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retrospective anti-tetanus antibody responses of zoo-based asian elephants (elephas maximus) and rhinoceros (rhinocerotidae).tetanus toxoids (tt) commercially available for use in horses and livestock are commonly used to vaccinate elephants and rhinoceros that are in human care. although recommendations for booster intervals have changed in human and horse protocols to reduce the risks associated with hyper-immunity (i.e. b-cell anergy and hypersensitivity reactions) these have generally not been adopted in zoo protocols. additionally, there is no evidence to demonstrate commercial tt immunogenicity in rhinoceros. in ...202132861731
an analysis of threats, strategies, and opportunities for african rhinoceros conservation.the complexity and magnitude of threats to black (diceros bicornis) and white (ceratotherium simum) rhinoceros conservation in africa have triggered global concerns and actions. in this study, we analyzed (i) threats to rhinoceros conservation including external shocks, (ii) historical rhinoceros conservation strategies in zimbabwe and africa, more broadly, and (iii) opportunities for enhanced rhinoceros conservation in zimbabwe and africa. a literature search from 1975 to 2020 was carried out u ...202134141191
oxpeckers help rhinos evade humans.evolutionary theory expects social, communicative species to eavesdrop most on other species' alarm calls [e.g., 1, 2] but also that solitary-living species benefit most from eavesdropping [3, 4]. examples of solitary species responding to the alarm calls of other species, however, are limited and unconvincing [3-5]. the swahili name for the red-billed oxpecker (buphagus erythrorynchus) is askari wa kifaru, the rhinos' guard [6]. black rhino (diceros bicornis) are a solitary-living, non-vocal sp ...202032275876
antibiotic resistance of escherichia coli from humans and black rhinoceroses in kenya.upsurge of antibiotic resistance in wildlife poses unprecedented threat to wildlife conservation. surveillance of antibiotic resistance at the human-wildlife interface is therefore needed. we evaluated differences in antibiotic resistance of escherichia coli isolates from human and the endangered black rhinoceros in lambwe valley, kenya. we used standard microbiological techniques to carry out susceptibility assays using eight antibiotics of clinical and veterinary importance. standard pcr metho ...202031811599
challenges to animal welfare associated with capture and long road transport in boma-adapted black (diceros bicornis) and semi-captive white (ceratotherium simum) rhinoceroses.capture and transport are part of translocation and expose animals to a variety of stressors that can lead to morbidity and mortality. we aimed to establish a better understanding of the physiologic responses to capture and transport in black (diceros bicornis) and white (ceratotherium simum) rhinoceroses in southern africa. fourteen adult black rhinoceroses were transported 600 km by vehicle and 32 white rhinoceroses (24 adults and 8 juveniles) were transported 1,300 km by vehicle. the black rh ...202031596678
practical management of iron overload disorder (iod) in black rhinoceros (br; diceros bicornis).critically endangered black rhinoceros (br) under human care are predisposed to non-hemochromatosis iron overload disorder (iod). over the last 30 years, br have been documented with diseases that have either been induced by or exacerbated by iod, prompting significant efforts to investigate and address this disorder. iod is a multi-factorial chronic disease process requiring an evidence-based and integrative long-term approach. while research continues to elucidate the complexities of iron abso ...202033138144
feed intake and dietary composition of iron (fe), copper (cu), vitamin e, and tannic acid of five captive black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis) in a uk collection.the black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis) is a critically endangered species facing multiple anthropogenic pressures in its natural home range across africa. black rhinoceros are difficult to maintain ex situ and subject to diseases that are linked with captive dietary factors. hemochromatosis is of particular concern, as it is a common finding at necropsy of captive adults, and has been linked to excessive dietary iron intake. this intake study investigates the select nutrient composition of the ...202033135310
megaherbivore browsers vs. tannins: is being big enough?megaherbivores have been of particular interest to scientists because of the physiological and ecological challenges associated with their extreme body size. yet, one question that has seldom been explored is how browsing megaherbivores cope with plant secondary metabolites (psms), such as tannins, found in their food. it is possible that the sheer body size of these megaherbivores allows them to ingest tannins with no deleterious effects. however, it is plausible that megaherbivores must rely o ...202033083848
monitoring rhinoceroses in namibia's private custodianship properties.routinely censusing rhinoceros' populations is central to their conservation and protection from illegal killing. in namibia, both white (ceratotherium simum) and black (diceros bicornis) rhinoceros occur on private land, in the latter case under a custodianship program of the namibian ministry of environment and tourism (met). black rhinoceros custodian landowners are responsible for the protection of the rhinoceroses on their land and are required to report regularly to the met. monitoring imp ...202032864211
inflammatory and oxidative status in european captive black rhinoceroses: a link with iron overload disorder?iron overload disorder (iod) is a syndrome developed by captive browsing rhinoceroses like black rhinoceroses (diceros bicornis), in which hemosiderosis develops in vital organs while free iron accumulates in the body, potentially predisposing to various secondary diseases. captive grazing species like white rhinoceroses (ceratotherium simum) do not seem to be affected. the authors hypothesized that inflammation and oxidative stress may be implicated in the pathogenesis of iod in captive black r ...202032785261
age structure changes indicate direct and indirect population impacts in illegally harvested black rhino.overharvesting affects the size and growth of wildlife populations and can impact population trajectories. overharvesting can also severely alter population structure and may result in changes in spatial organisation, social dynamics and recruitment. understanding the relationship between overharvesting and population growth is therefore crucial for the recovery of exploited species. the black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis; black rhino) is a long-lived megaherbivore native to sub-saharan africa, ...202032726369
interspecific gene flow and the evolution of specialisation in black and white rhinoceros.africa's black (diceros bicornis) and white (ceratotherium simum) rhinoceros are closely related sister-taxa that evolved highly divergent obligate browsing and grazing feeding strategies. although their precursor species d. praecox and c. mauritanicum appear in the fossil record ∼5.2 million years ago (ma), by 4 ma both were still mixed feeders, and were even spatio-temporally sympatric at several pliocene sites in what is today africa's rift valley. here, we ask whether or not d. praecox and c ...202032585004
anti-müllerian hormone in managed african and asian rhino species.serum collected across the lifespan of four managed rhino species: black (diceros bicornis, n = 16), white (ceratotherium simum simum, n = 19), greater one-horned (goh, rhinoceros unicornis, n = 11) and sumatran (dicerorhinus sumatrensis, n = 6) were validated and analyzed in an anti-müllerian hormone (amh) enzyme- linked immunoassay. concentrations of amh were examined over time, between sexes and throughout different reproductive states which included n = 3 female white rhinos immunocontracept ...202032278883
irregular ovarian cyclicity is associated with adrenal activity in female eastern black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis michaeli).to achieve self-sustaining and genetically diverse populations ex situ, captive breeding programmes must ensure good overall rates of reproduction, and equal contribution across individuals. previous research in the critically endangered eastern black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis michaeli) revealed a high incidence of irregular oestrous cyclicity; in particular extended cycle duration among nulliparous females and acyclic periods in parous females that have not bred for several years. irregular ...202031881202
mesoscale movement and recursion behaviors of namibian black rhinos.understanding rhino movement behavior, especially their recursive movements, holds significant promise for enhancing rhino conservation efforts, and protecting their habitats and the biodiversity they support. here we investigate the daily, biweekly, and seasonal recursion behavior of rhinos, to aid conservation applications and increase our foundational knowledge about these important ecosystem engineers.201931728193
reduced gut microbiome diversity and metabolome differences in rhinoceros species at risk for iron overload disorder.iron overload disorder (iod) affects many wildlife species cared for ex situ. two of the four rhinoceros species in human care, sumatran rhinoceros (dicerorhinus sumatrensis) and black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis), are susceptible, whereas the other two, white rhinoceros (ceratotherium simum) and greater one-horned (goh) rhinoceros (rhinoceros unicornis), are relatively resistant to iod. complex interrelationships exist between mammalian hosts, their indigenous gut microbiota, metabolome, physi ...201931649637
using drones and sirens to elicit avoidance behaviour in white rhinoceros as an anti-poaching tactic.poaching fuelled by international trade in horn caused the deaths of over 1000 african rhinoceros (ceratotherium simum and diceros bicornis) per year between 2013 and 2017. deterrents, which act to establish avoidance behaviours in animals, have the potential to aid anti-poaching efforts by moving at-risk rhinos away from areas of danger (e.g. near perimeter fences). to evaluate the efficacy of deterrents, we exposed a population of southern white rhinos (c. simum simum) to acoustic- (honeybee, ...201931311472
animal protein-free optixcell and shortened equilibration periods can replace egg yolk-based extender and slow cooling for rhinoceros semen cryopreservation.optixcell (op) was tested as an animal protein-free alternative to an egg yolk-based extender for rhinoceros semen cryopreservation and shorter chilling/equilibration periods were evaluated. semen was collected from three rhinoceros species: black (diceros bicornis; n = 2), white (ceratotherium simum; n = 2), and greater one-horned (goh; rhinoceros unicornis; n = 3). controls were diluted with equine extender (eq) or op and equilibrated for 1 h. treatments were diluted with extender and cooled f ...201931226254
comparative microbiomes of ticks collected from a black rhino and its surrounding environment.'eliska,' an endangered black rhino (diceros bicornis), died suddenly in mkomazi national park in tanzania in 2016. three amblyomma gemma ticks were collected from eliska's body, and four ticks were collected from the surrounding field. we conducted 16s rrna targeted high-throughput sequencing to evaluate the overall composition of bacteria in the ticks' microbiomes and investigate whether the ticks could be the cause of eliska's death. the ticks collected from eliska's body and the field were f ...201931198683
gut microbiome differences between wild and captive black rhinoceros - implications for rhino health.a number of recent studies have shown the importance of the mammalian gut microbiome in host health. in the context of endangered species, a few studies have examined the relationship between the gut microbiome in wild versus captive populations due to digestive and other health issues. unfortunately, the results seem to vary across taxa in terms of captive animals having higher, lower, or equivalent microbiome diversity relative to their wild counterparts. here, we focus on the black rhinoceros ...201931138833
rare gut microbiota associated with breeding success, hormone metabolites and ovarian cycle phase in the critically endangered eastern black rhino.host microbiomes play a role in hormone production and subsequent fertility in humans, but this is less well understood in non-model organisms. this is of particular relevance to species in zoo-based conservation breeding programmes, as relationships between host microbiome composition and reproductive output may allow for the development of microbial augmentation strategies to improve success. here, we characterise faecal bacterial communities of breeding and non-breeding eastern black rhino (d ...201930770764
primary amebic meningoencephalomyelitis caused by naegleria fowleri in a south-central black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis minor).case description a 20-year-old female south-central black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis minor) was evaluated because of an acute onset of cns deficits. clinical findings the rhinoceros had no history of illness. clinical signs included acute lethargy, ataxia, and decreased appetite. hematologic abnormalities included leukocytosis with neutrophilia and a profound left shift. results of serum biochemical analysis revealed hypophosphatemia but no other abnormalities. results of a quantitative pcr as ...201931260399
repeated anesthesia in a black rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis) to manage upper respiratory obstruction.this report describes weekly repeated anesthesia in a 7-yr-old, 1,030 kg, female eastern black rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis michaeli), that was immobilized six times using a combination of 2 mg etorphine (0.002 mg/kg), 5 mg medetomidine (0.005 mg/kg), 25 mg midazolam (0.024 mg/kg), and 300 mg ketamine (0.29 mg/kg) delivered intramuscularly (im) via remote dart to facilitate long-term medical care of a bilateral, obstructive actinomyces sp. rhinitis. the drug combination described in this study ...201830592926
seasonal variation of serum 25-hydroxy-vitamin d in two captive eastern black rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis michaeli) housed in a north american zoo.black rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis spp.) are critically endangered species, with less than 65 individual animals housed in captivity within association of zoos and aquariums-accredited zoos within the united states, and an estimated 5,500 individual animals of all subspecies surviving in the wild. previously published reference values for circulating vitamin d3 (25ohd3; 55.7 ± 34.2 ng/ml) were based upon samples from free-ranging black rhinoceros in africa. recent research in human medicine has ...201830592903
comparison of soy lecithin, coconut water, and coconut milk as substitutes for egg-yolk in semen cryodiluent for black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis) and indian rhinoceros (rhinoceros unicornis).semen cryopreservation for the black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis) and indian rhinoceros (rhinoceros unicornis) relies on extenders containing egg-yolk (ey). use of such media is not ideal as inter-batch composition varies and there is risk of pathogenic contamination. the goal of this study was to test animal protein-free extenders. semen collected via electroejaculation from 10 rhinoceros (6 black, 4 indian) was diluted with extender containing ey, 1% or 2% soy lecithin (1%sl; 2%sl), coconut w ...201830138797
testing 'proportion of females calving' as an indicator for population-level reproductive performance for black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis).the proportion of females calving (pfc) each year has been employed as an indicator of population reproductive performance in ungulates, especially for species that breed annually, because it requires less detailed population data than inter-birthing intervals and age at first reproduction. for asynchronous breeders with inter-birthing intervals longer than a year such as megaherbivores, however, it is unclear how much annual variation in pfc is expected and whether false signals of density feed ...201830128200
the identification of theileria bicornis in captive rhinoceros in australia.poaching of both black (diceros bicornis) and white (ceratotherium simum) rhinoceros in africa has increased significantly in recent years. in an effort to ensure the survival of these critically endangered species, breeding programs were established in the 1990s in australia, where a similar climate and habitat is available. in this study we examined blood samples from two c. simum, including a 16 yr old female (aluka) who died in captivity, and a 17 yr old asymptomatic male (umfana). bloods fr ...201829988814
stable isotope ecology of black rhinos (diceros bicornis) in kenya.stable isotope and elemental ratios in hair are influenced by the environment, including both climate and geology. stable carbon isotopes can be used to give estimates of the c4/cam fraction of diets of herbivorous mammals; stable nitrogen isotopes are related to the local water deficit; strontium isotopes are determined by the local geology. we studied hair from rhinos in kenya to determine spatial patterns in δ13c, δ15n, and 87sr/86sr ratios. the samples of rhino hair were collected during ken ...201829955983
investigation of factors potentially associated with serum ferritin concentrations in the black rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis) using a validated rhinoceros-specific assay.iron overload disorder (iod) can lead to organ dysfunction and may exacerbate other diseases in the critically endangered black rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis). it is important to develop methods for monitoring the progression of iron storage (hemosiderosis), diagnosing the disease, and evaluating treatments in this species. traditionally, an equine enzyme immunoassay (eia) was used to measure rhinoceros ferritin, a serum protein correlated to iron stores. the goal of this study was to validate a ...201829900786
robust forensic matching of confiscated horns to individual poached african rhinoceros.black and white rhinoceros (diceros bicornis and ceratotherium simum) are iconic african species that are classified by the international union for the conservation of nature (iucn) as critically endangered and near threatened (http://www.iucnredlist.org/), respectively [1]. at the end of the 19thcentury, southern white rhinoceros (ceratotherium simum simum) numbers had declined to fewer than 50 animals in the hluhluwe-imfolozi region of the kwazulu-natal (kzn) province of south africa, mainly d ...201829316411
early fetal sexing in the rhinoceros by detection of male-specific genes in maternal serum.genetic sexing of animals with long gestation time benefits the management of captive populations. here, x and y chromosome-specific primers, based on equine gene sequencing data, were developed and tested on captive rhinoceroses (10 males, 20 females) representing four species (diceros bicornis, certaotherium simum simum, rhinoceros unicornis, and dicerorhinus sumatrensis). the y chromosome-specific primer set targeted sry (sex-determining region y), and amplified a 177-bp product following pcr ...201829437259
cardiac truncus arteriosus in an eastern black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis michaeli).this case report describes congenital truncus arteriosus in a 1-month-old eastern black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis michaeli). from the first day of life the animal was underweight and from the 22nd day of life displayed respiratory signs that exacerbated with time leading eventually to collapse and death. post-mortem examination revealed a single truncus arteriosus originating from the right ventricle leading to two separated pulmonary arteries and the aorta, with the ventricular septum showin ...201729169622
effects of age and sex ratios on offspring recruitment rates in translocated black rhinoceros.success of animal translocations depends on improving postrelease demographic rates toward establishment and subsequent growth of released populations. short-term metrics for evaluating translocation success and its drivers, like postrelease survival and fecundity, are unlikely to represent longer-term outcomes. we used information theory to investigate 25 years of data on black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis) translocations. we used the offspring recruitment rate (orr) of translocated females-a m ...201728940809
case series: clinical salmonellosis in four black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis) calves.although salmonella spp. infection has been identified in captive and free-ranging rhinoceros, clinical cases in black rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis ) calves have not been described. this case series describes clinical salmonellosis in four black rhinoceros calves. two calves developed self-limiting diarrhea, recovering after treatment. the other two cases were fatal. one of the fatal cases had a short clinical course, whereas the other case was protracted, with signs reflecting multiple organ s ...201728749277
perissodactyla (rhinocerotidae and equidae) from kanapoi.the kanapoi collection of rhinocerotidae, first studied by hooijer and patterson (1972), now consists of 25 specimens and substantial reinterpretation of their affinities is made here. kanapoi post-dates the extinction of brachypotherium and the whole collection belongs to the dicerotini. it is important because it includes the type-specimen of diceros praecox, a species that remains poorly known, but looks slightly larger and more primitive than the modern 'black' rhino, diceros bicornis. a sec ...201728966048
the brain of the black (diceros bicornis) and white (ceratotherium simum) african rhinoceroses: morphology and volumetrics from magnetic resonance imaging.the morphology and volumetrics of the understudied brains of two iconic large terrestrial african mammals: the black (diceros bicornis) and white (ceratotherium simum) rhinoceroses are described. the black rhinoceros is typically solitary whereas the white rhinoceros is social, and both are members of the perissodactyl order. here, we provide descriptions of the surface of the brain of each rhinoceros. for both species, we use magnetic resonance images (mri) to develop a description of the inter ...201728912691
extinctions, genetic erosion and conservation options for the black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis).the black rhinoceros is again on the verge of extinction due to unsustainable poaching in its native range. despite a wide historic distribution, the black rhinoceros was traditionally thought of as depauperate in genetic variation, and with very little known about its evolutionary history. this knowledge gap has hampered conservation efforts because hunting has dramatically reduced the species' once continuous distribution, leaving five surviving gene pools of unknown genetic affinity. here we ...201728176810
mycobacterium bovis in a free-ranging black rhinoceros, kruger national park, south africa, 2016.in 2016, an emaciated black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis) was found in kruger national park, south africa. an interferon-γ response was detected against mycobacterial antigens, and lung tissue was positive for mycobacterium bovis. this case highlights the risk that tuberculosis presents to rhinoceros in m. bovis-endemic areas.201728221132
parasites of domestic and wild animals in south africa. xlix. ticks (acari: ixodidae) infesting white and black rhinoceroses in southern africa.the objectives of the study were to determine the species composition of ticks infesting white and black rhinoceroses in southern africa as well as the conservation status of those tick species that prefer rhinos as hosts. ticks were collected opportunistically from rhinos that had been immobilised for management purposes, and 447 white rhinoceroses (ceratotherium simum) and 164 black rhinoceroses (diceros bicornis) were sampled in south africa, 61 black rhinos in namibia, 18 white and 12 black ...201728155285
validation studies on dinucleotide strs for forensic identification of black rhinoceros diceros bicornis. 201728029588
black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis) and domestic horse (equus caballus) hindgut microflora demonstrate similar fermentation responses to grape seed extract supplementation in vitro.the domestic horse is used as a nutritional model for rhinoceros maintained under human care. the validity of this model for browsing rhinoceros has been questioned due to high prevalence of iron overload disorder (iod) in captive black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis), which is associated with high morbidity and mortality. iron chelators, such as tannins, are under investigation as dietary supplements to ameliorate or prevent iod in prone species. polyphenolic compounds variably affect microbial f ...201627859814
medical management of recurrent eosinophilic granuloma in two black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis).recurrent eosinophilic granuloma (eg) in two captive eastern black rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis michaeli) was effectively managed with glucocorticoids and antihistamines. the first case was a female and the second case was a male. the animals were housed at separate institutions and initially presented with hemorrhagic oral lesions. multifocal lesions occurred in the second case. multiple biopsies were taken from each animal, all of which were consistent with eg. each animal was anesthetized mu ...201627691969
anesthesia in a captive juvenile black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis) for magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography.a hand-reared, 53-kg, female, 30-day-old black rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis ) calf presented for magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography after demonstrating neurologic signs. the rhino was premedicated intramuscularly with butorphanol and midazolam, yielding satisfactory sedation. induction was achieved using intravenous propofol until the trachea could be intubated. anesthesia was maintained with sevoflurane in 100% oxygen (mean end-tidal concentration of 2 ± 0.5%). mean values reco ...201627691965
congenital cleft palate and cardiac septal defects in a neonatal southern black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis minor).a female southern black rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis minor) calf died unexpectedly at less than 12 hr of age, after an uncomplicated birth and uneventful early postpartum period. gross necropsy revealed a 15-cm full thickness cleft palate, a patent foramen ovale, and four septal defects ranging from 0.3 to 1 cm in diameter. histologic findings did not reveal any significant abnormalities. karyotyping did not indicate any significant numerical or structural chromosomal abnormalities.201627691961
evaluation of serum ferritin and serum iron in free-ranging black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis) as a tool to understand factors affecting iron-overload disorder.iron overload disorder (iod) is a significant health issue for captive black rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis ). measurement of serum ferritin with a validated rhinoceros ferritin elisa has been used extensively to detect animals in u.s. zoos that are at risk of developing iod. however, there is limited information on serum ferritin levels in free-ranging black rhinoceros using this same assay. serum ferritin, iron, and gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (ggt) were determined in 194 black rhinoceros fro ...201627691960
technique for venipuncture of the transverse facial vein in the black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis).through the use of operant conditioning, the authors developed a technique to facilitate obtaining blood samples from a black rhinoceros diagnosed with idiopathic epilepsy. the technique involved operant conditioning to facilitate venipuncture of the transverse facial vein, at an anatomic landmark on the lateral side of the face ventral to the medial canthus of the eye, and dorsal to the lateral commissure of the mouth. the investigators used standard operant conditioning protocols to train the ...201627569067
testing the effects of perimeter fencing and elephant exclosures on lion predation patterns in a kenyan wildlife conservancy.the use of fences to segregate wildlife can change predator and prey behaviour. predators can learn to incorporate fencing into their hunting strategies and prey can learn to avoid foraging near fences. a twelve-strand electric predator-proof fence surrounds our study site. there are also porous one-strand electric fences used to create exclosures where elephant (and giraffe) cannot enter in order to protect blocs of browse vegetation for two critically endangered species, the black rhinoceros ( ...201626893967
osteopathology in rhinocerotidae from 50 million years to the present.individual elements of many extinct and extant north american rhinocerotids display osteopathologies, particularly exostoses, abnormal textures, and joint margin porosity, that are commonly associated with localized bone trauma. when we evaluated six extinct rhinocerotid species spanning 50 million years (ma), we found the incidence of osteopathology increases from 28% of all elements of eocene hyrachyus eximius to 65-80% of all elements in more derived species. the only extant species in this s ...201626840633
tuberculosis in rhinoceros: an underrecognized threat?historical evidence of tuberculosis (tb) affecting primarily captive rhinoceroses dates back almost two centuries. although the causative mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (mtc) species has not been determined in many cases, especially for those that occurred before bacterial culture techniques were available, the spectrum of documented reports illustrates the importance of tb as cause of morbidity and mortality in different rhinoceros species across continents. in more recent years, sporadic s ...201626996520
three novel haplotypes of theileria bicornis in black and white rhinoceros in kenya.piroplasms, especially those in the genera babesia and theileria, have been found to naturally infect rhinoceros. due to natural or human-induced stress factors such as capture and translocations, animals often develop fatal clinical piroplasmosis, which causes death if not treated. this study examines the genetic diversity and occurrence of novel theileria species infecting both black and white rhinoceros in kenya. samples collected opportunistically during routine translocations and clinical i ...201624906113
retinal ganglion cell topography and spatial resolving power in the white rhinoceros (ceratotherium simum).this study sought to determine whether the retinal organization of the white rhinoceros (ceratotherium simum), a large african herbivore with lips specialized for grazing in open savannahs, relates to its foraging ecology and habitat. using stereology and retinal wholemounts, we estimated a total of 353,000 retinal ganglion cells. their density distribution reveals an unusual topographic organization of a temporal (2,000 cells/mm(2) ) and a nasal (1,800 cells/mm(2) ) area embedded within a well- ...201627804143
pulmonary gas exchange and acid-base status during immobilisation of black rhinoceroses (<i>diceros bicornis</i>) in zimbabwe.when immobilising wildlife, adverse side effects can include hypoxaemia, acidosis and hypertension. pulmonary gas exchange and acid-base status were evaluated during immobilisation of 25 free-ranging and one boma-held black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis) in zimbabwe. the effect of different body positions on arterial oxygenation was evaluated. a combination of the following drugs was used: an opioid (etorphine or thiafentanil), azaperone and an a2 -adrenoceptor agonist (detomidine or xylazine). r ...201628155294
a rapid chemical odour profiling method for the identification of rhinoceros horns.illegal poaching causes great harm to species diversity and conservation. a vast amount of money is involved in the trade of illegal or forged animal parts worldwide. in many cases, the suspected animal part is unidentifiable and requires costly and invasive laboratory analysis such as isotopic fingerprinting or dna testing. the lack of rapid and accurate methods to identify wildlife parts at the point of detection represents a major hindrance in the enforcement and prosecution of wildlife traff ...201627240958
factors impacting the success of post-mortem sperm rescue in the rhinoceros.the goal of this study was to identify factors that influenced the ability to successfully rescue sperm post-mortem from rhinoceroses maintained in north american zoos. factors considered included procedural technicalities, individual rhinoceros characteristics and timing. gross testicular pathology was noted in 17.4% of males (4/23) but did not impact sperm recovery except in one case of azoospermia (4.3%). of the males in which sperm recovery was attempted (n=21), 62% yielded quality samples c ...201626879096
standardising home range studies for improved management of the critically endangered black rhinoceros.comparisons of recent estimations of home range sizes for the critically endangered black rhinoceros in hluhluwe-imfolozi park (hip), south africa, with historical estimates led reports of a substantial (54%) increase, attributed to over-stocking and habitat deterioration that has far-reaching implications for rhino conservation. other reports, however, suggest the increase is more likely an artefact caused by applying various home range estimators to non-standardised datasets. we collected 1939 ...201627028728
identification of policies for a sustainable legal trade in rhinoceros horn based on population projection and socioeconomic models.between 1990 and 2007, 15 southern white (ceratotherium simum simum) and black (diceros bicornis) rhinoceroses on average were killed illegally every year in south africa. since 2007 illegal killing of southern white rhinoceros for their horn has escalated to >950 individuals/year in 2013. we conducted an ecological-economic analysis to determine whether a legal trade in southern white rhinoceros horn could facilitate rhinoceros protection. generalized linear models were used to examine the soci ...201525331485
epidemiology of theileria bicornis among black and white rhinoceros metapopulation in kenya.a huge effort in rhinoceros conservation has focused on poaching and habitat loss as factors leading to the dramatic declines in the endangered eastern black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis michaeli) and the southern white rhinoceros (ceratotherium simum simum). nevertheless, the role disease and parasite infections play in the mortality of protected populations has largely received limited attention. infections with piroplasmosis caused by babesia bicornis and theileria bicornis has been shown to ...201525604678
potential for serodiagnosis of tuberculosis in black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis).a case of fatal mycobacterium tuberculosis infection was diagnosed postmortem in a captive 33-yr-old male black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis) after a nonspecific illness in april 2013. retrospective testing of sera from this individual revealed that it had been seroreactive by elephanttb stat-pak, dual-path platform vettb, and multi-antigen print immunoassay for over 12 yr prior to death. although samples collected at the time of intradermal tuberculin test performed in october 2000 were nonreac ...201525831581
keeper-animal interactions: differences between the behaviour of zoo animals affect stockmanship.stockmanship is a term used to describe the management of animals with a good stockperson someone who does this in a in a safe, effective, and low-stress manner for both the stock-keeper and animals involved. although impacts of unfamiliar zoo visitors on animal behaviour have been extensively studied, the impact of stockmanship i.e familiar zoo keepers is a new area of research; which could reveal significant ramifications for zoo animal behaviour and welfare. it is likely that different relati ...201526509670
testing the prey-trap hypothesis at two wildlife conservancies in kenya.protecting an endangered and highly poached species can conflict with providing an open and ecologically connected landscape for coexisting species. in kenya, about half of the black rhino (diceros bicornis) live in electrically fenced private conservancies. purpose-built fence-gaps permit some landscape connectivity for elephant while restricting rhino from escaping. we monitored the usage patterns at these gaps by motion-triggered cameras and found high traffic volumes and predictable patterns ...201526489024
increased inflammation and decreased insulin sensitivity indicate metabolic disturbances in zoo-managed compared to free-ranging black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis).black rhinoceros (rhinos) living in zoos express a host of unusual disease syndromes that are associated with increased morbidity and mortality, including hemolytic anemia, rhabdomyolysis, hepatopathy and ulcerative skin disease, hypophosphatemia and iron overload. we hypothesized that iron overload is a consequence and indicator of disturbances related to inflammation and insulin/glucose metabolism. the objectives of this study were to: (1) generate the first baseline information on biomarkers ...201525980685
host density drives macroparasite abundance across populations of a critically endangered megaherbivore.what determines the abundance of parasites is a central question within epidemiology. epidemiological models predict that density-dependent transmission has a principal influence on parasite abundance. however, this mechanism is seldom tested in macroparasites, perhaps because multiple, comparable populations of the same host-parasite relationship are rare. we test the influence of a range of factors on parasite abundance across 18 populations of black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis) in south afri ...201525903391
male reproductive success is correlated with testosterone in the eastern black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis michaeli).among natural populations of polygynous species, males often vary in their lifetime reproductive success. however, in managed populations of endangered species, either in situ or as part of captive breeding programmes, it is important to understand why differences in reproductive success occur. the european captive population of the critically endangered eastern black rhinoceros is currently under-performing relative to their wild counterparts, with low reproductive output and high reproductive ...201525562628
irregular ovarian activity, body condition and behavioural differences are associated with reproductive success in female eastern black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis michaeli).ex situ populations of endangered species such as the black rhinoceros play an important role in global conservation strategies. however, the european captive population of eastern black rhinoceros is performing sub-optimally, with growth rates and genetic viability limited by low birth rates and high reproductive skew. we investigated several intrinsic differences between parous and nulliparous females that may underlie differences in reproductive success, including ovarian cyclicity, adrenal a ...201525150145
pulmonary dead space in free-ranging immobilized black rhinoceroses (diceros bicornis) in namibia.it was observed previously that end-expired carbon dioxide (p(e)co2) decreased when immobilized black rhinoceroses (diceros bicornis) were moved from sternal to lateral recumbency. these experiments were designed to test whether greater alveolar ventilation or greater pulmonary dead space in lateral recumbency explains this postural difference in p(e)co2. twenty-one (9 male, 12 female; 15 [3.5-26] yr old) wild black rhinoceroses were immobilized with etorphine and azaperone and positioned in eit ...201425000686
reducing sampling error in faecal egg counts from black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis).faecal egg counts (fecs) are commonly used for the non-invasive assessment of parasite load within hosts. sources of error, however, have been identified in laboratory techniques and sample storage. here we focus on sampling error. we test whether a delay in sample collection can affect fecs, and estimate the number of samples needed to reliably assess mean parasite abundance within a host population. two commonly found parasite eggs in black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis) dung, strongyle-type ne ...201424918070
a practical field extraction method for non-invasive monitoring of hormone activity in the black rhinoceros.non-invasive hormone analysis is a vital tool in assessing an animal's adrenal and reproductive status, which can be beneficial to in situ and ex situ conservation. however, it can be difficult to employ these techniques when monitoring in situ populations away from controlled laboratory conditions, when electricity is not readily available. a practical method for processing faecal samples in the field, which enables samples to be extracted soon after defaecation and stored in field conditions f ...201427293621
impacts of environmental pressures on the reproductive physiology of subpopulations of black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis bicornis) in addo elephant national park, south africa.black rhinoceros are an icon for international conservation, yet little is known about their physiology due to their secretive nature. to overcome these challenges, non-invasive methods were used to monitor rhinoceros in two sections of addo elephant national park, south africa, namely addo and nyathi. these sections were separated by a public road, and the numbers of elephants, predators and tourists were higher in addo. faecal samples (n = 231) were collected (from july 2007 to november 2010) ...201427293618
[breeding management of black rhinos (diceros bicornis michaeli) in magdeburg zoo].the african black rhino is an endangered species. in germany there are only five zoos where this species is kept and breeding has not been successful in all of them. in magdeburg zoo the last birth occurred in december 2005, and during the following years, no matings could be observed. during the construction of a new enclosure to enable a more natural mating behaviour, the reproduction status of the rhino cows was evaluated and a hormonal treatment was performed.201424920088
sex-biased inbreeding effects on reproductive success and home range size of the critically endangered black rhinoceros.a central premise of conservation biology is that small populations suffer reduced viability through loss of genetic diversity and inbreeding. however, there is little evidence that variation in inbreeding impacts individual reproductive success within remnant populations of threatened taxa, largely due to problems associated with obtaining comprehensive pedigree information to estimate inbreeding. in the critically endangered black rhinoceros, a species that experienced severe demographic reduc ...201424641512
review of the diagnosis of tuberculosis in non-bovid wildlife species using immunological methods--an update of published work since 2009.the infection of both captive and free-ranging wildlife species with pathogenic mycobacteria (including mycobacterium tuberculosis) poses a zoonotic risk and continues to cause challenges for the livestock industry, zoos and governments around the world. central to the management and control of tuberculosis is timely and accurate diagnosis. in many cases, bacterial culture is insufficiently sensitive and confirmation of tb post-mortem is neither feasible nor desirable. in this context, there is ...201324171845
a serological survey of brucellosis in wild ungulate species from five game parks in zimbabwe.a retrospective serosurvey was carried out between 2009 and 2012 to detect antibodies to brucella spp. in free-ranging african wildlife ungulates from five selected game parks in zimbabwe. samples were drawn from wildlife-livestock interface and non-interface areas in zimbabwe. a total of 270 serum samples from four different species, namely african buffalo (syncerus caffer) (n =106), impala (aepyceros melampus) (n = 72), black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis) (n = 45) and white rhinoceros (ceratot ...201324396917
osteopathology in the feet of rhinoceroses: lesion type and distribution.an estimated 1,170 white (ceratotherium simum), black (diceros bicornis), greater one-horned (rhinoceros unicornis), and sumatran (dicerorhinus sumatrensis) rhinoceroses are kept in captivity worldwide, where they are a popular public attraction and serve important roles in education and conservation. rhinoceroses in captivity are reportedly affected by a variety of foot conditions, including abscesses, nail cracking, and pododermatitis, but there are few studies reporting associated bony pathol ...201324450050
detecting inter-cusp and inter-tooth wear patterns in rhinocerotids.extant rhinos are the largest extant herbivores exhibiting dietary specialisations for both browse and grass. however, the adaptive value of the wear-induced tooth morphology in rhinos has not been widely studied, and data on individual cusp and tooth positions have rarely been published. we evaluated upper cheek dentition of browsing diceros bicornis and rhinoceros sondaicus, mixed-feeding r. unicornis and grazing ceratotherium simum using an extended mesowear method adapted for rhinos. we incl ...201324312507
extraction of nuclear dna from rhinoceros horn and characterization of dna profiling systems for white (ceratotherium simum) and black (diceros bicornis) rhinoceros.rhinoceros horn is now worth more, per unit weight, than gold, diamonds, or cocaine. rhinoceros horn has been used in traditional asian medicine as a presumed cure for a wide range of ailments. rhinoceros poaching in south africa has, on average, more than doubled each year over the past 5 years with the rapid economic growth in east and southeast asia being assumed to be the primary factor driving the increased demand for horn. here we report on the characterization of methods for genomic dna e ...201323768315
shift in black rhinoceros diet in the presence of elephant: evidence for competition?in african large herbivore assemblages, megaherbivores dominate the biomass and utilise the greatest share of available resources. consequently, they are considered a separate trophic guild that structures the food niches of coexisting large herbivores. however, there exists little empirical evidence on how food resources are shared within this guild, and none for direct competition for food between megaherbivores. using the histological analysis of faeces, we explore this phenomenon for african ...201323874997
management strategies of iron accumulation in a captive population of black rhinoceroses (diceros bicornis minor).during routine health screens for black rhinoceroses (diceros bicornis minor) in a captive setting, serum iron and ferritin were analyzed as well as total iron binding capacity and total iron saturation. trends for ferritin and percent iron saturation showed steady increases since 2003 in four of four animals (three males; one female) with two animals (one male; one female) consistently showing higher elevations over conspecifics. the historical diet had been comprised of a commercial or in-hous ...201223156710
browse diversity and iron loading in captive sumatran rhinoceroses (dicerorhinus sumatrensis): a comparison of sanctuary and zoological populations.iron storage disease (isd) is now recognized as a serious clinical disorder acquired by two species of browsing rhinoceroses, the african black (diceros bicornis) and the asian sumatran (dicerorhinus sumatrensis) rhinoceroses, when displaced from their natural habitats. the most complete knowledge of isd comes from studies of the black rhinoceros, but the asian species is also at risk. sumatran rhinoceroses housed in traditional zoological settings outside of range countries have suffered signif ...201223156708
black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis) natural diets: comparing iron levels across seasons and geographical locations.although excessive iron storage in black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis) has been a cause for continuous concern over the last four decades and differences in the iron content of diet items fed in captivity and in the wild have been documented, no reports exist on the iron content of the total diet ingested by free-ranging animals. here, the results of field studies using backtracking to record the ingested diets of black rhinoceros from three habitats across three seasons are reported. levels of ...201223156705
capture-related hypoglycemia and recovery in free-ranging black rhinoceroses (diceros bicornis bicornis). 201222740562
serial temperature monitoring and comparison of rectal and muscle temperatures in immobilized free-ranging black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis).control of body temperature is critical to a successful anesthetic outcome, particularly during field immobilization of wild animals. hyperthermia associated with exertion can lead to serious and potentially life-threatening complications such as organ damage (including myopathy) and death. methods for monitoring core body temperature must accurately reflect the physiologic status of the animal in order for interventions to be effective. the goal of this preliminary study was to compare serial r ...201222448518
translocations as experiments in the ecological resilience of an asocial mega-herbivore.species translocations are remarkable experiments in evolutionary ecology, and increasingly critical to biodiversity conservation. elaborate socio-ecological hypotheses for translocation success, based on theoretical fitness relationships, are untested and lead to complex uncertainty rather than parsimonious solutions. we used an extraordinary 89 reintroduction and 102 restocking events releasing 682 black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis) to 81 reserves in southern africa (1981-2005) to test the in ...201222295100
the seminiferous cycle of the rhinoceros.the seminiferous cycle of the rhinoceros was investigated for the first time using testicular tissue from captive white (ceratotherium simum, n=2) and black (diceros bicornis, n=1) rhinoceroses. stages of the seminiferous epithelial cycle were characterised using the tubular morphology method and relative frequencies of each stage determined. this method allowed for the identification of eight stages of cellular associations characteristic of the seminiferous cycle in white and black rhinocerose ...201223182465
review of laboratory and necropsy evidence for iron storage disease acquired by browser rhinoceroses.necropsies of two browser rhinoceroses, african black (diceros bicornis) and sumatran (dicerorhinus sumatrensis), often reveal extensive iron-pigment deposition in various tissues. this condition (hemosiderosis) has not been observed in species that are natural grazers, african white (ceratotherium simum) and asian greater one-horned (indian; rhinoceros unicornis), nor in any species free ranging in the wild. the causes, clinical significance, and consequences of captivity-acquired hemosiderosis ...201223156711
serum iron and selected biochemical values in free-ranging black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis) from south africa.serum samples collected from 20 black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis) were analyzed for iron values from six different areas in south africa. in addition, biochemical profiles were performed on individual samples. comparisons of iron values from free-ranging black rhinoceros and from 28 free-ranging white rhinoceros (ceratotherium simum) were conducted by location and age. among the free-ranging black rhinoceros, samples were compared from different regions to a set of samples from black rhinocero ...201223156706
putative filariosis outbreak in white and black rhinoceros at meru national park in kenya.habitat and food supply loss and disruption, together with man's pursuit of the animal's unique horn pose significant threats to the charismatic rhinoceros. filarial worms have been thought to cause cutaneous lesions in black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis) in kenya and south africa, but never in white rhinoceros (ceratotherium simum) in the wild, despite the fact that the two species live often in close proximity. stephanofilaria dinniki has been implicated in the past as the causal agents for su ...201222992297
iron overload syndrome in the black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis): microscopical lesions and comparison with other rhinoceros species.the african black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis) has adapted to a low iron diet during evolution and is thus prone to iron overload in captivity, which is associated with a number of serious disorders. a s88t polymorphism in the hfe gene has been suggested as a potential genetic basis of increased iron uptake in the black rhinoceros, while the indian rhinoceros is thought to be unaffected by iron overload in captivity. in the present study, the histopathology and distribution of iron accumulation ...201222935088
mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis cultured from the feces of a southern black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis minor) with diarrhea and weight loss.abstract: mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis (map) was cultured from the feces of a wild-caught, female, adult southern black rhinoceros. the animal, which presented with a 4-mo history of diarrhea and weight loss, was prescribed a course of antimycobacterial drugs. the clinical signs resolved, and the feces were repeatedly culture negative thereafter. although the rhinocerotidae are likely to be resistant to johne's disease, this case raises the possibility that they can become transiently in ...201222779247
characterizing sleep behavior of the wild black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis bicornis).the objectives of this study were to characterize sleep patterns and determine factors, including sex, age, season, and environmental pressures, that influence sleep in the endangered black rhinoceros (rhino; diceros bicornis bicornis).201223115406
gamete rescue in the african black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis).mortality rates are high among captive african black rhinoceroses (diceros bicornis), due to increased susceptibility to disease. the ability to rescue genetic material from individuals that die unexpectedly represents a practical approach to assist ex situ conservation efforts. the objectives of the present study were to attempt postmortem oocyte recovery from ovaries of african black rhinoceroses (n = 6) and to test the efficacy of equine protocols for rhinoceros oocyte ivm and ivf using cryop ...201121752452
recovery of arcobacter spp. from nonlivestock species.the genus arcobacter encompasses campylobacter-like organisms that grow in air at 25 degrees c. arcobacter has been detected or isolated from clinically healthy livestock as well as aborted fetuses and has been presumptively identified as either campylobacter or leptospira, based on its growth in selective semisolid media. because reports from nonlivestock species are limited, this study examined nine presumptive isolates of arcobacter spp. from an alpaca (vicugna pacos), black rhinoceros (dicer ...201122950328
surgical amputation of a digit and vacuum-assisted-closure (v.a.c.) management in a case of osteomyelitis and wound care in an eastern black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis michaeli).a 14-yr-old female eastern black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis michaeli) presented with progressive suppurative osteomyelitis in her left hind lateral toe. beta-hemolytic streptococcus sp. was isolated. the animal was treated with multiple systemic antibiotics, and topical wound cleansing. repeated debridements and nail trimmings were performed for 5 mo prior to electing amputation. the toe was surgically amputated under general anesthesia between the first and second phalanges. analgesia was dif ...201122946413
hypoaminoacidemia is not associated with ulcerative lesions in black rhinoceroses, diceros bicornis.ulcerative oral and skin lesions have become an issue of concern for the health of the managed black rhinoceros (rhino) (diceros bicornis) populations. lesions exhibited by the black rhino are clinically similar to those observed in other species with superficial necrolytic dermatitis (snd). one biochemical alteration in dogs with snd is severe hypoaminoacidemia, and nearly all cases are fatal. the objective of this study was to determine if black rhinos with analogous lesions exhibit a similar ...201020722250
alkaline phosphatase as an indicator of true ejaculation in the rhinoceros.the objective was to determine if seminal alkaline phosphatase (alp) can serve as an indicator of true ejaculation in the rhinoceros. concentrations of alp activity were determined in seminal fractions collected from african black rhinos (diceros bicornis), an african white rhino (ceratotherium simum), and an indian rhino (rhinoceros unicornis) during electroejaculation. in addition, seminal fractions collected during penile massage of a sumatran rhino (dicerorhinus sumatrensis) were assessed. c ...201020615535
comparative investigations on digestion in grazing (ceratotherium simum) and browsing (diceros bicornis) rhinoceroses.rhinoceroses represent the largest extant herbivores with extensive dietary specialization for plant groups like browse (black rhino diceros bicornis) or grass (white rhino ceratotherium simum). however, it is not clear to what extent such diet selection patterns are reflected in adaptations of digestive physiology of the respective feeding types. in this study, feeding trials with four black and five white rhinos were conducted in four zoos. the animals had ad libitum access to the same batch o ...201020227512
decreased baseline fecal glucocorticoid concentrations associated with skin and oral lesions in black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis).ulcerative lesions are a health concern for managed black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis) populations. to examine possible relationships between ex situ variables and adrenal activity with the presence of lesions, facility and socioenvironmental surveys of 25:20 (male:female) black rhinos at 18 zoos were conducted, and fecal samples were collected twice weekly for 1 yr for glucocorticoid metabolite analyses. during the collection period, 5.1 rhinos exhibited skin lesions, 1.0 had oral lesions, and ...201021370641
diagnosis and treatment of vitiligo in a sub-adult eastern black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis michaeli).a captive-born female sub-adult eastern black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis michaeli) developed areas of non-ulcerated, non-pruritic depigmentation around the nares at 2 yr of age. over the subsequent 18 mo, the symmetrical multifocal depigmented macules increased in size and distribution to include facial fold crypts, interdigital skin, lips, nares, palmar carpi, ventral abdomen, ventral mandible, axillae, lateral brachium and antebrachium, lateral thighs, ventral tail, and perineal region with ...201020945660
melanocytic neoplasms in a black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis) and an indian rhinoceros (rhinoceros unicornis).melanocytic neoplasms were diagnosed in a captive black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis) and a captive indian rhinoceros (rhinoceros unicornis) from different facilities. the first case was a 10-yr-old, captive-born male black rhinoceros that presented with a small firm cutaneous mass on the dorsal midline. aspirate cytology results were suggestive of a melanocytic neoplasm, and histologic examination of the excised mass confirmed a well-differentiated neoplasm with much pigment production, minimal ...201020722260
seminoma in a southern black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis minor): diagnosis, surgical management and effect on fertility.a testicular mass was identified by ultrasonography performed during a routine reproductive evaluation of an adult male southern black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis minor). histological examination of a testicular biopsy supported a presumptive diagnosis of testicular neoplasia. hemi-castration was performed to excise the affected testis and a pathological diagnosis of a seminoma was made. assessment of semen suggested reduced fertility as a consequence of the neoplastic process, but hemi-castrat ...201020148829
acid-base balance and ventilation during sternal and lateral recumbency in field immobilized black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis) receiving oxygen insufflation: a preliminary report.posture, ventilation, and acid-base balance using auricular venous blood values (ph, lactate, base excess [be], hco(3)(-), po(2), so(2), and pco(2)), oxygen saturation of hemoglobin (spo(2)), and end-tidal carbon dioxide (p(et)co(2)) were compared between sternal (ste) and lateral (lat) recumbency in free-ranging black rhinoceros (diceros bicornis bicornis) receiving oxygen insufflation. data are reported as median, minimum, and maximum (median [minimum, maximum]). thirty-six desert-adapted blac ...201020090037
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