotype d), the hybrid isolates (serotype ad), c. neoformans var. grubii (serotype a) and c. gattii (serotypes b and c). however, liao and his team once isolated a unique c. gattii isolate, namely strain s8012 with unique phe ...201122088469
a decade of experience: cryptococcus gattii in british columbia.it has been over a decade since cryptococcus gattii was first recognized as the causative organism of an outbreak of cryptococcosis on vancouver island, british columbia. a number of novel observations have been associated with the study of this emergent pathogen. a novel genotype of c. gattii, vgiia was described as the major genotype associated with clinical disease. minor genotypes, vgiib and vgi, are also responsible for disease in british columbians, in both human and animal populations. th ...201121960040
first environmental isolation of cryptococcus gattii serotype b, from cúcuta, colombia.in cúcuta, cryptococcus gattii serotype b is commonly recovered from immunocompetent patients with cryptococcosis, but it has not been recovered from the environment in spite of its high incidence which is 77% out of reported cases.201122159490
clinical, epidemiological and outcome features of patients with cryptococcosis in uberaba, minas gerais, brazil.nearly one million of cryptococcosis cases occur yearly around the world, involving mainly hiv-infected patients who are not receiving antiretroviral therapy (art) or present poor adherence. this study aims to evaluate epidemiological, clinical and outcome aspects of patients with cryptococcosis from 1998-2010. patients were prospectively recruited, and their medical and laboratory records were reviewed. a total of 131 cases were included, and of these, 119 (90.83%) had aids, 4 received a renal ...201122130645
identification of novel hybrids between cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii vni and cryptococcus gattii vgii.cryptococcus neoformans and cryptococcus gattii are pathogenic yeasts causing meningoencephalitis in immunocompromised and immunocompetent hosts. the fungus is typically haploid, and sexual reproduction occurs normally between individuals with opposite mating types, α and a. c. neoformans var. grubii (serotype a) is comprised of molecular types vni, vnii, and vnb, and c. neoformans var. neoformans (serotype d) contains the molecular type vniv. additional ...201122081254
Environmental prevalence of Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii in India: an update.An overview of work done to-date in India on environmental prevalence, population structure, seasonal variations and antifungal susceptibility of Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii is presented. The primary ecologic niche of both pathogens is decayed wood in trunk hollows of a wide spectrum of host trees, representing 18 species. Overall, C. neoformans showed a higher environmental prevalence than that of C. gattii which was not found in the avian habitats. Apart from their arboreal ...201122133016
coinfection with cryptococcus gattii and mycobacterium tuberculosis in an otherwise healthy 18-year-old woman.a case of cryptococcus gattii (pulmonary and central nervous system) and mycobacterium tuberculosis (pulmonary) coinfection in an otherwise healthy young woman is reported. the patient presented with a two-month history of dry cough. she had an unremarkable medical history. both tuberculosis and cryptococcosis were diagnosed following bronchoscopy, and a subsequent lumbar puncture revealed c gattii in the cerebrospinal fluid. there is evidence that both m tuberculosis and c gattii may have suppr ...201122059185
Proteomic Profiling of the Influence of Iron Availability on Cryptococcus gattii.Iron is essential and ubiquitous in living organisms. The competition for this micronutrient between the host and its pathogens has been related to disease establishment. Cryptococcus gattii is an encapsulated yeast that causes cryptococcosis mainly in immunocompetent individuals. In this study, we analyzed the proteomic profile of the C. gattii R265 Vancouver Island isolate under iron-depleted and -repleted conditions by multidimensional protein identification technology (MudPIT) and by 2D-GE. ...201121970549
Emergence of Cryptococcus gattii--Pacific Northwest, 2004-2010. 201121884409
Cryptococcus gattii Infection in an Immunocompetent Patient from Southern Italy.Cryptococcus gattii has becoming more prevalent in temperate climate zones, during the past decades. We describe a C. gattii serotype B infection in an immunocompetent Italian patient with sclerosing cholangitis. The patient traveled once to Eastern Canada and otherwise no other countries than Italy were visited. Molecular analysis revealed that the C. gattii isolate belong to genotype AFLP4/VGI and has mating-type a which is the most common genotype in the Mediterranean environment. The C. gatt ...201122057831
a diverse population of cryptococcus gattii molecular type vgiii in southern californian hiv/aids patients.cryptococcus gattii infections in southern california have been reported in patients with hiv/aids. in this study, we examined the molecular epidemiology, population structure, and virulence attributes of isolates collected from hiv/aids patients in los angeles county, california. we show that these isolates consist almost exclusively of vgiii molecular type, in contrast to the vgii molecular type isolates causing the north american pacific northwest outbreak. the global vgiii population structu ...201121909264
Cryptococcus gattii: the tip of the iceberg. 201122016500
pulmonary cryptococcosis.cryptococcosis is an invasive fungal infection (ifi), caused predominantly by cryptococcus neoformans or cryptococcus gattii, that affects both immunocompromised (ic) and non-ic patients. although the most serious disease manifestation is meningoencephalitis, cryptococcal pneumonia is underdiagnosed and may disseminate to the central nervous system (cns) and other sites depending upon host defenses and administration of appropriate antifungal therapy. the clinical presentation of pulmonary crypt ...201122167400
cryptococcus gattii in the united states: clinical aspects of infection with an emerging pathogen.cryptococcus gattii (cg) has caused increasing infections in the us pacific northwest (pnw) since 2004. we describe this outbreak and compare clinical aspects of infection in the united states among patients infected with different cg genotypes.201122016503
seasonal variations in the prevalence of cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii and cryptococcus gattii in decayed wood inside trunk hollows of diverse tree species in north-western india: a retrospective study.this study presents a 7-year retrospective analysis of seasonal variations in the prevalence of cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii and cryptococcus gattii in decayed wood inside trunk hollows of 518 trees belonging to 20 species in north-western india during 2000-2007. of the 1,439 wood samples investigated, 406 (28.2%) were found to be positive for the cryptococcus neoformans species complex which included 247 samples from which c. neoformans var. grubii was recovered and 171 which yielded c. ...201120854229
update on emerging infections: news from the centers for disease control and prevention. cryptococcus gattii. 201121183085
first environmental isolations of cryptococcus neoformans and cryptococcus gattii in tunisia and review of published studies on environmental isolations in africa.cryptococcus neoformans and cryptococcus gattii are pathogenic yeasts that cause cryptococcosis. these fungi were commonly associated with pigeon droppings and plant materials. the habitat of these pathogens has not been yet studied in tunisia, although the ecology of these yeasts must be elucidated in order to establish surveillance programs and to prevent infections. the aim of this survey was to recover c. neoformans and c. gattii environmental isolates from pigeon droppings and plant materia ...201121197581
update on emerging infections: news from the centers for disease control and prevention. emergence of cryptococcus gattii--pacific northwest, 2004-2010. 201121222300
cryptococcosis: update and emergence of cryptococcus gattii.cryptococcosis is a fungal disease that occurs throughout the world. recent reclassification of cryptococcus species along with a change in the distribution pattern has prompted reevaluation of the organism and the diseases caused by this pathogen. this review highlights the emergence of cryptococcus gattii as a primary pathogen in north america and summarizes our current understanding of the disease in mammals and birds.201121244455
process analysis of variables for standardization of antifungal susceptibility testing of nonfermentative yeasts.nonfermentative yeasts, such as cryptococcus spp., have emerged as fungal pathogens during the last few years. however, standard methods to measure their antifungal susceptibility (antifungal susceptibility testing [ast]) are not completely reliable due to the impaired growth of these yeasts in standard media. in this work, we have compared the growth kinetics and the antifungal susceptibilities of representative species of nonfermentative yeasts such as cryptococcus neoformans, cryptococcus gat ...201121245438
cryptococcus gattii virulence composite: candidate genes revealed by microarray analysis of high and less virulent vancouver island outbreak strains.human and animal cryptococcosis due to an unusual molecular type of cryptococcus gattii (vgii) emerged recently on vancouver island, canada. unlike c. neoformans, c. gattii causes disease mainly in immunocompetent hosts, despite producing a similar suite of virulence determinants. to investigate a potential relationship between the regulation of expression of a virulence gene composite and virulence, we took advantage of two subtypes of vgii (a and b), one highly virulent (r265) and one less vir ...201121249145
environmental isolation of cryptococcus gattii serotype b, vgi/matα strains in southern italy.until recently, cryptococcus gattii was believed to be endemic in tropical and subtropical regions. to date, it has unexpectedly emerged as primary pathogen in temperate climate indicating that it has evolved and adapted to new environmental conditions including those existing in the mediterranean area. earlier attempts to isolate c. gattii from our environment were unsuccessful but this time, 18 years after the last environmental screening for c. neoformans, we isolated c. gattii from eucalyptu ...201121253853
risk factors for cryptococcus gattii infection, british columbia, canada.to determine whether particular environmental, medical, or behavioral risk factors existed among cryptcoccus gattii-infected persons compared with the general population, we conducted a sex-matched case-control study on a subset of case-patients in british columbia (1999-2001). exposures and underlying medical conditions among all case-patients (1999-2007) were also compared with results of provincial population-based surveys and studies. in case-control analyses, oral steroids (matched odds rat ...201121291588
maternal-fetal transmission of cryptococcus gattii in harbor porpoise. 201121291613
genome variation in cryptococcus gattii, an emerging pathogen of immunocompetent hosts.cryptococcus gattii recently emerged as the causative agent of cryptococcosis in healthy individuals in western north america, despite previous characterization of the fungus as a pathogen in tropical or subtropical regions. as a foundation to study the genetics of virulence in this pathogen, we sequenced the genomes of a strain (wm276) representing the predominant global molecular type (vgi) and a clinical strain (r265) of the major genotype (vgiia) causing disease in north america. we compared ...201121304167
expanding fungal pathogenesis: cryptococcus breaks out of the opportunistic box.cryptococcus neoformans is generally considered to be an opportunistic fungal pathogen because of its tendency to infect immunocompromised individuals, particularly those infected with hiv. however, this view has been challenged by the recent discovery of specialized interactions between the fungus and its mammalian hosts, and by the emergence of the related species cryptococcus gattii as a primary pathogen of immunocompetent populations. in this review, we highlight features of cryptococcal pat ...201121326274
cryptococcosis--clinical advice on an emerging global concern. 201121338939
feline cryptococcosis: impact of current research on clinical management.disease summary: cryptococcosis, principally caused by cryptococcus neoformans and cryptococcus gattii, is the most common systemic mycosis of cats worldwide. cats may be infected following inhalation of spores from the environment, with the nasal cavity suspected as being the initial site of colonization and subsequent infection. other sites of infection in cats are the skin, lungs, lymph nodes, central nervous system (cns), eyes and, occasionally, periarticular connective tissue. cryptococcosi ...201121338941
role of histology in the diagnosis of infectious causes of granulomatous lung disease.histologic examination and microbiologic cultures are the gold standards for the diagnosis of infectious granulomatous lung diseases. although biopsies require invasive procedures, they often yield information that cannot be obtained by other methods. the aims of this article are to outline the major infections that cause granulomatous inflammation in the lung and to familiarize clinicians with the utility of histologic examination in their diagnosis.201121346573
surveillance for cryptococcus gattii in horses of vancouver island, british columbia, canada.in the last decade cryptococcus gattii has emerged as an important human and animal pathogen in southwestern british columbia (bc), canada. when the disease initially emerged it was identified in humans and multiple animal species on the east coast of vancouver island. from fall 2003 until summer 2004, active surveillance was initiated to look for horses exposed to or infected with the organism by performing nasal cultures and serum antigen testing in horses residing within 10 km of known areas ...201121375433
clonality and +¦-a recombination in the australian cryptococcus gattii vgii population--an emerging outbreak in australia.cryptococcus gattii is a basidiomycetous yeast that causes life-threatening disease in humans and animals. within c. gattii, four molecular types are recognized (vgi to vgiv). the australian vgii population has been in the spotlight since 2005, when it was suggested as the possible origin for the ongoing outbreak at vancouver island (british columbia, canada), with same-sex mating being suggested as the driving force behind the emergence of this outbreak, and is nowadays hypothesized as a widesp ...201121383989
in vitro antifungal susceptibility profiles and genotypes of 308 clinical and environmental isolates of cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii and cryptococcus gattii serotype b from north-western india.cryptococcus neoformans and cryptococcus gattii are aetiological agents of cryptococcosis, a major opportunistic systemic mycosis of increasing global importance. this study reports the antifungal susceptibility profiles of clinical and environmental isolates of c. neoformans var. grubii, genotype vni/aflp1 (nôçè=ôçè246), and c. gattii serotype b, genotype vgi/aflp4 (nôçè=ôçè62), originating from patients and environmental sources in north-western india. all of the c. neoformans var. grubii and ...201121393452
cryptococcus gattii infection in a spanish pet ferret (mustela putorius furo) and asymptomatic carriage in ferrets and humans from its environment.a domestic ferret (mustela putorius furo) was presented with lymphadenopathy and acute bilateral blindness. cytologic evaluation and biopsy of an affected lymph node revealed pyogranulomatous lymphadenitis with intralesional yeast consistent with cryptococcus sp. subsequent studies demonstrated cryptococcus gattii serotype b vgi/aflp4 as the causative agent. the ferret was treated with fluconazole and prednisone. after one month of therapy, an improvement of the clinical symptoms was detected al ...201121395475
exposure to infectious agents in dogs in remote coastal british columbia: possible sentinels of diseases in wildlife and humans.ranked among the top threats to conservation worldwide, infectious disease is of particular concern for wild canids because domestic dogs (canis familiaris) may serve as sources and reservoirs of infection. on british columbia's largely undeveloped but rapidly changing central and north coasts, little is known about diseases in wolves (canis lupus) or other wildlife. however, several threats exist for transfer of diseases among unvaccinated dogs and wolves. to gain baseline data on infectious ag ...201121461190
the outbreak of cryptococcus gattii in western north america: epidemiology and clinical issues.over the previous decade, we observed the emergence of the fungal pathogen, cryptococcus gattii, as a cause of disease in humans and animals in a temperate climate. this outbreak, first documented on vancouver island, has since expanded throughout western north america, with non-travel-associated cases now in british columbia, washington, oregon, and california. additionally, a secondary outbreak, originating in and still restricted to oregon, has also occurred. during the past several years, se ...201121461678
cryptococcal meningoencephalitis in a dog. 201121493445
ceratonia siliqua (carob) trees as natural habitat and source of infection by cryptococcus gattii in the mediterranean environment.recent cryptococcus gattii infections in humans and animals, including several outbreaks in goats, were the basis of this environmental survey in six provinces of spain. a total of 479 samples from 20 tree species were studied. cryptococcus gattii was found for the first time in autochthonous mediterranean trees in spain. fourteen isolates of this pathogen were obtained from seven trees of three different species: 12 from carob (ceratonia siliqua), one from mediterranean stone pine (pinus halepe ...201121521012
rapid identification of cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii, c. neoformans var. neoformans, and c. gattii using rapid biochemical tests, differential media, and dna sequencing.rapid identification of cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii, cryptococcus neoformans var. neoformans, and cryptococcus gattii is imperative to facilitate prompt treatment of cryptococcosis and to understand the epidemiology of the disease. our purpose was to evaluate a test algorithm incorporating commercial rapid biochemical tests, differential media, and dna sequence analysis that will allow us to differentiate these taxa rapidly and accurately. we assessed 147 type, reference, and clinical is ...201121593254
characteristics and specificities of cryptococcus infections in french guiana, 1998-2008.cryptococcosis is a common opportunistic systemic mycosis caused by members of the encapsulated yeast genus cryptococcus. the aetiological agents of the disease are classified into two species, i.e., cryptococcus neoformans (serotypes a, d, and ad) affecting mainly immunocompromised patients and cryptococcus gattii (serotypes b and c) usually found in immunocompetent individuals. limited data exist on cryptococcus infections in french guiana, the department with the highest hiv incidence in the ...201121612563
detection and identification of probable endemic fungal pathogen, cryptococcus gattii, and worldwide pathogen, cryptococcus neoformans, by real-time pcr.a real-time pcr method for detection and identification of cryptococcus neoformans and cryptococcus gattii was developed and evaluated using dna from single-colony or koala nasal smears. two taqman minor groove binder probes that distinguished between these species were designed corresponding to the internal sequences of the cap59 gene for both species. the real-time pcr assay had 100% specificity, as assessed using 13 reference strains and 300 environmental strains. twelve smear samples from he ...201121623899
genetic differentiation, recombination and clonal expansion in environmental populations of cryptococcus gattii in india.cryptococcus gattii is a ubiquitous eukaryotic pathogen capable of causing life-threatening infections in a wide variety of hosts, including both immunocompromised and immunocompetent humans. since infections by c. gattii are predominantly obtained from environmental exposures, understanding environmental populations of this pathogen is critical, especially in countries like india with a large population and with environmental conditions conducive for the growth of c. gattii. in this study, we a ...201121631689
cryptococcus neoformans requires a functional glycolytic pathway for disease but not persistence in the host.cryptococcus neoformans is an important fungal pathogen of immunocompromised individuals, with a close relative, cryptococcus gattii, emerging as a serious threat for the immunocompetent. during initial infection, c. neoformans colonizes the airspaces of the lungs, resulting in pneumonia, and subsequently migrates to the central nervous system (cns). we sought to understand fungal carbon utilization during colonization of these fundamentally different niches within the host, in particular the ro ...201121652778
rapid identification of cryptococcus neoformans and cryptococcus gattii by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry.compared to dna sequence analysis, matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (maldi-tof ms) correctly identified 100% of cryptococcus species, distinguishing the notable pathogens cryptococcus neoformans and c. gattii. identification was greatly enhanced by supplementing a commercial spectral library with additional entries to account for subspecies variability.201121653762
reactivation of a cryptococcus gattii infection in a cheetah (acinonyx jubatus) held in the national zoo, havana, cuba. 201121668523
cryptococcus gattii genotype vgi infection in new england.cryptococcus gattii is a known, emerging infectious disease pathogen predominantly in the pacific northwest, the united states, and british columbia, canada. we report a case of an immunocompetent adolescent from new england who had severe pulmonary and central nervous system infection caused by the vgi genotype of c. gattii.201121814154
primary cutaneous cryptococcosis due to cryptococcus gattii in singapore.cryptococcosis is an invasive fungal infection that occurs worldwide. infections caused by cryptococcus (c.) neoformans are commonly associated with immunocompromised patients, while those caused by c. gattii predominantly affect immunocompetent hosts. however, the latter has also been increasingly reported in immunocompromised patients such as those with hiv. cutaneous involvement by c. gattii in immunocompetent patients is a rare manifestation, with only a few cases reported worldwide. c. gatt ...201121808951
pcr-rea as an important tool for the identification of cryptococcus neoformans and cryptococcus gattii from human and veterinary sources.the extraordinary ability of cryptococcus species to cause disease has focused the attention of scientists on finding ways to improve their identification methods. in this study, pcr-rea, manual methods (morphological and biochemical characteristics), api 20c and vitek 2 were used to test identify a total of 30 cryptococcus spp. from human and veterinary sources. pcr-rea was performed using the capsular region as amplification target followed by restriction with the enzymes agei, bsmfi and hpaii ...201121802868
clinical features and epidemiology of cryptococcosis in cats and dogs in california: 93 cases (1988-2010).objective-to compare clinical features of cryptococcosis among cats and dogs in california, determine whether the distribution of involved tissues differs from distribution reported previously in a study in southeastern australia, and identify cryptococcus spp isolated from the study population. design-retrospective case series. animals-62 cats and 31 dogs with cryptococcosis. procedures-medical records of cats and dogs with cryptococcosis were reviewed. information collected included geographic ...201121801050
recent trend of taxonomy and identification in pathogenic yeasts. 201121788722
cryptococcus gattii infections with cutaneous involvement. 201121781631
concurrent infection with cryptococcus neoformans/gattii species complex and mycobacterium avium affecting the subcutis and bone of a pelvic limb in a cat.this paper describes a cat with severe localised infections with cryptococcus neoformans/gattii species complex and mycobacterium avium affecting the subcutis and underlying fascia and bone of the right pelvic limb. the simultaneous isolation of both pathogens in this patient was unexpected and posed unique issues concerning both diagnosis and clinical management. the aetiopathogenesis of this infection is discussed in relation to aspects of diagnosis and therapy.201121820926
high resolution melting (hrm) analysis for the identification of cryptococcus neoformans-cryptococcus gattii complex.we have developed a two-step method based on high resolution melting (hrm) that reliably identifies species from the cryptococcus species complex (c.neoformans var. grubii, c. neoformans var. neoformans and c. gattii). our results indicate that hrm can provide a fast protocol to identify and distinguish among the main cryptococcus spp.201121832024
cryptococcus gattii: an emerging fungal pathogen infecting humans and animals.infectious fungi are among a broad group of microbial pathogens that has and continues to emerge concomitantly due to the global aids pandemic as well as an overall increase of patients with compromised immune systems. in addition, many pathogens have been emerging and re-emerging, causing disease in both individuals who have an identifiable immune defect and those who do not. the fungal pathogen cryptococcus gattii can infect individuals with and without an identifiable immune defect, with a br ...201121684347
post-trauma primary cutaneous cryptococcosis in an immunocompetent host by cryptococcus gattii vgii. 201121736630
in vitro c3 deposition on cryptococcus capsule occurs via multiple complement activation pathways.complement can be activated via three pathways: classical, alternative, and lectin. cryptococcus gattii and cryptococcus neoformans are closely related fungal pathogens possessing a polysaccharide capsule composed mainly of glucuronoxylomannan (gxm), which serves as a site for complement activation and deposition of complement components. we determined c3 deposition on cryptococcus spp. by flow cytometry and confocal microscopy after incubation with serum from c57bl/6j mice as well as mice defic ...201121723612
quinolinyl and quinolinyl n-oxide chalcones: synthesis, antifungal and cytotoxic activities.a series of new 6-quinolinyl and quinolinyl n-oxide chalcones were efficiently prepared. all chalcones were tested by minimal inhibitory concentration (mic) against three species of candida, cryptococcus gattii and paracoccidioides brasiliensis. the effect of these compounds was also tested on the survival and growth of the human cancer cell lines uacc-62 (melanoma), mcf-7 (breast), tk-10 (renal) and leukemic cells, jurkat and hl60. the compounds tested presented strong activity against p.-ábras ...201121816519
meningitis caused by filobasidium uniguttulatum: case report and overview of the literature.cryptococcal meningitis is mainly caused by cryptococcus neoformans and cryptococcus gattii, but occasionally other cryptococcus species and phylogenetically related species are involved. herein, we present a case of cryptococcal meningitis from china, which was caused by an azole and flucytosine resistant filobasidium uniguttulatum. in addition, we present an overview of the literature of meningitis caused by cryptococcus species other than c. neoformans and c. gattii. eight cases were related ...201121729175
cryptococcus gattii chorioretinitis in a ferret.bilateral exudative chorioretinitis was diagnosed in an 18-month-old male neutered ferret (mustela putorius furo) with a generalized cryptococcus gattii infection confirmed by pcr. the animal was referred to the ophthalmology service of the autonomous university of barcelona (vth-uab) for acute onset blindness. complete ophthalmic examination revealed absent menace response and dazzle reflex in both eyes (ou), as well as subretinal edema located in the tapetal fundus. at that time, the clinical ...201121733068
the homeostasis of iron, copper, and zinc in paracoccidioides brasiliensis, cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii, and cryptococcus gattii: a comparative analysis.iron, copper, and zinc are essential for all living organisms. moreover, the homeostasis of these metals is vital to microorganisms during pathogenic interactions with a host. most pathogens have developed specific mechanisms for the uptake of micronutrients from their hosts in order to counteract the low availability of essential ions in infected tissues. we report here an analysis of genes potentially involved in iron, copper, and zinc uptake and homeostasis in the fungal pathogens paracoccidi ...201121833306
characterisation of clinical isolates of the cryptococcus neoformans-c. gattii species complex from the amazonas state in brazil.background: the differentiation and classification of pathogenic cryptococcus species provides useful data for epidemiological studies and for the clinical diagnosis and treatment of patients. objectives: the aim of this study was to characterise 40 clinical cryptococcus obtained from patients at the tropical medicine foundation of amazonas (fmtam) from 2006 to 2008. methods: it was used phenotypic (i.e., enzyme production and antifungal resistance) and molecular biological (ura5-rflp) experimen ...201121699993
cryptococcus gattii serotype-c strains isolated in bangalore, karnataka, india.during a retrospective study on cryptococcosis carried out in bangalore, karnataka, india, four cryptococcus gattii strains were isolated from one hiv-positive and three hiv-negative patients, two of which had unknown predisposing conditions. serotyping and genotyping showed that the isolates were c. gattii serotype c, mating-type α and genotype vgiv. all the isolates were identical by multilocus sequence typing, but presented a low similarity compared with a set of 17 c. gattii global control s ...201121815945
cryptococcus gattii: where do we go from here?infections caused by the emerging pathogen cryptococcus gattii are increasing in frequency in north america. during the past decade, interest in the pathogen has continued to grow, not only in north america but also in other areas of the world where infections have recently been documented. this review synthesizes existing data and raises issues that remain to be addressed.201121939343
ten challenges on cryptococcus and cryptococcosis.cryptococcosis has become a significant public global health problem worldwide. caused by two species, cryptococcus neoformans or cryptococcus gattii, this life-threatening infection afflicts not only immunocompromised individuals but also apparently immunocompetent subjects. hence, cryptococcosis should no longer be considered merely an opportunistic infection. in this article, we focus on ten unanswered questions/topics in this field with the hope to stimulate discussion and research on these ...201121948062
Whole Genome Sequence Analysis of Cryptococcus gattii from the Pacific Northwest Reveals Unexpected Diversity.A recent emergence of Cryptococcus gattii in the Pacific Northwest involves strains that fall into three primarily clonal molecular subtypes: VGIIa, VGIIb and VGIIc. Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and variable number tandem repeat analysis appear to identify little diversity within these molecular subtypes. Given the apparent expansion of these subtypes into new geographic areas and their ability to cause disease in immunocompetent individuals, differentiation of isolates belonging to these s ...201122163313
genotypes of cryptococcus neoformans and cryptococcus gattii as agents of endemic cryptococcosis in teresina, piauí (northeastern brazil).throughout brazil, cryptococcus neoformans is the cause of cryptococcosis, whereas cryptococcus gattii is endemic to the northern and northeastern states. in this study, the molecular types of 63 cryptococcal isolates recovered from the cerebrospinal fluid of meningitis patients diagnosed between 2008-2010 in teresina, piauí, brazil, were analysed. out of the 63 patients, 37 (58.7%) were human immunodeficiency virus (hiv)-positive and 26 (41.3%) were hiv-negative. ura5-restriction fragment lengt ...201122012227
cryptococcus gattii comparative genomics and transcriptomics: a nih/niaid white paper.cryptococcus gattii is an emerging global pathogen. recent reports suggest that c. gattii cryptococcosis is more common in immunocompetent as well as hiv-infected aids patients than earlier estimated. an ongoing outbreak of c. gattii in vancouver, canada, and the us pacific northwest has heightened public health awareness in north america. we have few clues as to what causes emergence or re-emergence of highly pathogenic strains, why c. gattii split up from its sibling pathogen c. neoformans, wh ...201122179781
74-year-old man from the pacific northwest with fever and a lung mass. 201121896527
Fatal Disseminated Cryptococcus gattii Infection in New Mexico.We report a case of fatal disseminated infection with Cryptococcus gattii in a patient from New Mexico. The patient had no history of recent travel to known C. gattii-endemic areas. Multilocus sequence typing revealed that the isolate belonged to the major molecular type VGIII. Virulence studies in a mouse pulmonary model of infection demonstrated that the strain was less virulent than other C. gattii strains. This represents the first documented case of C. gattii likely acquired in New Mexico.201122194869
global vgiia isolates are of comparable virulence to the major fatal cryptococcus gattii vancouver island outbreak genotype.the ongoing cryptococcosis outbreak on vancouver island, bc, canada, is caused by two vgii sub-genotypes of the primary pathogen, cryptococcus gattii: vgiia isolates predominate, whereas vgiib isolates are rare. although higher virulence of the vgiia genotype has been proposed, an unresolved key question is whether vgiia isolates from other regions are also more virulent than vgiib isolates. we report the relationship between genotype and virulence for a global collection of c. gattii vgiia and ...201120331682
heteroresistance of cryptococcus gattii to fluconazole.we analyzed 71 clinical and environmental cryptococcus gattii strains that had been isolated before or after the advent of azole antifungals to determine their level of heteroresistance to fluconazole (lhf). all strains of c. gattii manifested heteroresistance, with lhfs that ranged between 4 microg/ml and 32 microg/ml. a considerably higher proportion of the c. gattii strains (86%) than cryptococcus neoformans strains (46%) exhibited lhfs that were > or =16 microg/ml. no significant correlation ...201020385871
the search for the natural habitat of cryptococcus gattii. 201020414730
emergence and pathogenicity of highly virulent cryptococcus gattii genotypes in the northwest united states.cryptococcus gattii causes life-threatening disease in otherwise healthy hosts and to a lesser extent in immunocompromised hosts. the highest incidence for this disease is on vancouver island, canada, where an outbreak is expanding into neighboring regions including mainland british columbia and the united states. this outbreak is caused predominantly by c. gattii molecular type vgii, specifically vgiia/major. in addition, a novel genotype, vgiic, has emerged in oregon and is now a major source ...201020421942
in-hospital mortality of hiv-infected cryptococcal meningitis patients with c. gattii and c. neoformans infection in gaborone, botswana.the clinical presentations and outcomes of cryptococcal meningitis (cm) may be associated with the cryptococcal species causing the infections. to evaluate clinical differences between cm caused by c. neoformans and cryptococcus gattii, we examined outcomes in hiv-infected adults with cm admitted to princess marina hospital in gaborone, botswana. among hiv-infected adults with cm, we found that 29 of 96 (30%) patients were infected with c. gattii, but species type was not associated with in-hosp ...201020438294
ecological niche modeling of cryptococcus gattii in british columbia, canada.cryptococcus gattii emerged on vancouver island, british columbia (bc), canada, in 1999, causing human and animal illness. environmental sampling for c.gattii in southwestern bc has isolated the fungal organism from native vegetation, soil, air, and water.201020439176
variability of phenotypic traits in cryptococcus varieties and species and the resulting implications for pathogenesis.variability of phenotypic characteristics in cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii and var. neoformans as well as cryptococcus gattii can have diverse effects on the virulence of these fungi and are thus important for pathogenesis. this article summarizes the diverse phenotypic changes that these fungi can manifest. we divide changes into those that affect the entire fungal population and are predominantly induced by environmental signals, and those that involve subpopulations of the fungal popula ...201020441549
cutaneous cryptococcosis due to cryptococcus gattii in a patient on chronic corticotherapy.cryptococcus gattii causes a form of endemic mycosis that most commonly affects the lungs and central nervous system of immunocompetent patients living in tropical and subtropical areas of the world. case report. a 66-year-old man who had chronic obstructive pulmonary disease without hiv infection and had been on systemic corticotherapy for several years developed extensive ulceration of the left forearm that was associated with ipsilateral supraclavicular adenomegaly, consequent to infection wi ...201020464157
isolation of cryptococcus gattii molecular type vgiii, from corymbia ficifolia detritus in colombia.an environmental sampling survey was carried out in different areas of bogotá, colombia, to obtain isolates of members of the cryptococcus neoformans/c. gattii species complex from corymbia ficifolia trees. during a 6-month period in 2007, 128 samples consisting of bark, soil around trunk bases, detritus, seeds and flowers were collected from 91 trees and processed according to standard procedures. the molecular type was determined using ura5 restriction fragment length polymorphism (rflp) analy ...201020465517
pathology in practice. severe chronic multifocal to coalescing granulomatous meningoencephalomyelitis, rhinitis and sinusitis, with intralesional yeasts consistent with cryptococcus spp. 201020470067
the mating type locus (mat) and sexual reproduction of cryptococcus heveanensis: insights into the evolution of sex and sex-determining chromosomal regions in fungi.mating in basidiomycetous fungi is often controlled by two unlinked, multiallelic loci encoding homeodomain transcription factors or pheromones/pheromone receptors. in contrast to this tetrapolar organization, cryptococcus neoformans/cryptococcus gattii have a bipolar mating system, and a single biallelic locus governs sexual reproduction. the c. neoformans mat locus is unusually large (>100 kb), contains >20 genes, and enhances virulence. previous comparative genomic studies provided insights i ...201020502678
in vitro antifungal activities of bis(alkylpyridinium)alkane compounds against pathogenic yeasts and molds.ten bis(alkylpyridinium)alkane compounds were tested for antifungal activity against 19 species (26 isolates) of yeasts and molds. we then determined the mics and minimum fungicidal concentrations (mfcs) of four of the most active compounds (compounds 1, 4, 5, and 8) against 80 candida and 20 cryptococcal isolates, in comparison with the mics of amphotericin b, fluconazole, itraconazole, voriconazole, posaconazole, and caspofungin, using clinical laboratory and standards institutes broth microdu ...201020530227
extracellular fibrils of pathogenic yeast cryptococcus gattii are important for ecological niche, murine virulence and human neutrophil interactions.cryptococcus gattii, an emerging fungal pathogen of humans and animals, is found on a variety of trees in tropical and temperate regions. the ecological niche and virulence of this yeast remain poorly defined. we used arabidopsis thaliana plants and plant-derived substrates to model c. gattii in its natural habitat. yeast cells readily colonized scratch-wounded plant leaves and formed distinctive extracellular fibrils (40-100 nm diameter x500-3000 nm length). extracellular fibrils were observed ...201020539754
immunoproteomic approach to elucidating the pathogenesis of cryptococcosis caused by cryptococcus gattii.cryptococcosis caused by cryptococcus gattii is a devastating disease of immunocompetent hosts with an incompletely understood pathogenesis. utilizing an immunoproteomic approach in a naturally occurring koala model of disease, a number of key proteins and pathways are identified in the early and late pathogenesis of cryptococcosis for the first time. in particular, the thioredoxin system appears important in the pathogenesis of cryptococcosis caused by c. gattii vgii.201020545298
immunomodulatory effects of serotype b glucuronoxylomannan from cryptococcus gattii correlate with polysaccharide diameter.glucuronoxylomannan (gxm), the major capsular component in the cryptococcus complex, interacts with the immune system in multiple ways, which include the activation of toll-like receptors (tlrs) and the modulation of nitric oxide (no) production by phagocytes. in this study, we analyzed several structural parameters of gxm samples from cryptococcus neoformans (serotypes a and d) and cryptococcus gattii (serotypes b and c) and correlated them with the production of no by phagocytes and the activa ...201020547742
pathogenesis of pulmonary cryptococcus gattii infection: a rat model.a model of pulmonary cryptococcosis in immunocompetent rats was developed to better understand the virulence of cryptococcus gattii. six isolates were studied, representing four molecular genotypes (vgi-matα, vgiia-matα, vgiia-mat a, vgiib-matα), obtained from australia, vancouver (canada) and colombia. these originated from human patients, a cat and the environment and were administered intratracheally (i.t.) or transthoracically into fischer 344 or wistar-furth rats in doses varying from 10(4) ...201020552280
prevalence of the vnic genotype of cryptococcus neoformans in non-hiv-associated cryptococcosis in the republic of korea.pcr fingerprinting and multilocus sequence typing were applied to determine the major molecular types of the cryptococcus neoformans/cryptococcus gattii species complex in the republic of korea. of the 78 strains isolated from patients diagnosed with cryptococcosis between 1990 and 2008, 96% were c. neoformans serotype a, mating type matalpha and molecular type vni. the remaining 4% were c. gattii, serotype b, mating type matalpha and either molecular type vgiib or vgiii. of the 62 strains with ...201020561059
cryptococcus gattii genotype vgiia infection in man, japan, 2007.we report a patient in japan infected with cryptococcus gattii genotype vgiia who had no recent history of travel to disease-endemic areas. this strain was identical to the vancouver island outbreak strain r265. our results suggest that this virulent strain has spread to regions outside north america.201020587194
[cap59 gene amplification in cryptococcus neoformans and cryptococcus gattii directly from a yeast suspension].cryptococcus is an encapsulated yeast of class basidiomycetes, etiologic agent of cryptococcosis. cryptococcosis is one of the most common opportunistic infections in immunosuppressed patients, although it can affect immunocompetent individuals. in recent years, the identification of medically important fungal species has been achieved through the amplification of specific regions or genes of fungal dna by polymerase chain reaction (pcr). the cap59 gene is involved in the synthesis of the capsul ...201020589327
investigation of plant extracts in traditional medicine of the brazilian cerrado against protozoans and yeasts.to investigate the activities of the 217 plant extracts in traditional medicine of the brazilian cerrado against protozoans and yeasts.201020600775
a prospective descriptive study of cryptococcal meningitis in hiv uninfected patients in vietnam - high prevalence of cryptococcus neoformans var grubii in the absence of underlying disease.most cases of cryptococcal meningitis occur in patients with hiv infection: the course and outcome of disease in the apparently immunocompetent is much more poorly understood. we describe a cohort of hiv uninfected vietnamese patients with cryptococcal meningitis in whom underlying disease is uncommon, and relate presenting features of patients and the characteristics of the infecting species to outcome.201020618932
antifungal therapy in a murine model of disseminated infection by cryptococcus gattii.we have evaluated the efficacy of posaconazole (psc), voriconazole (vrc), and amphotericin b (amb) in a murine model of systemic infection by cryptococcus gattii using immunocompromised animals and three clinical strains of the fungus. amb was the most effective drug in prolonging the survival of mice and also in reducing tissue burden in all organs tested. to a lesser degree, vrc at 60 mg/kg of body weight in lung tissue and psc at 40 mg/kg also in spleen demonstrated good efficacy in reducing ...201020625150
identification of fungemia agents using the polymerase chain reaction and restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis.prompt and specific identification of fungemia agents is important in order to define clinical treatment. however, in most cases conventional culture identification can be considered to be time-consuming and not without errors. the aim of the present study was to identify the following fungemia agents: candida albicans, candida parapsilosis, candida tropicalis, candida glabrata, cryptococcus neoformans, cryptococcus gattii, and histoplasma capsulatum using the polymerase chain reaction and restr ...201020640387
emergence of cryptococcus gattii-- pacific northwest, 2004-2010.cryptococcus is a genus of fungi, of which two species, cryptococcus neoformans and cryptococcus gattii, cause nearly all human and animal cryptococcal infections. whereas c. neoformans primarily affects persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus (hiv) worldwide, c. gattii primarily affects hiv-uninfected persons in tropical and subtropical regions. in december 2004, a case of human c. gattii infection was reported in oregon, associated with an outbreak on vancouver island and in mainlan ...201020651641
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