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detection of deer atadenovirus a dna in dam and offspring pairs of rocky mountain mule deer (odocoileus hemionus hemionus) and rocky mountain elk (cervus canadensis nelsoni).adenovirus hemorrhagic disease affects primarily mule deer (odocoileus hemionus), white-tailed deer (odocoileus virginianus), rocky mountain elk (cervus canadensis nelsoni), and moose (alces alces) in their first year of life. the method by which the causative virus, deer atadenovirus a, is maintained in the environment and transmitted to neonates is unknown. in this study, we investigated the potential transmission of the virus from dam to offspring in rocky mountain mule deer (odocoileus hemio ...202133822152
antibodies to epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (ehdv) in farmed and wild florida white-tailed deer (odocoileus virginianus).the transmission of multiple serotypes of epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (ehdv) between farmed and free-ranging wildlife is of interest to livestock industries and natural resource agencies. we compared the seroprevalence of ehdv-1, -2, and -6 in wild and farmed white-tailed deer (odocoileus virginianus) herds in florida, us. we compared serological prevalence, circulating serotypes, antibody titers, and viremia with the use of 171 whole-blood samples from 150 unvaccinated white-tailed deer ...202031298969
integrating livestock management and telemetry data to assess disease transmission risk between wildlife and livestock.overlap of cattle and wild elk ranges in southwestern alberta foothills is an opportunity for inter-species interactions. to assess the spatio-temporal patterns of disease transmission risk between cattle and elk, several risk indexes were defined to represent different transmission routes. risk indexes were estimated by combining elk telemetry data obtained from 168 gps-collared elk, and cattle management information obtained by interviews conducted in 16 cow-calf operations overlapping the elk ...202031765959
winter tick (dermacentor albipictus)-associated dermatitis in a wild elk (cervus canadensis) in pennsylvania, usa.in 2017, a male elk (cervus canadensis) was found dead in pennsylvania, us. the elk was in poor nutritional condition and had alopecia and ulcerative dermatitis throughout the neck and dorsum region associated with severe dermacentor albipictus infestations. histologically, there was severe chronic-active dermatitis with hyperkeratosis and crust formation.202031483708
context-dependent effects of a reintroduced ungulate on soil properties are driven by soil texture, moisture, and herbivore activity.although there is considerable evidence that large mammalian herbivores influence ecosystem-level processes, studies have reported such widely varying results that generalizations have remained elusive. here, we use an 18-year-old exclosure experiment-stratified across a landscape heterogeneous with respect to soil texture, moisture and herbivore activity-to understand the variable effects of tule elk (cervus canadensis nannodes), a native reintroduced herbivore, on soil properties along the coa ...202033072301
whole-genome sequencing of tarim red deer (cervus elaphus yarkandensis) reveals demographic history and adaptations to an arid-desert environment.the initiation of desert conditions in the tarim basin in china since the late miocene has led to the significant genetic structuring of local organisms. tarim red deer (cervus elaphus yarkandensis, trd) have adapted to the harsh environmental conditions in this basin, including high solar radiation and temperature, aridity, and poor nutritional conditions. however, the underlying genetic basis of this adaptation is poorly understood.202033072165
genetic analyses of the parasitic nematode, parelaphostrongylus tenuis, in missouri and kentucky reveal unexpected levels of diversity and population differentiation.wildlife translocations, which involve the introduction of naive hosts into new environments with novel pathogens, invariably pose an increased risk of disease. the meningeal worm parelaphostrongylus tenuis is a nematode parasite of the white-tailed deer (odocoileus virginianus), which serves as its primary host and rarely suffers adverse effects from infection. attempts to restore elk (cervus canadensis) to the eastern us have been hampered by disease caused by this parasite. using dna sequence ...202033054876
within-population diversity of bacterial microbiomes in winter ticks (dermacentor albipictus).the bacterial microbiome of ticks is notoriously diverse, but the factors leading to this diversity are poorly understood. we sequenced bacterial 16s rrna amplicons from individual winter ticks, dermacentor albipictus, to assess whether their one-host life cycle is associated with reduced bacterial diversity. on average, about 100 bacterial genera were found for individual ticks. francisella-like endosymbiont (fle) dominated bacterial communities, particularly in female ticks and in ticks that h ...202032993944
case report: fading elk syndrome in a herd of captive elk (cervus elaphus) in the north american midwest.fading elk syndrome, or chronic ill-thrift of elk, is a disease associated with abomasal parasitism with ostertagia species, of which elk appear to be particularly susceptible. while this syndrome has been extensively reported to affect wapiti-type red deer hybrids farmed in new zealand since the mid 1980's, there is only a single report of this disease in north america. here, we report a case of fading elk syndrome in a herd of 34 elk (cervus elaphus) in ames, iowa, at the national animal disea ...202032974398
wave-like patterns of plant phenology determine ungulate movement tactics.animals exhibit a diversity of movement tactics [1]. tracking resources that change across space and time is predicted to be a fundamental driver of animal movement [2]. for example, some migratory ungulates (i.e., hooved mammals) closely track the progression of highly nutritious plant green-up, a phenomenon called "green-wave surfing" [3-5]. yet general principles describing how the dynamic nature of resources determine movement tactics are lacking [6]. we tested an emerging theory that predic ...202032619482
retrospective investigation of echinococcus canadensis emergence in translocated elk (cervus canadensis) in tennessee, usa, and examination of canid definitive hosts.few reports of echinococcus spp. have been described in the usa; however, the geographical distribution of echinococcus spp. in wild hosts is increasing consequent to human activities. in the early 2000's, 253 elk (cervus canadensis) originating from alberta, canada were released into the great smoky mountains national park and north cumberland wildlife management area in an effort to re-establish their historical range.202032605660
living with liver flukes: does migration matter?migration is typically thought to be an evolved trait driven by responses to forage or predation, but recent studies have demonstrated avoidance of parasitism can also affect success of migratory tactics within a population. we evaluated hypotheses of how migration alters parasite exposure in a partially migratory elk (cervus canadensis) population in and adjacent to banff national park, alberta, canada. equal numbers of elk remain year-round on the winter range or migrate to summer range. we qu ...202032477863
optimization and pretreatment for hot water extraction of korean deer (cervus canadensis erxleben) velvet antlers.velvet antler (va) is a historically traditional medicinal supplement and is well known in asian countries for its pharmaceutical and health benefits. the objectives for this study were to optimize the hot water extraction (hwe) of va for the korean va industry, and to determine the most effective pretreatment method among microwave (mw), ultrasonication (us), and enzymatic (ez) techniques. using response surface methodology, optimum extraction temperatures and times were determined by central c ...202032423187
an ex vivo brain slice culture model of chronic wasting disease: implications for disease pathogenesis and therapeutic development.chronic wasting disease (cwd) is a rapidly spreading prion disease of cervids, yet antemortem diagnosis, treatment, and control remain elusive. we recently developed an organotypic slice culture assay for sensitive detection of scrapie prions using ultrasensitive prion seeding. however, this model was not established for cwd prions due to their strong transmission barrier from deer (odocoileus spp) to standard laboratory mice (mus musculus). therefore, we developed and characterized the ex vivo ...202032376941
a retrospective summary of cervid morbidity and mortality in ontario and nunavut regions of canada (1991-2017).free-ranging cervids in canada face diverse threats such as climate change, human population expansion, and the northward spread of vector-borne pathogens. however, we currently have a limited understanding of the impacts of these health challenges in ontario cervids. our objective was to identify and characterize causes of morbidity and mortality in free-ranging cervids submitted to the ontario and nunavut node of the canadian wildlife health cooperative (cwhc) over a 27-yr period (1991 to 2017 ...202032348201
an improved understanding of ungulate population dynamics using count data: insights from western montana.understanding the dynamics of ungulate populations is critical given their ecological and economic importance. in particular, the ability to evaluate the evidence for potential drivers of variation in population trajectories is important for informed management. however, the use of age ratio data (e.g., juveniles:adult females) as an index of variation in population dynamics is hindered by a lack of statistical power and difficult interpretation. here, we show that the use of a population model ...201931869366
multiple innate antibacterial immune defense elements are correlated in diverse ungulate species.in this study, we aimed to evaluate to what extent different assays of innate immunity reveal similar patterns of variation across ungulate species. we compared several measures of innate antibacterial immune function across seven different ungulate species using blood samples obtained from captive animals maintained in a zoological park. we measured mrna expression of two receptors involved in innate pathogen detection, toll-like receptors 2 and 5 (tlr2 and 5), the bactericidal capacity of plas ...201931774834
detection of cwd in cervids by rt-quic assay of third eyelids.the diagnosis of chronic wasting disease (cwd) relies on demonstration of the disease-associated misfolded cwd prion protein (prpcwd) in brain or retropharyngeal lymph node tissue by immunodetection methods, e.g. elisa and immunohistochemistry (ihc). the success of these methods relies on a quality sample of tissues, which requires both anatomical knowledge and considerable dissection to collect. as the prevalence of cwd continues to increase globally, the development of fast and cost-effective ...201931461493
molecular detection of babesia odocoilei in wild, farmed, and zoo cervids in ontario, canada.babesia odocoilei, a tick-borne protozoan hemoparasite of white-tailed deer ( odocoileus virginianus), is being increasingly recognized as a cause of disease in captive cervids in north america. historically endemic in white-tailed deer, the natural wildlife reservoir in the southeastern us, b. odocoilei has been recently associated with hemolytic anemia in captive eurasian tundra reindeer ( rangifer tarandus tarandus), wapiti ( cervus canadensis), and woodland caribou ( rangifer tarandus caribo ...201930339101
effects of brucellosis serologic status on physiology and behavior of rocky mountain elk ( cervus canadensis nelsoni) in southwestern montana, usa.brucellosis, caused by bacteria in the genus brucella, is an infectious zoonosis affecting animals and humans worldwide. free-ranging rocky mountain elk ( cervus canadensis nelsoni) and bison ( bison bison) in the greater yellowstone ecosystem (areas of southwestern montana, eastern idaho, and northwestern wyoming, us) are the self-sustaining reservoirs of bovine brucellosis ( brucella abortus) and elk are considered the primary source of livestock infections. it has been hypothesized that bruce ...201930277828
high seroprevalence but low rate of isolation of toxoplasma gondii from wild elk (cervus canadensis) in pennsylvania.toxoplasma gondii infections are prevalent in most warm-blooded animals worldwide. during the 2018 november hunting season in pennsylvania, fresh (unfixed, not frozen) samples obtained from 99 harvested elk (cervus canadensis) were tested for t. gondii infection. antibodies to t. gondii were detected in 69 of 99 (69.7%) elk tested by the modified agglutination test (mat, 1:25 cut-off). tongues and hearts from 16 elk with high mat titers (>1:200) were bioassayed for t. gondii by inoculation in ou ...201931738124
cellular distribution of the prion protein in palatine tonsils of mule deer (odocoileus hemionus) and rocky mountain elk (cervus elaphus nelsoni).chronic wasting disease (cwd) is a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (tse) that affects members of the cervidae family, including deer (odocoileus spp.), elk (cervus canadensis spp.), and moose (alces alces spp.). while cwd is a neurodegenerative disease, lymphoid accumulation of the abnormal isoform of the prion protein (prpsc) is detectable early in the course of infection. it has been shown that a large portion of the prpsc lymphoid accumulation in infected mule deer takes place on the ...201931548473
nutritional condition and physiological stress levels of elk in the black hills, south dakota.percent of body fat and physiological stress are important correlates to wildlife demographics. we studied winter percent of body fat and physiological stress levels for a declining elk (cervus canadensis nelsoni) population in south dakota, 2011-2013. we obtained percent of winter body fat, pregnancy status, lactation status, and physiological stress data from 58 adult females (2+ years old). we compared physiological stress level data from 2011 with data collected from this same herd when elk ...201931293830
cascading effects of mammalian herbivores on ground-dwelling arthropods: variable responses across arthropod groups, habitats and years.large mammalian herbivores are well known to shape the structure and function of ecosystems world-wide, and these effects can in turn cascade through systems to indirectly influence other animal species. a wealth of studies has explored the effects of large mammals on arthropods, but to date they have reported such widely varying results that generalizations have been elusive. three factors are likely drivers of this variability: the widely varying life-history characteristics of different arthr ...201931135962
assessment of a commercially available serum pregnancy-specific protein b test in free-ranging elk (cervus canadensis) in pennsylvania, usa.uterine examinations provide an inexpensive and reliable postmortem alternative to monitor pregnancy rates in free-ranging elk (cervus canadensis). however, this technique may be insensitive during early pregnancies (i.e., <20 d postconception), relies on proper collection of tissues, and may not be comparable to antemortem approaches used throughout the rest of the year. to circumvent some of these issues, the sensitivity and specificity of a commercially available serum pregnancy-specific prot ...201931075050
partial protection in balb/c house mice (mus musculus) and rocky mountain elk (cervus canadensis) after vaccination with a killed, mucosally delivered brucella abortus vaccine.brucellosis, caused by brucella abortus, has been eliminated from livestock in the us. remaining wildlife reservoirs are the bison (bison bison) and elk (cervus canadensis) populations in yellowstone national park and the surrounding area, from which there is periodic exposure and transmission to surrounding livestock herds. elk account for nearly all of the livestock exposure, and the infection appears to be expanding in the elk population. currently, there are no known effective vaccines for b ...201931009310
using genotyping-by-sequencing to predict gender in animals.gender assignment errors are common in some animal species and lead to inaccuracies in downstream analyses. procedures for detecting gender misassignment are available for array-based snp data but are still being developed for genotyping-by-sequencing (gbs) data. in this study, we describe a method for using gbs data to predict gender using x and y chromosomal snps. from a set of 1286 x chromosomal and 23 y chromosomal deer (cervus sp.) snps discovered from gbs sequence reads, a prediction model ...201930957265
native forage mediates influence of irrigated agriculture on migratory behaviour of elk.ungulates migrate to maximize nutritional intake when forage varies seasonally. populations of ungulates often include both migratory and non-migratory individuals, but the mechanisms driving individual differences in migratory behaviour are not well-understood. we quantified associations between hypothesized drivers of partial migration and the likelihood of migration for individual ungulates that experienced a range of environmental conditions and anthropogenic influences. we evaluated the eff ...201930951200
characterisation of the bacterial community in the gastrointestinal tracts of elk (cervus canadensis).the resident bacteria of the gastrointestinal tract (git) and the behaviour of these microbes have been poorly characterised in elk as compared to other ruminant animal species such as sheep and cattle. in addition, most microbial community studies of deer gut have focused on rumen or faeces, while other parts of the git such as the small and large intestine have received little attention. to address this issue, the present study investigated the diversity of the git bacterial community in elk ( ...201930155662
potential bacillus anthracis risk zones for male plains bison ( bison bison bison) in southwestern montana, usa.a re-emergence of anthrax, a zoonosis caused by the long-lived, spore-forming bacillus anthracis, occurred with a multispecies outbreak in southwestern montana, us in 2008. it substantially impacted a managed herd of about 3,500 free-ranging plains bison ( bison bison bison) on a large, private ranch southwest of bozeman, with about 8% mortality and a disproportionate 28% mortality of mature males; a similar high rate occurred in male rocky mountain elk ( cervus canadensis nelson). grazing herbi ...201930016211
intermediate frequency of aversive conditioning best restores wariness in habituated elk (cervus canadensis).in protected areas around the world, wildlife habituate to humans and human infrastructure, potentially resulting in human-wildlife conflict, and leading to trophic disruptions through excess herbivory and disconnection of predators from prey. for large species that threaten human safety, wildlife managers sometimes attempt to reverse habituation with aversive conditioning. this technique associates people as a conditioned stimulus with a negative, unconditioned stimulus, such as pain or fright, ...201829940021
development of diagnostic snp markers to monitor hybridization between sika deer (cervus nippon) and wapiti (cervus elaphus).sika deer (cervus nippon) and wapiti (cervus elaphus) are closely related species and their hybridization can result in significant allele-shift of their gene pool. additive genetic effects and putative heterotic effects of their hybridization on growth performance could confer considerable economic advantage in deer farming. here, we used double-digest restriction site-associated dna sequencing technology (ddrad-seq) and detected ∼320,000 genome-wide snps from 30 captive individuals: 7 sika dee ...201829789312
cattle ( bos taurus) resist chronic wasting disease following oral inoculation challenge or ten years' natural exposure in contaminated environments.we conducted a 10-yr study to establish whether chronic wasting disease (cwd) was readily transmissible to domestic cattle ( bos taurus) following oral inoculation or by cohousing cattle with captive cervids in outdoor research facilities where cwd was enzootic. calves ( n=12) were challenged orally on one occasion using brain homogenate derived from cwd-infected mule deer ( odocoileus hemionus). five uninoculated cattle served as unchallenged controls. two other groups of cattle ( n=10-11/group ...201829715064
comparative analysis of prions in nervous and lymphoid tissues of chronic wasting disease-infected cervids.the prevalence, host range and geographical bounds of chronic wasting disease (cwd), the prion disease of cervids, are expanding. horizontal transmission likely contributes the majority of new cwd cases, but the mechanism by which prions are transmitted among cwd-affected cervids remains unclear. to address the extent to which prion amplification in peripheral tissues contributes to contagious transmission, we assessed the prion levels in central nervous and lymphoreticular system tissues in whi ...201829580373
winter feeding of elk in the greater yellowstone ecosystem and its effects on disease dynamics.providing food to wildlife during periods when natural food is limited results in aggregations that may facilitate disease transmission. this is exemplified in western wyoming where institutional feeding over the past century has aimed to mitigate wildlife-livestock conflict and minimize winter mortality of elk (cervus canadensis). here we review research across 23 winter feedgrounds where the most studied disease is brucellosis, caused by the bacterium brucella abortus traditional veterinary pr ...201829531148
consistent individual differences and population plasticity in network-derived sociality: an experimental manipulation of density in a gregarious ungulate.in many taxa, individual social traits appear to be consistent across time and context, thus meeting the criteria for animal personality. how these differences are maintained in response to changes in population density is unknown, particularly in large mammals, such as ungulates. using a behavioral reaction norm (brn) framework, we examined how among- and within-individual variation in social connectedness, measured using social network analyses, change as a function of population density. we s ...201829494640
introgression of exotic cervus (nippon and canadensis) into red deer (cervus elaphus) populations in scotland and the english lake district.since the mid-19th century, multiple introductions of japanese sika deer (cervus nippon nippon) and north american wapiti (c. canadensis) have taken place in the british isles. while wapiti have generally been unsuccessful, sika have been very successful, especially in scotland where they now overlap at least 40% of the range of native red deer (c. elaphus). hybridization between these two species and red deer has been demonstrated in captivity and in the wild. using a panel of 22 microsatellite ...201829468030
histopathological, morphological, and molecular characterization of sarcocystis species in elk (cervus elaphus) from pennsylvania, usa.sarcocystis sarcocysts are common in many species of domestic and wild animals. here, we report sarcocystosis in muscles from 91 free range elk (cervus elaphus) from pennsylvania, usa, tested by histopathology, transmission electron microscopy (tem), and dna sequencing. sarcocysts were detected in hematoxylin and eosin (he)-stained sections from 83 of 91 (91.2%) elk, including 83/91 (91.2%) tongues and 15/17 (88.2%) hearts. with respect to age, sarcocysts were found in 0/5 calves, 8/9 (88.8%) ye ...201830120590
widespread distribution of ticks and selected tick-borne pathogens in kentucky (usa).the geographical distribution of ixodes scapularis and amblyomma maculatum ticks is poorly understood in kentucky. we conducted a convenience survey of wildlife species (white-tailed deer (odocoileus virginianus), elk (cervus canadensis) and black bears (ursus americanus)) for ticks from october 2015 to january 2017. we detected four tick species including amblyomma americanum, dermacentor albipictus, i. scapularis and a. maculatum. although the former two tick species were previously known to b ...201829502988
indirect effects of a large mammalian herbivore on small mammal populations: context-dependent variation across habitat types, mammal species, and seasons.multiple consumer species frequently co-occur in the same landscape and, through effects on surrounding environments, can interact in direct and indirect ways. these interactions can vary in occurrence and importance, and focusing on this variation is critical for understanding the dynamics of interactions among consumers. large mammalian herbivores are important engineers of ecosystems worldwide, have substantial impacts on vegetation, and can indirectly affect small-mammal populations. however ...201830598804
hidden cost of disease in a free-ranging ungulate: brucellosis reduces mid-winter pregnancy in elk.demonstrating disease impacts on the vital rates of free-ranging mammalian hosts typically requires intensive, long-term study. evidence for chronic pathogens affecting reproduction but not survival is rare, but has the potential for wide-ranging effects. accurately quantifying disease-associated reductions in fecundity is important for advancing theory, generating accurate predictive models, and achieving effective management. we investigated the impacts of brucellosis (brucella abortus) on elk ...201830519402
accelerated onset of chronic wasting disease in elk (cervus canadensis) vaccinated with a prpsc-specific vaccine and housed in a prion contaminated environment.chronic wasting disease (cwd) is a fatal prion disease affecting multiple cervid species. effective management tools for this disease, particularly in free-ranging populations, are currently limited. we evaluated a novel cwd vaccine in elk (cervus canadensis) naturally exposed to cwd through a prion-contaminated environment. the vaccine targets a yyr disease-specific epitope to induce antibody responses specific to the misfolded (prpsc) conformation. female elk calves (n = 41) were captured from ...201830414779
identification of moraxella lacunata from pulmonary abscesses in three zoo herbivores.although moraxella lacunata causes conjunctivitis, keratitis, endocarditis, and otolaryngitis in humans, its infection is rare in animals. we report three cases of asymptomatic pulmonary abscesses caused by m. lacunata in zoo herbivores, including two elks (cervus canadensis) and a common eland (taurotragus oryx). in all cases, macroscopic findings included coalescence of lung lobes and severe pulmonary abscesses filled with cheese-like materials in cysts. microscopic findings included pneumonia ...201830369588
hope and caution: rewilding to mitigate the impacts of biological invasions.rewilding is a novel approach to ecological restoration. trophic rewilding in particular aims to reinstate ecological functions, especially trophic interactions, through the introduction of animals. we consider the potential for trophic rewilding to address biological invasions. in this broad review, we note some of the important conceptual and ethical foundations of rewilding, including a focus on ecosystem function rather than composition, reliance on animal agency, and an appeal to an ethic o ...201830348875
fire history influences large-herbivore behavior at circadian, seasonal, and successional scales.recurrent environmental changes often prompt animals to alter their behavior leading to predictable patterns across a range of temporal scales. the nested nature of circadian and seasonal behavior complicates tests for effects of rarer disturbance events like fire. fire can dramatically alter plant community structure, with important knock-on effects at higher trophic levels, but the strength and timing of fire's effects on herbivores remain unclear. we combined prescribed fire treatments with f ...201830179283
babesia odocoilei as a cause of mortality in captive cervids in canada.nine cases of fatal infection with babesia odocoilei were confirmed in reindeer (rangifer tarandus tarandus) and elk (cervus canadensis) housed in zoological institutions located in southern quebec, ontario, and manitoba, canada between 2013 and 2016. all animals died of a hemolytic crisis. frequent postmortem findings were extensive hemorrhage, pigmenturia, and intrahepatic cholestasis. the described ante- and postmortem signs are consistent with those of previously reported cases in the united ...201829302103
draft genome of tule elk cervus canadensis nannodes.this paper presents the first draft genome of the tule elk ( cervus elaphus nannodes), a subspecies native to california that underwent an extreme genetic bottleneck in the late 1800s.  the genome was generated from illumina hiseq 3000 whole genome sequencing of four individuals, resulting in the assembly of 2.395 billion base pairs (gbp) over 602,862 contigs over 500 bp and n50 = 6,885 bp. this genome provides a resource to facilitate future genomic research on elk and other cervids.201729333237
interactions between cleaner-birds and ungulates are personality dependent.while a growing body of literature explores the ecological implications of consistent individual variation in the behaviour of wildlife, few studies have looked at the reciprocal influences of personality within interspecific interactions, despite the potentially significant impacts on biodiversity. here i used two species involved in cleaner-bird behaviour-black-billed magpies (pica pica) and rocky mountain elk (cervus canadensis)-to show that the exhibition of mutualistic behaviour can depend ...201729187607
phenolic glycosides in populus tremuloides and their effects on long-term ungulate browsing.in the aspen-grassland ecotone of riding mountain, manitoba, lightly browsed vigorous clones of trembling aspen (populus tremuloides michx.) occur in close proximity to heavily browsed dieback clones. this study examines whether intraspecific variation in the production of phenolic glycosides is correlated with this strong dichotomy in clonal vigor. individual clones were sampled over four years at three sites located along a gradient of increasing soil moisture stress. at each site, eight aspen ...201729064049
estimating loss of brucella abortus antibodies from age-specific serological data in elk.serological data are one of the primary sources of information for disease monitoring in wildlife. however, the duration of the seropositive status of exposed individuals is almost always unknown for many free-ranging host species. directly estimating rates of antibody loss typically requires difficult longitudinal sampling of individuals following seroconversion. instead, we propose a bayesian statistical approach linking age and serological data to a mechanistic epidemiological model to infer ...201728508154
using white-tailed deer (odocoileus virginianus) in infectious disease research.between 1940 and 2004, more than 335 emerging infectious disease events were reported in the scientific literature. the majority (60%) of these events involved zoonoses, most of which (72%) were of wildlife origin or had an epidemiologically important wildlife host. because this trend of increasing emerging diseases likely will continue, understanding the pathogenesis, transmission, and diagnosis of these diseases in the relevant wildlife host is paramount. achieving this goal often requires usi ...201728724483
meningeal worm (parelaphostrongylus tenuis) as a cause of mortality in the restored elk (cervus canadensis) population in missouri.meningeal worm (parelaphostrongylus tenuis) is an important cause of mortality of elk (cervus canadensis) in populations in the eastern us and has been implicated in the failure of several restoration attempts. from 2011 to 2013, the missouri department of conservation translocated 108 adult and yearling elk from kentucky (us) to southern missouri (us) to establish a free-ranging population. from release in spring 2011 through august 2015, we monitored 167 elk (adult, yearling, and calf) to dete ...201728820300
isolation of viable toxoplasma gondii, molecular characterization, and seroprevalence in elk (cervus canadensis) in pennsylvania, usa.toxoplasmosis is a worldwide zoonosis. the ingestion of uncooked/undercooked meat and consumption of water contaminated with toxoplasma gondii oocysts excreted by felids are the main modes of transmission of this parasite. t. gondii has been reported in multiple cervid species; however, little is known of the parasite in north american elk (cervus canadensis). in the present study, antibodies to t. gondii were detected in serum of wild elk from pennsylvania collected during 2013-2016 by the modi ...201728807274
the impact of rewilding, species introductions and climate change on the structure and function of the yukon boreal forest ecosystem.community and ecosystem changes are happening in the pristine boreal forest ecosystem of the yukon for two reasons. first, climate change is affecting the abiotic environment (temperature, rainfall, growing season) and driving changes in plant productivity and predator-prey interactions. secondly, simultaneously change is occurring because of mammal species reintroductions and rewilding. the key ecological question is the impact these faunal changes will have on trophic dynamics. primary product ...201729168615
a survey of tick species in a recently reintroduced elk ( cervus elaphus canadensis) population in southeastern kentucky with potential implications for interstate translocation of zoonotic disease vectors.in the late 20th century, elk ( cervus elaphus canadensis) were reintroduced into southeastern kentucky, us. this population has since been used as a stock population for additional elk reintroductions in other eastern states. although reintroduction and translocation practices are effective, they can disseminate vectors and pathogens. therefore, we surveyed tick species residing on elk hosts a decade after elk reintroduction in kentucky by examining 263 captured individuals (female=86; male=177 ...201729286258
isolation of mycobacterium bovis from free-ranging wildlife in south korea.we demonstrate mycobacterium bovis infection in wild boar ( sus scrofa ) in south korea. during 2012-15, we attempted to isolate m. bovis from 847 wild animals, mainly korean water deer ( hydropotes inermis argyropus), raccoon dogs ( nyctereutes procyonoides ), and wild boar, from 11 regions in south korea. we isolated m. bovis from three of 118 wild boar (2.5%) captured in gyeonggi province, where bovine tuberculosis (btb) outbreaks have also occurred in livestock. spoligotypes and mycobacteria ...201727809648
high seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii in elk (cervus canadensis) of the central appalachians, usa.toxoplasma gondii is an important protozoan parasite of mammals that impacts animal health and behavior. although this parasite has been documented in several cervid species, including red deer (cervus elaphus) in europe, little is known about t. gondii impacts on the closely related north american counterpart, the elk (wapiti, cervus canadensis), which has increased in number and expanded in range during the past century. we assessed seroprevalence of t. gondii antibodies using a modified agglu ...201728130658
ambidextrous ungulates have more flexible behaviour, bolder personalities and migrate less.studies of wildlife have shown consistent individual variation in behavioural plasticity, which affects the rate of adaptation to changing environments. more flexible individuals may thus be more prone to habituation and conflict behaviour, but these applications of personality to wildlife management are little explored. behavioural lateralization reflects cerebral specialization that may predict diverse expressions of behavioural plasticity. we recorded front-limb biases (i.e. handedness) in wi ...201728386447
native herbivores and environmental heterogeneity as mediators of an exotic grass invasion.given that many exotic plant species throughout the world are having large ecological and economic effects, it is vital to understand the forces that mediate their success in novel landscapes. both native herbivores and recipient ecosystems can have substantial effects on the performance of exotic plant species, and may interact with each other or vary in their effects over time. unfortunately, few studies have evaluated the importance of these kinds of context-dependent effects. here, we use a ...201728261465
assessing the importance of demographic parameters for population dynamics using bayesian integrated population modeling.to successfully respond to changing habitat, climate or harvest, managers need to identify the most effective strategies to reverse population trends of declining species and/or manage harvest of game species. a classic approach in conservation biology for the last two decades has been the use of matrix population models to determine the most important vital rates affecting population growth rate (λ), that is, sensitivity. ecologists quickly realized the critical role of environmental variabilit ...201728188660
evidence of biphonation and source-filter interactions in the bugles of male north american wapiti (cervus canadensis).with an average male body mass of 320 kg, the wapiti, italic! cervus canadensis, is the largest extant species of old world deer (cervinae). despite this large body size, male wapiti produce whistle-like sexual calls called bugles characterised by an extremely high fundamental frequency. investigations of the biometry and physiology of the male wapiti's relatively large larynx have so far failed to account for the production of such a high fundamental frequency. our examination of spectrograms o ...201627103677
seroprevalence of tuberculosis in domesticated elk (cervus canadensis) in korea.tuberculosis is a contagious disease in animals, primarily cattle, although it also affects wild animals and humans. there are few data on the state of tuberculosis in domesticated elk (cervus canadensis) in korea. in order to investigate tuberculosis in elk, the effectiveness of an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (elisa) using mpb70 and mpb83 antigens was compared with the tuberculin skin test (tst), and seroprevalence was measured with this assay using serum samples collected from domesticat ...201627474000
identification of velvet antler by random amplified polymorphism dna combined with non-gel sieving capillary electrophoresis.mitochondrial dna of velvet antler was amplified with random amplified polymorphic dna (rapd) technique and the pcr products were detected with non-gel sieving capillary electrophoresis to establish a rapd-hpce method used for identifying the authenticity of velvet antler or it counterfeits. factors that could affect the pcr amplification and capillary electrophoresis were optimized. under the optimized conditions, namely, 20 mmol l(-1) nah2po4-na2hpo4-2 mmol l(-1) edta buffer solution [0.8% (w/ ...201625103424
septicemic pasteurellosis in farmed elk (cervus canadensis) in alberta.septicemic pasteurellosis is a bacterial disease of domestic and wild animals including bison, elk, and pronghorn antelope caused by pasteurella multocida. here we report 2 cases of septicemic pasteurellosis in farmed elk. pasteurella multocida serogroup b was isolated from multiple tissues in both animals. gene sequencing (16s ribosomal rna) and blast query confirmed that the sequence is 99% to 100% homologous to the p. multocida sequences in the database.201627587888
characterization of nine microsatellite loci for dicrocoelium dendriticum, an emerging liver fluke of ungulates in north america, and their use to detect clonemates and random mating.this study characterizes polymorphic microsatellite loci from adults of the liver fluke dicrocoelium dendriticum sampled from a population of sympatric beef cattle and wapiti in a region of emergence in southern alberta, canada. we also scrutinized the markers to validate their use in studying the population genetics of this complex life cycle parasite. among the nine loci described, four deviated significantly from hardy weinberg equilibrium (hwe) due to technical artefacts. the remaining five ...201627188658
genomic characterization of a novel epsilonpapillomavirus associated with pigmented papillomas in a red deer (cervus elaphus).two of a group of 15 farmed european red (cervus elaphus elaphus) x wapiti (c. e. canadensis) deer stags developed multiple persistent pigmented squamous papillomas (warts) on their chins. dna was extracted from a papilloma and a short section of dna from a novel papillomavirus (pv) was amplified. this short sequence was used to design 'outward facing' primers to amplify the remainder of the circular pv dna. the pcr product was sequenced using next-generation sequencing and the full genome of th ...201627154332
complete mitochondrial genome of cervus elaphus songaricus (cetartiodactyla: cervinae) and a phylogenetic analysis with related species.complete mitochondrial genome of tianshan wapiti, cervus elaphus songaricus, is 16,419 bp in length and contains 13 protein-coding genes, 2 rrna genes, 22 trna genes and 1 control region. the phylogenetic trees were reconstructed with the concatenated nucleotide sequences of the 13 protein-coding genes using maximum parsimony (mp) and bayesian inference (bi) methods. mp and bi phylogenetic trees here showed an identical tree topology. the monopoly of red deer, wapiti and sika deer was well suppo ...201624725059
[phylogeography of red deer (cervus elaphus): data of analysis of polymorphism of the mitochondrial gene for cytochrome b].analysis of polymorphism of the gene for cytochrome b (1140 bp) of 106 samples of red deer (cervus elaphus) of eurasia is carried out, and the phylogenetic relationships of groups throughout the entire geographic range, including north america, are reconstructed. in total, the paper describes 75 haplotypes, 33 of them for the european and 42 for the asian part of the geographic range. common haplotypes for these two parts of the range were not found. the genetic kinship of asian siberian stags a ...201622988755
using spatial, economic, and ecological opinion data to inform gray wolf conservation.public opinion can be an influential factor in wildlife management decisions. evaluating public opinions can help legitimize, or delegitimize, management and facilitate long-term conservation goals. this is especially true for the controversial issues surrounding the management of predators. we surveyed montana, usa, residents during summer of 2013 to measure public opinion regarding economic and ecological impacts of the gray wolf (canis lupus), and current management of this species. although ...201629706677
vaccination of elk (cervus canadensis) with brucella abortus strain rb51 overexpressing superoxide dismutase and glycosyltransferase genes does not induce adequate protection against experimental brucella abortus challenge.in recent years, elk (cervus canadensis) have been implicated as the source of brucella abortus infection for numerous cattle herds in the greater yellowstone area. in the face of environmental and ecological changes on the landscape, the range of infected elk is expanding. consequently, the development of effective disease management strategies for wild elk herds is of utmost importance, not only for the prevention of reintroduction of brucellosis to cattle, but also for the overall health of t ...201626904509
bluetongue in europe and the role of wildlife in the epidemiology of disease.the article reviews a current bluetongue (bt) epidemiological situation in europe, bt restricted zones and the role of wild ungulates as a reservoir for bluetongue virus (btv) and its transmission. bt has been eradicated from central and northern europe, however it is still circulating in some regions of southern and south-eastern europe. according to the recent information of the directoriate general for health and consumer affairs (dg sanco) disease caused by btv1 was spreading at the beginnin ...201526172200
comparison of buffered, acidified plate antigen to standard serologic tests for the detection of serum antibodies to brucella abortus in elk (cervus canadensis).brucellosis (caused by the bacterium brucella abortus) is a zoonotic disease endemic in wild elk (cervus canadensis) of the greater yellowstone ecosystem, us. because livestock and humans working with elk or livestock are at risk, validated tests to detect the b. abortus antibody in elk are needed. using the κ-statistic, we evaluated the buffered, acidified plate antigen (bapa) assay for agreement with the results of the four serologic tests (card test [card], complement fixation test [cf], riva ...201525984771
sarcocystosis in cervus elaphus: comparison of diagnostic methods.red deer (cervus elaphus) from a national wildlife reserve near toledo in central spain were surveyed for sarcocystis infection. a total of 61 deer were examined. tissue compression and histology were used to examine samples from diaphragm and heart from each animal included in the study, and results from the two techniques and the two tissues were compared to determine the tissue and technique that provide the most accurate measure of prevalence and intensity. prevalence and intensity were then ...201526767167
genetic differentiation between red deer from different sample sites on the tianshan mountains (cervus elaphus), china.about 273 individuals were identified from 471 fecal samples from six different red deer populations in china. the genetic structure showed that the red deer from the western and eastern tianshan mountains was different. a total number of 12 haplotypes were defined by 97 variable sites by the control region (cr), and 10 haplotypes were defined by 34 variable sites by cytochrome b. there was no haplotype sharing between red deer populations from western and eastern tianshan mountains by the cr an ...201525431826
extension of occurrence area of the american fluke fascioloides magna in south-western poland.liver fluke fascioloides magna is a typical parasite of american cervids. the reason for f. magna to appear in poland territory was bringing the american wapiti deer to those forests around 1850. along with these deer the aforementioned fluke was also introduced. the aim of this study was to present the case of finding of this species in cervids in bory zielonogórskie. samples of deer feces were collected in february 2015 in forest district krzystkowice. a total of 16 samples of feces were exami ...201526342504
an expanding population of the giant liver fluke (fascioloides magna) in elk (cervus canadensis) and other ungulates in canada.giant liver fluke (fascioloides magna) populations readily expand under suitable conditions. although extirpated from the eastern slopes of the canadian rocky mountains in the early 1960s, the fluke reappeared following natural spread through mountain passes from british columbia. herein, we assessed epizootiology of the fluke population two decades later. between 1984 and 1991, 534 ungulates, including 381 elk (cervus canadensis), 68 mule deer (odocoileus hemionus hemionus), 54 white-tailed dee ...201525647594
weather and prey predict mammals' visitation to water.throughout many arid lands of africa, australia and the united states, wildlife agencies provide water year-round for increasing game populations and enhancing biodiversity, despite concerns that water provisioning may favor species more dependent on water, increase predation, and reduce biodiversity. in part, understanding the effects of water provisioning requires identifying why and when animals visit water. employing this information, by matching water provisioning with use by target species ...201526560518
the arteries of brain base in species of the cervid family.the aim of the article was to describe the pattern of main arteries at the encephalon base, their connections, and varieties. this study included 106 specimens of the head and cerebral arteries of the following eight species of the cervid family: reindeer, chital, eld's deer, wapiti, sika deer, fallow deer, pere david's deer or milu, and reeve's or chinese muntjac. the arteries of the animals under study were filled with acetone-dissolved stained vinyl superchloride or stained latex lbs3060. the ...201525399744
protein tyrosine phosphorylation during capacitation in sperm of a rare red deer, tarim wapiti (cervus elaphus yarkandensis).high efficiency of in vitro capacitation of deer sperm has not yet been achieved as low sperm penetration rates were reported in in vitro fertilization studies. our main goal in this study was to identify the changes of frozen-thawed sperm of the rare red deer tarim wapiti (cervus elaphus yarkandensis) and detect the effect of bovine serum albumin (bsa), serum, and heparin on the protein tyrosine phosphorylation of frozen-thawed sperm. the frozen-thawed sperm of tarim wapiti was suspended in imp ...201525638741
elk (cervus canadensis) preference for feeds varying in selenium concentration.selenium-accumulator plants are reputed to be unpalatable to large ungulates. elk (cervus canadensis) populations in southeastern idaho overlap with populations of se-rich plants, but there is no information on the influence of plant se concentration on elk dietary preferences. the objective of this study was to determine, under controlled conditions, the preference of elk for feeds varying in se concentrations. seven yearling female elk (128 ± 5 kg) were purchased from a commercial elk farm in ...201526440035
rapid plant evolution in the presence of an introduced species alters community composition.because introduced species may strongly interact with native species and thus affect their fitness, it is important to examine how these interactions can cascade to have ecological and evolutionary consequences for whole communities. here, we examine the interactions among introduced rocky mountain elk, cervus canadensis nelsoni, a common native plant, solidago velutina, and the diverse plant-associated community of arthropods. while introduced species are recognized as one of the biggest threat ...201526062439
pigmented chin papillomas in red (cervus elaphus)  x wapiti (cervus canadensis) stags associated with a novel papillomavirus.lesions were observed on the chins of two 2- to 3-year-old red (cervus elaphus)  x wapiti (cervus canadensis) stags from the lower north island of new zealand during velvet removal.201424224490
molecular identification of fascioloides magna (bassi, 1875) from red deer from south-western poland (lower silesian wilderness) on the basis of internal transcribed spacer 2 (its-2).the study was conducted in 2012-2013 on 75 fecal samples of red deer from the lower silesian wilderness which were examined to determine the prevalence of fascioloides magna in the game population. finding liver fluke eggs in a single sample which were larger in size than fasciola hepatica eggs indicated that further molecular analysis was necessarily. the partial sequence (116 bp long) of its-2 of the investigated eggs was identical to the sequences of f. magna from red deer (cervus elaphus) (g ...201425286665
density-dependent habitat selection and partitioning between two sympatric ungulates.theory on density-dependent habitat selection predicts that as population density of a species increases, use of higher quality (primary) habitat by individuals declines while use of lower quality (secondary) habitat rises. habitat partitioning is often considered the primary mechanism for coexistence between similar species, but how this process evolves with changes in population density remains to be empirically tested for free-ranging ungulates. we used resource-selection functions to quantif ...201424913777
modeling and mitigating winter hay bale damage by elk in a low prevalence bovine tuberculosis endemic zone.wildlife causes extensive crop damage throughout much of north america and these shared feeds are a key risk factor in the transmission of diseases between wildlife and livestock, including bovine tuberculosis (tb). predicting wildlife use of agricultural crops can provide insight directed toward targeted disease mitigation at areas of potential indirect interaction. in this study, we quantified use of hay bales by elk (cervus canadensis) during the winter in southwestern manitoba, canada using ...201424486094
field evaluation of three blood-based assays for elk (cervus canadensis) naturally infected with mycobacterium bovis.diagnosis of mycobacterium bovis in wild populations is very challenging due to complications imposed by the use of traditional skin tests, poor sensitivity of gold standard tests which rely on culture of m. bovis from tissues and wide variations in severity of disease. various combinations of a lymphocyte stimulation test (lst), fluorescence polarization assay (fpa) and the cervid tb stat-pak were evaluated using two different validation approaches: a latent class analysis and classical statist ...201424315383
observations on the phenotypic relationships between anti-carla salivary iga antibody response, nematode infection levels and growth rates in farmed red (cervus elaphus) and wapiti hybrid deer (cervus elaphus canadensis).nematode parasites are one of the most significant production limiting factors in farmed deer in new zealand. one long term strategy to reduce reliance on anthelmintics is to select deer that develop resistance to parasites. it has been shown in sheep that secretory antibody (iga) in the saliva against a carbohydrate larval antigen (carla) on infective larvae (l3) of a wide range of gastro-intestinal nematodes protects against reinfection. this paper describes a longitudinal slaughter study unde ...201424582525
faunal record identifies bering isthmus conditions as constraint to end-pleistocene migration to the new world.human colonization of the new world is generally believed to have entailed migrations from siberia across the bering isthmus. however, the limited archaeological record of these migrations means that details of the timing, cause and rate remain cryptic. here, we have used a combination of ancient dna, 14c dating, hydrogen and oxygen isotopes, and collagen sequencing to explore the colonization history of one of the few other large mammals to have successfully migrated into the americas at this t ...201424335981
a mummified duck-billed dinosaur with a soft-tissue cock's comb.among living vertebrates, soft tissues are responsible for labile appendages (combs, wattles, proboscides) that are critical for activities ranging from locomotion to sexual display [1]. however, soft tissues rarely fossilize, and such soft-tissue appendages are unknown for many extinct taxa, including dinosaurs. here we report a remarkable "mummified" specimen of the hadrosaurid dinosaur edmontosaurus regalis from the latest cretaceous wapiti formation, alberta, canada, that preserves a three-d ...201424332547
chondroitin sulphate extracted from antler cartilage using high hydrostatic pressure and enzymatic hydrolysis.chondroitin sulphate (cs), a major glycosaminoglycan, is an essential component of the extracellular matrix in cartilaginous tissues. wapiti velvet antlers are a rich source of these molecules. the purpose of the present study was to develop an effective isolation procedure of cs from fresh velvet antlers using a combination of high hydrostatic pressure (100 mpa) and enzymatic hydrolysis (papain). high cs extractability (95.1 ± 2.5%) of total uronic acid was obtained following incubation (4 h at ...201428626657
infection of c57bl/6 mice by trypanosoma musculi modulates host immune responses during brucella abortus cocolonization.brucellosis, which results in fetal abortions in domestic and wildlife animal populations, is of major concern in the us and throughout much of the world. the disease, caused by brucella abortus, poses an economic threat to agriculture-based communities. a moderately efficacious live attenuated vaccine (b. abortus strain rb51) exists. however, even with vaccine use, outbreaks occur. evidence suggests that elk (cervus canadensis), a wild host reservoir, are the source of recent outbreaks in domes ...201424171573
diversity of rumen bacteria in canadian cervids.interest in the bacteria responsible for the breakdown of lignocellulosic feedstuffs within the rumen has increased due to their potential utility in industrial applications. to date, most studies have focused on bacteria from domesticated ruminants. we have expanded the knowledge of the microbial ecology of ruminants by examining the bacterial populations found in the rumen of non-domesticated ruminants found in canada. next-generation sequencing of 16s rdna was employed to characterize the liq ...201424586961
density-dependent effects on group size are sex-specific in a gregarious ungulate.density dependence can have marked effects on social behaviors such as group size. we tested whether changes in population density of a large herbivore (elk, cervus canadensis) affected sex-specific group size and whether the response was density- or frequency-dependent. we quantified the probability and strength of changes in group sizes and dispersion as population density changed for each sex. we used group size data from a population of elk in manitoba, canada, that was experimentally reduce ...201323326502
juxtaposition between host population structures: implications for disease transmission in a sympatric cervid community.sympatric populations of phylogenetically related species are often vulnerable to similar communicable diseases. although some host populations may exhibit spatial structure, other hosts within the community may have unstructured populations. thus, individuals from unstructured host populations may act as interspecific vectors among discrete subpopulations of sympatric alternate hosts. we used a cervid-bovine tuberculosis (mycobacterium bovis) system to investigate the landscape-scale potential ...201324187583
epidemiologic relatedness between brucella abortus isolates from livestock and wildlife in south korea.to investigate the epidemiologic relatedness of brucella abortus isolates from chinese water deer (hydropotes inermis) and goral (naemorhedus goral raddeanus) in 2010-2011, 22l isolates from livestock (including domestic elk, cervus canadensis) were analyzed using the multilocus variable-number tandem repeats analysis. in the clustering analysis, korean b. abortus isolates were divided into 40 genotypes by 18 markers, and 2 b. abortus isolates from wildlife were clustered with those of domestic ...201323568927
superovulation in waptiti (cervus elaphus) during the anovulatory season.the objective was to evaluate the efficacy of three previously unreported ovarian superovulatory treatment protocols in wapiti. protocols were initiated specifically at the time of ovarian follicular wave emergence, and intended to enable determination of the effects of frequency of treatment (i.e., animal handling) and lh supplementation on ovarian response. thirteen parous wapiti hinds, 2 to 4 y of age, were used late in the anovulatory season (july). the ovaries were examined daily by transre ...201323102845
surveillance for echinococcus canadensis genotypes in canadian ungulates.the geographic and host distribution, prevalence and genotypes of echinococcus canadensis in wild ungulates in canada are described to better understand the significance for wildlife and public health. we observed e. canadensis in 10.5% (11/105) of wild elk (wapiti; cervus canadensis) in riding mountain national park, manitoba, examined at necropsy, over two consecutive years (2010-2011). molecular characterization of hydatid cyst material from these elk, as well as three other intermediate wild ...201324533321
targeting hunter distribution based on host resource selection and kill sites to manage disease risk.endemic and emerging diseases are rarely uniform in their spatial distribution or prevalence among cohorts of wildlife. spatial models that quantify risk-driven differences in resource selection and hunter mortality of animals at fine spatial scales can assist disease management by identifying high-risk areas and individuals. we used resource selection functions (rsfs) and selection ratios (srs) to quantify sex- and age-specific resource selection patterns of collared (n = 67) and hunter-killed ...201324324876
in vitro prion protein conversion suggests risk of bighorn sheep (ovis canadensis) to transmissible spongiform encephalopathies.transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (tses) affect both domestic sheep (scrapie) and captive and free-ranging cervids (chronic wasting disease; cwd). the geographical range of bighorn sheep (ovis canadensis; bhs) overlaps with states or provinces that have contained scrapie-positive sheep or goats and areas with present epizootics of cwd in cervids. no tses have been documented in bhs, but the susceptibility of this species to tses remains unknown.201323938169
inferential consequences of modeling rather than measuring snow accumulation in studies of animal ecology.it is increasingly common for studies of animal ecology to use model-based predictions of environmental variables as explanatory or predictor variables, even though model prediction uncertainty is typically unknown. to demonstrate the potential for misleading inferences when model predictions with error are used in place of direct measurements, we compared snow water equivalent (swe) and snow depth as predicted by the snow data assimilation system (snodas) to field measurements of swe and snow d ...201323734491
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