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key design factors affecting microbial community composition and pathogenic organism removal in horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetlands.constructed wetlands constitute an interesting option for wastewater reuse since high concentrations of contaminants and pathogenic microorganisms can be removed with these natural treatment systems. in this work, the role of key design factors which could affect microbial removal and wetland performance, such as granular media, water depth and season effect was evaluated in a pilot system consisting of eight parallel horizontal subsurface flow (hssf) constructed wetlands treating urban wastewat ...201424594738
disease-outcome trees, eq-5d scores, and estimated annual losses of quality-adjusted life years (qalys) for 14 foodborne pathogens in the united states.measures of disease burden such as quality-adjusted life years (qalys) are increasingly important to risk-based food safety policy. they provide a means of comparing relative risk from diverse health outcomes. we present detailed disease-outcome trees and eq-5d scoring for 14 major foodborne pathogens representing over 95% of foodborne illnesses, hospitalizations, and deaths due to specified agents in the united states (campylobacter spp., clostridium perfringens, cryptosporidium parvum, cyclosp ...201424588853
mechanistic investigations of unsaturated glucuronyl hydrolase from clostridium perfringens.experiments were carried out to probe the details of the hydration-initiated hydrolysis catalyzed by the clostridium perfringens unsaturated glucuronyl hydrolase of glycoside hydrolase family 88 in the cazy classification system. direct (1)h nmr monitoring of the enzymatic reaction detected no accumulated reaction intermediates in solution, suggesting that rearrangement of the initial hydration product occurs on-enzyme. an attempt at mechanism-based trapping of on-enzyme intermediates using a 1, ...201424573682
growth conditions of clostridium perfringens type b for production of toxins used to obtain veterinary vaccines.the diseases caused for clostridium perfringens are generically called enterotoxemias because toxins produced in the intestine may be absorbed into the general circulation. c. perfringens type b, grown in batch fermentation, produced toxins used to obtain veterinary vaccines. glucose in concentrations of 1.4-111.1 mm was used to define the culture medium. the minimum concentration for a satisfactory production of vaccines against clostridial diseases was 55.6 mm. best results were brought forth ...201424573216
xylanase supplementation of a wheat-based diet improved nutrient digestion and mrna expression of intestinal nutrient transporters in broiler chickens infected with clostridium perfringens.necrotic enteritis caused by clostridium perfringens has become prevalent in the european union due to the withdrawal of antibiotics in poultry feed. in an experiment with a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement, 336 one-day-old male broiler chicks (ross 308) were assigned to 4 groups with or without c. perfringens challenge and fed wheat-based diets supplemented with or without xylanase at 5,500 u/kg of diet. the study aimed to investigate effects of xylanase addition on growth performance as well as nut ...201424570428
opioid analgesics stop the development of clostridial gas gangrene.gas gangrene is a potentially fatal disease that is primarily caused by the ubiquitous, anaerobic bacteria clostridium perfringens and clostridium septicum. treatment is limited to antibiotic therapy, debridement of the infected tissue, and, in severe cases, amputation. the need for new treatment approaches is compelling. opioid-based analgesics such as buprenorphine and morphine also have immunomodulatory properties, usually leading to faster disease progression. however, here we show that mice ...201424550443
jejunal hematoma in cattle: a retrospective case analysis.sixteen years of adult cattle submissions to the california animal health and food safety laboratory system were examined and data captured from cases with anaerobic cultures of intestinal content. analysis was performed to determine if there were statistical differences between case submission types (nonbloody intestinal content [129 cases], bloody intestinal content [134 cases], and jejunal hematoma [jh; 51 cases]) for the presence of clostridium perfringens (314 cases), c. perfringens toxinot ...201424532694
multiple effects of escherichia coli nissle 1917 on growth, biofilm formation, and inflammation cytokines profile of clostridium perfringens type a strain cp4.clostridium perfringens is an important gram-positive pathogen responsible for food poisoning, necrotic enteritis, gas gangrene, and even death. escherichia coli nissle 1917 (ecn) is a well-characterized probiotic strain with demonstrated benefits. in this study, we evaluated the effects of ecn on growth, toxin production, biofilm formation, and inflammatory cytokine responses of c. perfringens. in vitro co-culture experiments demonstrated that ecn inhibited growth, gas production, and toxin pro ...201424532573
alteration of predominant gastrointestinal flora and oxidative damage of large intestine under simulated hypobaric hypoxia.hypobaric hypoxia is an immediate and crucial starting mechanism of acute mountain sickness included with some non-specific gastrointestinal (gi) complications. to study the effect of hypoxia on gi microflora and its upshot to this system, male albino rats were exposed to 55 kpa (air pressure ~ 4872.9 m altitude) consecutively 30 days for 8 hours/day. the different indicator group of large intestinal microbial populations were enumerated and correlated with the levels of antioxidant indicators l ...201424526402
two necrotic enteritis predisposing factors, dietary fishmeal and eimeria infection, induce large changes in the caecal microbiota of broiler chickens.it is widely established that a high-protein fishmeal supplemented starter diet and eimeria infection can predispose birds to the development of clinical necrotic enteritis symptoms following clostridium perfringens infection. however, it has not been clearly established what changes these treatments cause to predispose birds to succumb to necrotic enteritis. we analysed caecal microbiota of 4 groups of broilers (n=12) using deep pyrosequencing of 16s rdna amplicons: (1) control chicks fed a con ...201424522272
follow-up of 100 dogs with acute diarrhoea in a primary care practice.this study aimed to examine the aetiology of acute diarrhoea and the relapse rate in 100 client-owned dogs presented to a first-opinion clinic. history, physical examination, faecal testing and owner questionnaire data were collected at initial presentation (t0) and at either the time of relapse or at a recheck performed within 3 months. all dogs received treatment according to their clinical signs. of 96 dogs that completed the study, 37 (38.5%) relapsed during the study period, 21 (21.9%) rela ...201424268477
internalization of clostridium perfringens α-toxin leads to erk activation and is involved on its cytotoxic effect.clostridium perfringens phospholipase c (cpplc), also called α-toxin, plays a key role in the pathogenesis of gas gangrene. cpplc may lead to cell lysis at concentrations that cause extensive degradation of plasma membrane phospholipids. however, at sublytic concentrations it induces cytotoxicity without inducing evident membrane damage. the results of this work demonstrate that cpplc becomes internalized in cells by a dynamin-dependent mechanism and in a time progressive process: first, cpplc c ...201424245664
adhesive properties of clostridium perfringens to extracellular matrix proteins collagens and fibronectin.the adhesive properties of clostridium perfringens to collagens, gelatin, fibronectin (fn), fn-prebound collagens, and fn-prebound gelatin were investigated. c. perfringens could bind to fn-prebound collagen type ii, type iii, and gelatin, but not to gelatin or collagens except for collagen type i directly. recombinant fn-binding proteins of c. perfringens, rfbpa and rfbpb, were used to examine fn-mediated bacterial adherence to collagen type i. in the presence of rfbps, c. perfringens adherence ...201424239649
tissue distribution and safety evaluation of a claudin-targeting molecule, the c-terminal fragment of clostridium perfringens enterotoxin.we previously found that claudin (cl) is a potent target for cancer therapy using a cl-3 and -4-targeting molecule, namely the c-terminal fragment of clostridium perfringens enterotoxin (c-cpe). although cl-3 and -4 are expressed in various normal tissues, the safety of this cl-targeting strategy has never been investigated. here, we evaluated the tissue distribution of c-cpe in mice. ten minutes after intravenous injection into mice, c-cpe was distributed to the liver and kidney (24.0% and 9.5% ...201424231339
mechanistic insights from substrate preference in unsaturated glucuronyl hydrolase.natural and synthetic unsaturated glucuronides were tested as substrates for clostridium perfringens unsaturated glucuronyl hydrolase to probe its mechanism and to guide inhibitor design. of the natural substrates, a chondroitin disaccharide substrate with sulfation of the primary alcohol on carbon 6 of its n-acetylgalactosamine moiety was found to have the highest turnover number of any substrate reported for an unsaturated glucuronyl hydrolase, with kcat =112 s(-1) . synthetic aryl glycoside s ...201424227702
a fatal spontaneous gas gangrene due to clostridium perfringens during neutropenia of allogeneic stem cell transplantation: case report and literature review.most cases of gas gangrene caused by clostridium species begin with trauma-related injuries but in rare cases, spontaneous gas gangrene (sgg) can occur when patients have conditions such as advanced malignancy, diabetes, or immunosuppression. clostridium perfringens, a rare cause of sgg, exists as normal flora of skin and intestines of human. adequate antibiotics with surgical debridement of infected tissue is the only curative therapeutic management. mortality rate among adults is reported rang ...201425298910
genetic and antigenic typing of clostridium perfringens isolates from ostriches. 201425290951
a functional rect gene for recombineering of clostridium.recombineering is an efficient genetic manipulation method employing the mechanism of phagenic rect-mediated homologous recombination. to develop a recombineering method for clostridium, a putative rect gene (cpf0939) from clostridium perfringens genome was functionally verified in a clostridial host clostridium acetobutylicum. we show that a short synthetic oligonucleotide can be introduced into the target site for specific point mutation. this functional rect gene would therefore contribute to ...201424384234
the sialidases of clostridium perfringens type d strain cn3718 differ in their properties and sensitivities to inhibitors.clostridium perfringens causes histotoxic infections and diseases originating in animal or human intestines. a prolific toxin producer, this bacterium also produces numerous enzymes, including sialidases, that may facilitate infection. c. perfringens type d strain cn3718 carries genes encoding three sialidases, including two large secreted sialidases (named nani and nanj) and one small sialidase (named nanh) that has an intracellular location in log-phase cultures but is present in supernatants ...201424375134
screening of bacteriocin-producing enterococcus faecalis strains for antagonistic activities against clostridium perfringens.this study was conducted to isolate and characterize bacteriocin-producing bacteria against clostridium perfringens (c. perfringens) from domestic animals to determine their usefulness as probiotics. bacteriocin-producing bacteria were isolated from pig feces by the spot-on-lawn method. a total of 1,370 bacterial stains were isolated, and six were tentatively selected after identifying the inhibitory activity against the pathogenic indicator c. perfringens kctc 3269 and kctc 5100. the selected s ...201426761495
effects of temperature and packaging on the growth kinetics of clostridium perfringens in ready-to-eat jokbal (pig's trotters).ready-to-eat (rte) jokbal (pig's trotter), which consists of pig's feet cooked in soy sauce and various spices, is a very popular and widely sold in korean retail markets. commercially, the anaerobically packed jokbal have also become a popular rte food in several convenience stores. this study evaluates the effects of storage temperature and packaging methods for the growth of c. perfringens in jokbal. growth kinetic parameters of c. perfringens in aerobically and anaerobically packed jokbals a ...201426760749
autocatalytically generated thr-gln ester bond cross-links stabilize the repetitive ig-domain shaft of a bacterial cell surface adhesin.gram-positive bacteria are decorated by a variety of proteins that are anchored to the cell wall and project from it to mediate colonization, attachment to host cells, and pathogenesis. these proteins, and protein assemblies, such as pili, are typically long and thin yet must withstand high levels of mechanical stress and proteolytic attack. the recent discovery of intramolecular isopeptide bond cross-links, formed autocatalytically, in the pili from streptococcus pyogenes has highlighted the ro ...201424344302
dietary calcium, phosphorus, and phytase effects on bird performance, intestinal morphology, mineral digestibility, and bone ash during a natural necrotic enteritis episode.the objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of dietary ca, p, and phytase on performance, intestinal morphology, bone ash, and ca and p digestibility during a necrotic enteritis (ne) outbreak. the 35-d trial was designed as a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial, which included 2 ca levels (0.6 and 0.9%), 2 p levels (0.3 and 0.45%), and 2 levels of phytase [0 and 1,000 phytase units (ftu)/kg]. birds were placed on litter from a previous flock that exhibited clinical signs of ne. birds and feed were w ...201425143591
contributions of nani sialidase to caco-2 cell adherence by clostridium perfringens type a and c strains causing human intestinal disease.previous studies showed that clostridium perfringens type d animal disease strain cn3718 uses nani sialidase for adhering to enterocyte-like caco-2 cells. the current study analyzed whether nani is similarly important when type a and c human intestinal disease strains attach to caco-2 cells. a pcr survey determined that the nani gene was absent from typical type a food poisoning (fp) strains carrying a chromosomal enterotoxin (cpe) gene or the genetically related type c darmbrand (db) strains. h ...201425135687
efficacy of an anticoccidial live vaccine in prevention of necrotic enteritis in chickens.necrotic enteritis (ne) is an important disease in poultry caused by clostridium perfringens combined with predisposing factors, mainly eimeriosis. in the present study, we investigated the protective effect of a commercial attenuated anticoccidial live vaccine against ne in a clinical infection model using 60 day-old chicks. vaccination was performed on study day (sd) 1 with natural booster-infections for 4 weeks from eimeria spp. oocysts present in litter. on sd 28, five groups were formed (n= ...201425131774
enumeration of clostridia in goat milk using an optimized membrane filtration technique.a membrane filtration technique developed for counting butyric acid bacteria in cow milk was further developed for analysis of goat milk. reduction of the sample volume, prolongation of incubation time after addition of proteolytic enzyme and detergent, and a novel step of ultrasonic treatment during incubation allowed filtration of goat milk even in the case of somatic cell counts (scc) exceeding 10(6)/ml. however, filterability was impaired in milk from goats in late lactation. in total, spore ...201425129496
enteropathogen co-infection in uk cats with diarrhoea.individual enteropathogen infections in healthy and clinically ill cats are well described, but prevalence and patterns of enteropathogen co-infection have only been reported on a limited basis. we studied enteropathogen co-infection in diarrhoeic uk cats using results of a real time pcr assay for 8 enteropathogenic species; feline coronavirus (co), feline panleukopenia virus (pa), clostridium perfringens (cl), salmonella enterica (sa), giardia spp. (gi), tritrichomonas foetus (tr), cryptosporid ...201424410914
assessment of microbiological and chemical properties in a municipal landfill area.this study aimed at determining the environmental hazards for soils posed by a large municipal landfilll. the concentrations of heavy metals and policyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, as well as microbial composition (i.e., mesophilic bacteria, actinomycetes, molds, salmonella, staphylococcus, clostridium perfringens) in four soils within and in the vicinity of the landfill were evaluated and compared to waste samples. both chemical and microbiological analyses revealed only limited contamination of ...201424410690
an unusual mode of galactose recognition by a family 32 carbohydrate-binding module.carbohydrate-binding modules (cbms) are ancillary modules commonly associated with carbohydrate-active enzymes (cazymes) that function to mediate the adherence of the parent enzyme to its carbohydrate substrates. cbm family 32 (cbm32) is one of the most diverse cbm families, whose members are commonly found in bacterial cazymes that modify eukaryotic glycans. one such example is the putative μ-toxin, cpgh84a, of the family 84 glycoside hydrolases, which comprises an n-terminal putative β-n-acety ...201424326248
horizontally transferred genetic elements and their role in pathogenesis of bacterial disease.this article reviews the roles that laterally transferred genes (ltg) play in the virulence of bacterial pathogens. the features of ltg that allow them to be recognized in bacterial genomes are described, and the mechanisms by which ltg are transferred between and within bacteria are reviewed. genes on plasmids, integrative and conjugative elements, prophages, and pathogenicity islands are highlighted. virulence genes that are frequently laterally transferred include genes for bacterial adherenc ...201424318976
computer-guided approach to access the anti-influenza activity of licorice constituents.neuraminidase (na), a key enzyme in viral replication, is the first-line drug target to combat influenza. on the basis of a shape-focused virtual screening, the roots of glycyrrhiza glabra (licorice) were identified as plant species with an accumulation of constituents that show 3d similarities to known influenza na inhibitors (nais). phytochemical investigation revealed 12 constituents identified as (e)-1-[2,4-dihydroxy-3-(3-methyl-2-butenyl)phenyl]-3-(8-hydroxy-2,2-dimethyl-2h-1-benzopyran-6-y ...201424313801
clostridium perfringens sepsis following a molar pregnancy.clostridium perfringens sepsis is rare since the legalization of abortion in 1973. this is a 49 year old female who developed clostridial sepsis after suction dilation and curettage for a molar pregnancy. a hysterectomy was performed after prompt recognition, and the patient survived.201424096275
[clostridium perfringens-induced intravascular hemolysis]. 201423891133
screening of lactobacillus strains of domestic goose origin against bacterial poultry pathogens for use as probiotics.lactobacilli are natural inhabitants of human and animal mucous membranes, including the avian gastrointestinal tract. recently, increasing attention has been given to their probiotic, health-promoting capacities, among which their antagonistic potential against pathogens plays a key role. a study was conducted to evaluate probiotic properties of lactobacillus strains isolated from feces or cloacae of domestic geese. among the 104 examined isolates, previously identified to the species level by ...201425104766
new amino acid germinants for spores of the enterotoxigenic clostridium perfringens type a isolates.clostridium perfringens spore germination plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of c. perfringens-associated food poisoning (fp) and non-food-borne (nfb) gastrointestinal diseases. germination is initiated when bacterial spores sense specific nutrient germinants (such as amino acids) through germinant receptors (grs). in this study, we aimed to identify and characterize amino acid germinants for spores of enterotoxigenic c. perfringens type a. the polar, uncharged amino acids at ph 6.0 effic ...201425084641
proportion of illness acquired by foodborne transmission for nine enteric pathogens in australia: an expert elicitation.estimates of the burden of illness acquired from food inform public health policy and prioritize interventions. a key component of such estimates is the proportion of illnesses that are acquired by foodborne transmission. in view of the shortage of requisite data, these proportions are commonly obtained through a process known as expert elicitation. we report findings from an elicitation process used to assess the importance of the foodborne transmission route for nine pathogens in australia, ci ...201425072416
lumbar discitis caused by clostridium perfringens.we report here a rare case of chronic lumbar discitis caused by clostridium perfringens in an elderly patient that was treated with a combination of β-lactams and clindamycin. molecular analysis performed on the strain revealed an unusual toxin gene pattern.201425056327
first isolation of mycoplasma iowae in grey partridge flocks.mycoplasma iowae, an occasional pathogen of turkeys, was isolated for the first time from captive grey partridges (perdix perdix). clinical signs including respiratory and intestinal disorder were seen in birds of all ages but mainly in those kept housed during rearing. mortality rates averaged over 20% during the year. treatment with antibiotics and antiparasitic drugs produced only a transient improvement in condition. the gross pathology findings included poor body growth, lack of development ...201425055642
toxinotyping of clostridium perfringens fecal isolates of reintroduced père david's deer (elaphurus davidianus) in china.clostridium perfringens is an important pathogen causing sudden death syndrome, necrotic enteritis, and gas gangrene in ruminants, especially some deer species. père david's deer (elaphurus davidianus) is one of the world's rare species and is an endangered and protected species in china. some père david's deer in the chinese shishou père david's deer preserve died due to c. perfringens infection. we investigated the toxin types and c. perfringens enterotoxin-positive (cpe(+)) strains of isolate ...201425050802
[complex surgical management of hemodialysis vascular access infection caused by clostridium perfringens].infection of prosthetic hemodialysis (hd) shunts is one of the most common complications of vascular access in hemodialysis patients. the incidence of anaerobic infection is very rare. in such a case, management of treatment represents a great challenge for the surgeon. we report a complicated case of autologous hemodialysis shunt infected by clostridium perfringens on the right forearm in a polymorbid female patient with chronic renal failure and myelodysplastic syndrome. the patient has underg ...201425047973
applicability of universal bacteroidales genetic marker for microbial monitoring of drinking water sources in comparison to conventional indicators.water quality monitoring is essential for the provision of safe drinking water. in this study, we compared a selection of fecal indicators with universal bacteroidales genetic marker to identify fecal pollution of a variety of drinking water sources. a total of 60 samples were collected from water sources. the microbiological parameters included total coliforms, fecal coliforms, escherichia coli and fecal streptococci as the fecal indicator bacteria (fib), clostridium perfringens and h2s bacteri ...201425023746
structure of a c. perfringens enterotoxin mutant in complex with a modified claudin-2 extracellular loop 2.cpe (clostridium perfringens enterotoxin) is the major virulence determinant for c. perfringens type-a food poisoning, the second most common bacterial food-borne illness in the uk and usa. after binding to its receptors, which include particular human claudins, the toxin forms pores in the cell membrane. the mature pore apparently contains a hexamer of cpe, claudin and, possibly, occludin. the combination of high binding specificity with cytotoxicity has resulted in cpe being investigated, with ...201425020226
correlation between in vitro cytotoxicity and in vivo lethal activity in mice of epsilon toxin mutants from clostridium perfringens.epsilon toxin (etx) from clostridium perfringens is a pore-forming protein with a lethal effect on livestock, producing severe enterotoxemia characterized by general edema and neurological alterations. site-specific mutations of the toxin are valuable tools to study the cellular and molecular mechanism of the toxin activity. in particular, mutants with paired cysteine substitutions that affect the membrane insertion domain behaved as dominant-negative inhibitors of toxin activity in mdck cells. ...201425013927
necrotizing myositis in a neutropenic patient: the use of ultrasound in the diagnosis of atypical presentations.we report a case of fatal necrotizing soft tissue infection (nsti) due to clostridium perfringens (cp) in a neutropenic patient with diabetes mellitus. as in many cases, by the time a diagnosis was made, the condition had rapidly progressed to its late stages, resulting in a fatal outcome. the emergency physician should be aware of nsti as a complication when patients present with pain out of proportion to physical findings and/or signs of soft tissue compromise. negative prognostic factors for ...201425013733
[a patient with sepsis and a gas-forming liver abscess caused by clostridium perfringens treated with continuous perfusion drainage].a 64-year-old man presented with diarrhea, fever, and disturbance of consciousness; he was subsequently diagnosed with acute renal and hepatic disorder. abdominal computed tomography identified a gas-forming liver abscess, and the patient underwent emergency drainage. however, his condition did not improve, and clostridium perfringens was observed in his blood culture. continuous perfusion drainage was performed by placing an additional drainage tube, which resulted in abscess shrinkage and impr ...201424998733
b-cell epitope of beta toxin of clostridium perfringens genetically conjugated to a carrier protein: expression, purification and characterization of the chimeric protein.beta toxin (btx) is the prime virulence factor for the pathogenesis of clostridium perfringens type c strain, known to cause necrotic enteritis and enterotoxaemia in mammalian species. the existing vaccines targeting btx are formaldehyde inactivated culture filtrates of clostridium. these filtrates raise antigenic load in the host leading to nonspecific and poor responses. the present study aimed to overcome these drawbacks and generate a chimeric protein carrying in silico identified b-cell epi ...201424996028
challenging the roles of cd44 and lipolysis stimulated lipoprotein receptor in conveying clostridium perfringens iota toxin cytotoxicity in breast cancer.translational exploration of bacterial toxins has come to the forefront of research given their potential as a chemotherapeutic tool. studies in select tissues have demonstrated that clostridium perfringens iota toxin binds to cd44 and lipolysis stimulated lipoprotein receptor (lsr) cell-surface proteins. we recently demonstrated that lsr expression correlates with estrogen receptor positive breast cancers and that lsr signaling directs aggressive, tumor-initiating cell behaviors. herein, we ide ...201424990559
public health campaign to promote hand hygiene before meals in a college of veterinary medicine.veterinary students can be exposed to environmental infectious agents in school that may include zoonotic pathogens. encouraging effective hand hygiene can minimize the spread of zoonoses and promote public health and the one health concept among veterinary students. the purpose of this study was to determine if a campaign could improve hand hygiene among veterinary students at extracurricular meetings serving meals. nine kansas state university college of veterinary medicine (ksu-cvm) extracurr ...201424981423
progress and problems in vaccination against necrotic enteritis in broiler chickens.necrotic enteritis in broilers is caused by clostridium perfringens type a strains that produce the netb toxin. necrotic enteritis is one of the gastrointestinal diseases in poultry that has gained worldwide importance during the last decade due to efforts to improve broiler performance. prevention strategies include avoiding predisposing factors, such as coccidiosis, and in-feed supplementation with a variety of feed additives. however, vaccination with modified toxin or other secreted immunoge ...201424980518
cryptosporidium and giardia in tropical recreational marine waters contaminated with domestic sewage: estimation of bathing-associated disease risks.sewage is a major contributor to pollution problems involving human pathogens in tropical coastal areas. this study investigated the occurrence of intestinal protozoan parasites (giardia and cryptosporidium) in tropical recreational marine waters contaminated with sewage. the potential risks of cryptosporidium and giardia infection from recreational water exposure were estimated from the levels of viable (oo) cysts (dic+, dapi+, pi-) found in near-shore swimming areas using an exponential dose r ...201424975093
neuraminidase inhibitory activities of quaternary isoquinoline alkaloids from corydalis turtschaninovii rhizome.clostridium perfringens is a gram-positive spore-forming bacterium that causes food poisoning. the neuraminidase (na) protein of c. perfringens plays a pivotal role in bacterial proliferation and is considered a novel antibacterial drug target. based on screens for novel na inhibitors, a 95% etoh extract of corydalis turtschaninovii rhizome showed na inhibitory activity (68% at 30 μg/ml), which resulted in the isolation of 10 isoquinoline alkaloids; namely, palmatine (1), berberine (2), coptisin ...201425277281
the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol predisposes for the development of clostridium perfringens-induced necrotic enteritis in broiler chickens.both mycotoxin contamination of feed and clostridium perfringens-induced necrotic enteritis have an increasing global economic impact on poultry production. especially the fusarium mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (don) is a common feed contaminant. this study aimed at examining the predisposing effect of don on the development of necrotic enteritis in broiler chickens. an experimental clostridium perfringens infection study revealed that don, at a contamination level of 3,000 to 4,000 µg/kg feed, incre ...201425268498
intestinal events and nutritional dynamics predispose clostridium perfringens virulence in broilers.clostridium perfringensa (cpa) entering the gastrointestinal system depends on favorable conditions to develop and subsequently extend pathogenicity. reduction in digestive dynamics progressing from the duodenum decreases lumen oxygen, leading to anaerobic conditions in the distal lumen that favor cpa. when nutritional support is concurrently provided, an expanding population threatens the mucosa. dietary nonstarch polysaccharides that increase viscosity further impair oxygen transfer from the m ...201425260526
a tripartite cocktail of chimeric monoclonal antibodies passively protects mice against ricin, staphylococcal enterotoxin b and clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin.due to the fast-acting nature of ricin, staphylococcal enterotoxin b (seb), and clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin (etx), it is necessary that therapeutic interventions following a bioterrorism incident by one of these toxins occur as soon as possible after intoxication. moreover, because the clinical manifestations of intoxication by these agents are likely to be indistinguishable from each other, especially following aerosol exposure, we have developed a cocktail of chimeric monoclonal anti ...201425260254
clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin: the third most potent bacterial toxin known.epsilon toxin (etx) is produced by clostridium perfringens type b and d strains and causes enterotoxemia, a highly lethal disease with major impacts on the farming of domestic ruminants, particularly sheep. etx belongs to the aerolysin-like pore-forming toxin family. although etx has striking similarities to other toxins in this family, etx is often more potent, with an ld50 of 100 ng/kg in mice. due to this high potency, etx is considered as a potential bioterrorism agent and has been classifie ...201425234332
in vitro fermentation of lactulose by human gut bacteria.lactulose has been known as a prebiotic that can selectively stimulate the growth of beneficial bifidobacteria and lactobacilli. recent studies have indicated that streptococcus mutans, clostridium perfringens, and faecalibacterium prausnitzii are also able to utilize lactulose. however, the previous studies mainly focused on the utilization of lactulose by individual strains, and few studies were designed to identify the species that could utilize lactulose among gut microbiota. this study aime ...201425340538
crystal structure of the phosphate-binding protein (pbp-1) of an abc-type phosphate transporter from clostridium perfringens.phosphate limitation is an important environmental stress that affects the metabolism of various organisms and, in particular, can trigger the virulence of numerous bacterial pathogens. clostridium perfringens, a human pathogen, is one of the most common causes of enteritis necroticans, gas gangrene and food poisoning. here, we focused on the high affinity phosphate-binding protein (pbp-1) of an abc-type transporter, responsible for cellular phosphate uptake. we report the crystal structure (1.6 ...201425338617
proteolytic processing and activation of clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin by caprine small intestinal contents.epsilon toxin (etx), a pore-forming toxin produced by type b and d strains of clostridium perfringens, mediates severe enterotoxemia in livestock and possibly plays a role in human disease. during enterotoxemia, the nearly inactive etx prototoxin is produced in the intestines but then must be activated by proteolytic processing. the current study sought to examine etx prototoxin processing and activation ex vivo using the intestinal contents of a goat, a natural host species for etx-mediated dis ...201425336460
clostridium perfringens septicemia in a long-beaked common dolphin delphinus capensis: an etiology of gas bubble accumulation in cetaceans.an adult female long-beaked common dolphin delphinus capensis live-stranded in la jolla, california, usa, on july 30, 2012 and subsequently died on the beach. computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging revealed gas bubble accumulation in the vasculature, organ parenchyma, mandibular fat pads, and subdermal sheath as well as a gas-filled cavity within the liver, mild caudal abdominal effusion, and fluid in the uterus. gross examination confirmed these findings and also identified mild ulc ...201425320031
in vitro effect of dietary protein level and nondigestible oligosaccharides on feline fecal microbiota.the aim of the present study was to evaluate in vitro the effect of some prebiotic substances and 2 dietary protein levels on the composition and activity of feline fecal microbiota. two in vitro studies were conducted. first, 6 nondigestible oligosaccharides were studied; treatments were control diet (ctrl), gluconic acid (ga), carrot fiber (cf), fructooligosaccharides (fos), galactooligosaccharides (gos), lactitol (lac), and pectins from citrus fruit (pec). substrates were added to feline feca ...201425367521
splenic abscess after splenic blunt injury angioembolization.splenic angioembolization (sae), during nonoperative management (nom) of blunt splenic injury (bsi), is an effective therapy for hemodynamically stable patients with grade iii, iv, and v ois splenic injuries. we report a case of a patient with a blunt abdominal trauma due to an accidental fall, who presented splenic abscess a week after sae and a review of the literature.201425362884
high incidence of staphylococcus aureus and norovirus gastroenteritis in infancy: a single-center, 1-year experience.the etiology of acute gastroenteritis (age) has changed since the introduction of the rotavirus vaccination. the aim of this study was to clarify which common pathogens, both bacterial and viral, are currently causing age in infants.201425349829
successional changes in the chicken cecal microbiome during 42 days of growth are independent of organic acid feed additives.poultry remains a major source of foodborne bacterial infections. a variety of additives with presumed anti-microbial and/or growth-promoting effects are commonly added to poultry feed during commercial grow-out, yet the effects of these additives on the gastrointestinal microbial community (the gi microbiome) as the bird matures remain largely unknown. here we compared temporal changes in the cecal microbiome to the effects of formic acid, propionic acid, and medium-chain fatty acids (mcfa) add ...201425427406
[focal meningitis in a california sea lion (zalophus californianus)--diagnostic procedure and pathology].a 15-year-old female california sea lion (zalophus californianus) with progressive lameness of the hindlimbs and a chronic skin lesion was presented for clinical examination. the clinical neurological examination, showing a paraparesis, was completed by magnetic resonance imaging. mr images of the cervical and thoracic spine showed a well-defined muscle infiltrating lesion between the seventh cervical vertebra (c7) and the second thoracic vertebra (t2), which extended through the intervertebral ...201425406071
effect of rooibos (aspalathus linearis) on growth control of clostridium perfringens and lipid oxidation of ready-to-eat jokbal (pig's trotters).this study investigated the antimicrobial effects of rooibos (tea extract), potassium lactate (pl) and sodium diacetate (sda) mixture alone or in combinations on the growth of clostridium perfringens vegetative cell and spore in ready-to-eat (rte) jokbal (pig's trotters). addition of a combination of 10% rooibos and 4% pl + sda inhibit growth of c. perfringens vegetative cell in jokbal at 24 °c and 36 °c. the significant inhibition on germination and growth of c. perfringens spores was also obse ...201425394229
effects of dexamethasone immunosuppression on turkey clostridial dermatitis.clostridia represents a group of anaerobic spore-forming bacteria ubiquitous in the poultry environment. they are widely distributed in soil and survive for many years as highly resistant, inactive spores. they enter the body through wounds and contaminated feed as active bacteria or spores. multiplication of clostridial bacteria occurs only in the absence of oxygen or in environments with very low concentrations of oxygen. during active multiplication, the clostridial organisms produce several ...201425518439
mucin gene mrna levels in broilers challenged with eimeria and/or clostridium perfringens.the effects of eimeria (em) and clostridium perfringens (cp) challenges on the mrna levels of genes involved in mucin (muc) synthesis (muc2, muc5ac, muc13, and trefoil family factor-2 [tff2]), inflammation (tumor necrosis factor alpha [tnf-alpha] and interleukin-18 [il-18]), and metabolic processes (cluster of differentiation [cd]36) in the jejunum of broilers were investigated. two parallel experiments involving 1) em challenge and 2) em and cp challenges were conducted. the first experiment wa ...201425518436
clostridium perfringens type a enteritis in blue and yellow macaw (ara ararauna).this study describes an outbreak of necrotic enteritis caused by clostridium perfringens type a in captive macaws (ara ararauna). two psittacine birds presented a history of prostration and died 18 hr after manifestation of clinical signs. the necropsy findings and histopathologic lesions were indicative of necrotic enteritis. microbiologic assays resulted in the growth of large gram-positive bacilli that were identified as c. perfringens. pcr was used to identify clostridium toxinotypes and con ...201425619013
structure of a bacterial microcompartment shell protein bound to a cobalamin cofactor.the eutl shell protein is a key component of the ethanolamine-utilization microcompartment, which serves to compartmentalize ethanolamine degradation in diverse bacteria. the apparent function of this shell protein is to facilitate the selective diffusion of large cofactor molecules between the cytoplasm and the lumen of the microcompartment. while eutl is implicated in molecular-transport phenomena, the details of its function, including the identity of its transport substrate, remain unknown. ...201425484204
transcriptional profiles of host-pathogen responses to necrotic enteritis and differential regulation of immune genes in two inbreed chicken lines showing disparate disease susceptibility.necrotic enteritis (ne) is an important intestinal infectious disease of commercial poultry flocks caused by clostridium perfringens. using an experimental model of ne involving co-infection with c. perfringens and eimeria maxima, transcriptome profiling and functional genomics approaches were applied to identify the genetic mechanisms that might regulate the host response to this disease. microarray hybridization identified 1,049 transcripts whose levels were altered (601 increased, 448 decreas ...201425504150
global phenotypic characterization of effects of fluoroquinolone resistance selection on the metabolic activities and drug susceptibilities of clostridium perfringens strains.fluoroquinolone resistance affects toxin production of clostridium perfringens strains differently. to investigate the effect of fluoroquinolone resistance selection on global changes in metabolic activities and drug susceptibilities, four c. perfringens strains and their norfloxacin-, ciprofloxacin-, and gatifloxacin-resistant mutants were compared in nearly 2000 assays, using phenotype microarray plates. variations among mutant strains resulting from resistance selection were observed in all a ...201425587280
modulation of small intestinal homeostasis along with its microflora during acclimatization at simulated hypobaric hypoxia.at high altitude (ha) hypobaric hypoxic environment manifested several pathophysiological consequences of which gastrointestinal (gi) disorder are very common phenomena. to explore the most possible clue behind this disorder intestinal flora, the major player of the gi functions, were subjected following simulated hypobaric hypoxic treatment in model animal. for this, male albino rats were exposed to 55 kpa (approximately 4872.9 m) air pressure consecutively for 30 days for 8 h/day and its small ...201425434105
prevalence of clostridium perfringens, clostridium perfringens enterotoxin and dysbiosis in fecal samples of dogs with diarrhea.clostridium perfringens has been suspected as an enteropathogen in dogs. however, its exact role in gastrointestinal (gi) disorders in dogs remains unknown. recent studies suggest the importance of an altered intestinal microbiota in the activation of virulence factors of enteropathogens. the aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between diarrhea, dysbiosis, and the presence of c. perfringens and its enterotoxin (cpe). fecal samples were collected prospectively from 95 healthy contr ...201425458422
immune and anti-oxidant effects of in ovo selenium proteinate on post-hatch experimental avian necrotic enteritis.this study was conducted to investigate the effects of in ovo administration of selenium (se) incorporated into hydrolyzed soybean protein (b-taxim [bt]) on protection against experimental avian necrotic enteritis (ne). broiler eggs were injected with either 100 μl of pbs alone (bt0), or 20 or 40 μg/egg of bt in pbs (bt20, bt40) at 18 days of embryogenesis. on day 14 post-hatch, the chickens were uninfected or orally infected with 1.0 × 10(4) oocysts of eimeria maxima (e. maxima). on day 18 post ...201425468015
erratum for maheux et al., abilities of the mcp agar method and crename alpha toxin-specific real-time pcr assay to detect clostridium perfringens spores in drinking water. 201426058088
[studies on prophylactic action of phenoxymethyl penicillin in experimental anaerobic infections]. 201424544291
technological properties of bacteriocin-producing lactic acid bacteria isolated from pico cheese an artisanal cow's milk cheese.evaluate technologically relevant properties from bacteriocin-producing strains to use as starter/adjunct cultures in cheese making.201424206097
cystathionine β-synthase (cbs) domains confer multiple forms of mg2+-dependent cooperativity to family ii pyrophosphatases.regulated family ii pyrophosphatases (cbs-ppases) contain a nucleotide-binding insert comprising a pair of cystathionine β-synthase (cbs) domains, termed a bateman module. by binding with high affinity to the cbs domains, amp and adp usually inhibit the enzyme, whereas atp activates it. here, we demonstrate that amp, adp, and atp bind in a positively cooperative manner to cbs-ppases from four bacteria: desulfitobacterium hafniense, clostridium novyi, clostridium perfringens, and eggerthella lent ...201424986864
antibacterial activity against clostridium genus and antiradical activity of the essential oils from different origin.in the present study, the antimicrobial and antiradical activities of 15 essential oils were investigated. the antimicrobial activities were determined by using agar disc diffusion and broth microdilution methods against clostridium genus and antioxidant properties of essential oils by testing their scavenging effect on dpph radicals activities. we determined the antibacterial activity of clostridium butyricum, clostridium hystoliticum, clostridium intestinale, clostridium perfringens and clostr ...201424813985
effects of clostridium butyricum on growth performance, immune function, and cecal microflora in broiler chickens challenged with escherichia coli k88.this study was conducted to investigate the effects of clostridium butyricumon growth performance, immune function, and cecal microflora in broiler chickens challenged with escherichia coli k88. three hundred sixty 1-d-old broiler chickens were randomly divided into 4 treatments: negative control (nc) birds were fed a basal diet and not challenged with e. coli k88; positive control (pc) birds were fed a basal diet and challenged with e. coli k88; c. butyricum treatment (cb) birds were fed a diet ...201424570422
biofilms of clostridium species.the biofilm is a microbial community embedded in a synthesized matrix and is the main bacterial way of life. a biofilm adheres on surfaces or is found on interfaces. it protects bacteria from the environment, toxic molecules and may have a role in virulence. clostridium species are spread throughout both environments and hosts, but their biofilms have not been extensively described in comparison with other bacterial species. in this review we describe all biofilms formed by clostridium species d ...201425242197
expression of the large clostridial toxins is controlled by conserved regulatory mechanisms.the clostridia cause many human and animal diseases, resulting in significant morbidity and mortality. host damage results from the action of potent exotoxins, an important group of which is the large clostridial toxins (lcts) produced by clostridium difficile, clostridium sordellii, clostridium perfringens and clostridium novyi. knowledge of the structure and function of these toxins has been attained, however, apart from c. difficile, the regulatory pathways that control lct production remain ...201425190355
enterotoxigenic clostridium perfringens infection and pediatric patients with inflammatory bowel disease.clostridium difficile is the major cause of antibiotic-associated diarrhea and is the most well known bacterial pathogen associated with inflammatory bowel disease (ibd). enterotoxigenic clostridium perfringens has also been detected in up to 15% of antibiotic-associated diarrhea cases, and it has not been found in healthy people. the aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of c. perfringens infection in pediatric patients with ibd.201424060617
view from the front lines: an emergency medicine perspective on clostridial infections in injection drug users.injection drug use (idu), specifically non-intravenous "skin-popping" of heroin, seems to provide optimal conditions for clostridial infection and toxin production. idu is therefore a major risk factor for wound botulism and clostridial necrotizing soft tissue infections (nsti) and continues to be linked to cases of tetanus. case clusters of all 3 diseases have occurred among idus in western u.s. and europe. medical personnel who care for the idu population must be thoroughly familiar with the c ...201425230330
eutrophication and bacterial pathogens as risk factors for avian botulism outbreaks in wetlands receiving effluents from urban wastewater treatment plants.due to the scarcity of water resources in the "mancha húmeda" biosphere reserve, the use of treated wastewater has been proposed as a solution for the conservation of natural threatened floodplain wetlands. in addition, wastewater treatment plants of many villages pour their effluent into nearby natural lakes. we hypothesized that certain avian pathogens present in wastewater may cause avian mortalities which would trigger avian botulism outbreaks. with the aim of testing our hypothesis, 24 loca ...201424795377
relationship between gastrointestinal dysbiosis and clostridium botulinum in dairy cows.the gastrointestinal tract is a balanced ecosystem that can get out of balance and predisposed to clostridial diseases or other pathological conditions. the objective of the present study was to evaluate the gut microbiota in dairy cows suffering from chronic botulism. cows were investigated for clostridium (c.) botulinum in faeces and rumen fluids. in order to study the relationship between botulism and gastrointestinal microbiota, faeces and rumen fluid were tested for bacterial composition us ...201424747040
clostridium difficile and clostridium perfringens from wild carnivore species in brazil.despite some case reports, the importance of clostridium perfringens and clostridium difficile for wild carnivores remains unclear. thus, the objective of this study was to identify c. perfringens and c. difficile strains in stool samples from wild carnivore species in brazil. a total of 34 stool samples were collected and subjected to c. perfringens and c. difficile isolation. suggestive colonies of c. perfringens were then analyzed for genes encoding the major c. perfringens toxins (alpha, bet ...201424979683
clostridium perfringens and clostridium difficile in cooked beef sold in côte d'ivoire and their antimicrobial susceptibility.the aim of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of clostridium difficile and clostridium perfringens in cooked beef sold in the streets in côte d'ivoire and their antimicrobial susceptibility. a total of 395 kidney and flesh samples of cooked beef were collected from vendors at abidjan and subjected to c. difficile and c. perfringens isolation and identification by using biochemical tests, api 20a system and pcr detection. subsequently, the antimicrobial susceptibility test was performed fo ...201424944124
haemorrhagic toxin and lethal toxin from clostridium sordellii strain vpi9048: molecular characterization and comparative analysis of substrate specificity of the large clostridial glucosylating toxins.large clostridial glucosylating toxins (lcgts) are produced by toxigenic strains of clostridium difficile, clostridium perfringens, clostridium novyi and clostridium sordellii. while most c. sordellii strains solely produce lethal toxin (tcsl), c. sordellii strain vpi9048 co-produces both hemorrhagic toxin (tcsh) and tcsl. here, the sequences of tcsh-9048 and tcsl-9048 are provided, showing that both toxins retain conserved lcgt features and that tcsl and tcsh are highly related to toxin a (tcda ...201424905543
the effect of new neonatal porcine diarrhoea syndrome (nnpds) on average daily gain and mortality in 4 danish pig herds.the study evaluated the effect of new neonatal porcine diarrhoea syndrome (nnpds) on average daily gain (adg) and mortality and described the clinical manifestations in four herds suffering from the syndrome. nnpds is a diarrhoeic syndrome affecting piglets within the first week of life, which is not caused by enterotoxigenic escherichia coli (etec), clostridium perfringens (c. perfringens) type a/c, clostridium difficile (c. difficile), rotavirus a, coronavirus, cystoisospora suis, strongyloide ...201424755093
lrp1 is a receptor for clostridium perfringens tpel toxin indicating a two-receptor model of clostridial glycosylating toxins.large glycosylating toxins are major virulence factors of various species of pathogenic clostridia. prototypes are clostridium difficile toxins a and b, which cause antibiotics-associated diarrhea and pseudomembranous colitis. the current model of the toxins' action suggests that receptor binding is mediated by a c-terminal domain of combined repetitive oligopeptides (crop). this model is challenged by the glycosylating clostridium perfringens large cytotoxin (tpel toxin) that is devoid of the c ...201424737893
utility of the clostridial site-specific recombinase tnpx to clone toxic-product-encoding genes and selectively remove genomic dna fragments.tnpx is a site-specific recombinase responsible for the excision and insertion of the transposons tn4451 and tn4453 in clostridium perfringens and clostridium difficile, respectively. here, we exploit phenotypic features of tnpx to facilitate genetic mutagenesis and complementation studies. genetic manipulation of bacteria often relies on the use of antibiotic resistance genes; however, a limited number are available for use in the clostridia. the ability of tnpx to recognize and excise specific ...201424682304
evaluation of a multiplex pcr assay for simultaneous detection of bacterial and viral enteropathogens in stool samples of paediatric patients.we evaluated a multiplex pcr assay, the seeplex diarrhoea ace detection, that simultaneously detects 15 enteric pathogens, including salmonella spp., shigella spp., vibrio spp., toxin b producer clostridium difficile, campylobacter spp., clostridium perfringens, yersinia enterocolitica, aeromonas spp., escherichia coli o157:h7, verocytotoxin-producing escherichia coli, adenovirus, group a rotavirus, norovirus gi and gii, and astrovirus. we compared this assay with clinical methods routinely used ...201424656922
characterization of clostridium perfringens in the feces of adult horses and foals with acute enterocolitis.up to 60% of cases of equine colitis have no known cause. to improve understanding of the causes of acute colitis in horses, we hypothesized that clostridium perfringens producing enterotoxin (cpe) and/or beta2 toxin (cpb2) are common and important causes of severe colitis in horses and/or that c. perfringens producing an as-yet-undescribed cytotoxin may also cause colitis in horses. fecal samples from 55 horses (43 adults, 12 foals) with clinical evidence of colitis were evaluated by culture fo ...201424396174
diarylacylhydrazones: clostridium-selective antibacterials with activity against stationary-phase cells.current antibiotics for treating clostridium difficile infections (cdi), that is, metronidazole, vancomycin and more recently fidaxomicin, are mostly effective but treatment failure and disease relapse remain as significant clinical problems. the shortcomings of these agents are attributed to their low selectivity for c. difficile over normal gut microflora and their ineffectiveness against c. difficile spores. this letter reports that certain diarylacylhydrazones identified during a high-throug ...201424360560
infectious agents associated with diarrhoea in neonatal foals in central kentucky: a comprehensive molecular study.diarrhoea caused by infectious agents is common in foals but there is no comprehensive molecular work-up of the relative prevalence of common agents and appearance of coinfections.201423773143
comparison of two methods of bacterial dna extraction from human fecal samples contaminated with clostridium perfringens, staphylococcus aureus, salmonella typhimurium, and campylobacter jejuni.in this study, 2 methods of dna extraction were evaluated for use in conjunction with the screening system rapid foodborne bacterial screening 24 (rfbs24), which employs multiplex real-time sybr green polymerase chain reaction (sg-pcr) and can simultaneously detect 24 target genes of foodborne pathogens in fecal dna samples. the qiaamp dna stool mini kit (qkit) and ultra clean fecal dna isolation kit (ukit) were used for bacterial dna extraction from fecal samples artificially inoculated with cl ...201425410559
antibacterial and antioxidant activities in extracts of fully grown cladodes of 8 cultivars of cactus pear.the antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of some cultivars of the nopal cactus have not been determined. in this study, 8 cultivars of nopal cacti from mexico were assayed for phenolic content, antioxidant activities, and antimicrobial activities against campylobacter jejuni, vibrio cholera, and clostridium perfringens. plant material was washed, dried, and macerated in methanol. minimum bactericidal concentrations (mbcs) were determined using the broth microdilution method. antioxidant acti ...201424621296
surveillance for zoonotic and selected pathogens in harbor seals phoca vitulina from central california.the infection status of harbor seals phoca vitulina in central california, usa, was evaluated through broad surveillance for pathogens in stranded and wild-caught animals from 2001 to 2008, with most samples collected in 2007 and 2008. stranded animals from mendocino county to san luis obispo county were sampled at a rehabilitation facility: the marine mammal center (tmmc, n = 175); wild-caught animals were sampled at 2 locations: san francisco bay (sf, n = 78) and tomales bay (tb, n = 97), that ...201425266897
essential oil composition and antimicrobial activity of angelica archangelica l. (apiaceae) roots.in this paper, the chemical composition and the antimicrobial activity of the essential oil of angelica archangelica l. (apiaceae) roots from central italy were analyzed. the major constituents of the oil were α-pinene (21.3%), δ-3-carene (16.5%), limonene (16.4%) and α-phellandrene (8.7%). the oil shows a good antimicrobial activity against clostridium difficile, clostridium perfringens, enterococcus faecalis, eubacterium limosum, peptostreptococcus anaerobius, and candida albicans with minimum ...201424788027
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