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expression and efficient secretion of a functional chitinase from chromobacterium violaceum in escherichia coli.chromobacterium violaceum is a free-living β-proteobacterium found in tropical and subtropical regions. the genomic sequencing of c. violaceum atcc 12472 has revealed many genes that underpin its adaptability to diverse ecosystems. moreover, c. violaceum genes with potential applications in industry, medicine and agriculture have also been identified, such as those encoding chitinases. however, none of the chitinase genes of the atcc 12472 strain have been subjected to experimental validation. c ...201323725035
d-alanine modification of a protease-susceptible outer membrane component by the bordetella pertussis dra locus promotes resistance to antimicrobial peptides and polymorphonuclear leukocyte-mediated killing.bordetella pertussis is the causative agent of pertussis, a highly contagious disease of the human respiratory tract. despite very high vaccine coverage, pertussis has reemerged as a serious threat in the united states and many developing countries. thus, it is important to pursue research to discover unknown pathogenic mechanisms of b. pertussis. we have investigated a previously uncharacterized locus in b. pertussis, the dra locus, which is homologous to the dlt operons of gram-positive bacter ...201324013634
toxin-antitoxin systems: biology, identification, and application.toxin-antitoxin (ta) systems are small genetic elements composed of a toxin gene and its cognate antitoxin. the toxins of all known ta systems are proteins while the antitoxins are either proteins or non-coding rnas. based on the molecular nature of the antitoxin and its mode of interaction with the toxin the ta modules are currently grouped into five classes. in general, the toxin is more stable than the antitoxin but the latter is expressed to a higher level. if supply of the antitoxin stops, ...201324251069
antibiofilm activity of actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae serotype 5 capsular polysaccharide.cell-free extracts isolated from colony biofilms of actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae serotype 5 were found to inhibit biofilm formation by staphylococcus aureus, s. epidermidis and aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, but not by a. pleuropneumoniae serotype 5 itself, in a 96-well microtiter plate assay. physical and chemical analyses indicated that the antibiofilm activity in the extract was due to high-molecular-weight polysaccharide. extracts isolated from a mutant strain deficient in the pro ...201323691104
biologically inspired strategies for combating bacterial biofilms.infections caused by bacterial biofilms are a significant global health problem, causing considerable patient morbidity and mortality and contributing to the economic burden of infectious disease. this review describes diverse strategies to combat bacterial biofilms, focusing firstly on small molecule interference with bacterial communication and signaling pathways, including quorum sensing and two-component signal transduction systems. secondly we discuss enzymatic approaches to the degradation ...201323871261
whole-genome sequences of chlamydia trachomatis directly from clinical samples without culture.the use of whole-genome sequencing as a tool for the study of infectious bacteria is of growing clinical interest. chlamydia trachomatis is responsible for sexually transmitted infections and the blinding disease trachoma, which affect hundreds of millions of people worldwide. recombination is widespread within the genome of c. trachomatis, thus whole-genome sequencing is necessary to understand the evolution, diversity, and epidemiology of this pathogen. culture of c. trachomatis has, until now ...201323525359
the pvc operon regulates the expression of the pseudomonas aeruginosa fimbrial chaperone/usher pathway (cup) genes.the pseudomonas aeruginosa fimbrial structures encoded by the cup gene clusters (cupb and cupc) contribute to its attachment to abiotic surfaces and biofilm formation. the p. aeruginosa pvcabcd gene cluster encodes enzymes that synthesize a novel isonitrile functionalized cumarin, paerucumarin. paerucumarin has already been characterized chemically, but this is the first report elucidating its role in bacterial biology. we examined the relationship between the pvc operon and the cup gene cluster ...201323646138
secretory pathway of cellulase: a mini-review.cellulase plays an important role in modern industry and holds great potential in biofuel production. many different types of organisms produce cellulase, which go through secretory pathways to reach the extracellular space, where enzymatic reactions take place. secretory pathways in various cells have been the focus of many research fields; however, there are few studies on secretory pathways of cellulases in the literature. it is therefore necessary and important to review the current knowledg ...201324295495
diversity and antimicrobial properties of lactic acid bacteria isolated from rhizosphere of olive trees and desert truffles of tunisia.a total of 119 lactic acid bacteria (lab) were isolated, by culture-dependant method, from rhizosphere samples of olive trees and desert truffles and evaluated for different biotechnological properties. using the variability of the intergenic spacer 16s-23s and 16s rrna gene sequences, the isolates were identified as the genera lactococcus, pediococcus, lactobacillus, weissella, and enterococcus. all the strains showed proteolytic activity with variable rates 42% were eps producers, while only 1 ...201324151598
dissecting the metal selectivity of merr monovalent metal ion sensors in salmonella.two homologous transcription factors, cuer and gols, that belong to the merr metalloregulatory family are responsible for salmonella cu and au sensing and resistance, respectively. they share similarities not only in their sequences, but also in their target transcription binding sites. while cuer responds similarly to au, ag, or cu to induce the expression of its target genes, gols shows higher activation by au than by ag or cu. we showed that the ability of gols to distinguish au from cu resid ...201323645605
polymyxin p is the active principle in suppressing phytopathogenic erwinia spp. by the biocontrol rhizobacterium paenibacillus polymyxa m-1.nine gene clusters dedicated to nonribosomal synthesis of secondary metabolites with possible antimicrobial action, including polymyxin and fusaricidin, were detected within the whole genome sequence of the plant growth-promoting rhizobacterium (pgpr) paenibacillus polymyxa m-1. to survey the antimicrobial compounds expressed by m-1 we analyzed the active principle suppressing phytopathogenic erwinia spp.201323773687
re-annotation of protein-coding genes in 10 complete genomes of neisseriaceae family by combining similarity-based and composition-based methods.in this paper, we performed a comprehensive re-annotation of protein-coding genes by a systematic method combining composition- and similarity-based approaches in 10 complete bacterial genomes of the family neisseriaceae. first, 418 hypothetical genes were predicted as non-coding using the composition-based method and 413 were eliminated from the gene list. both the scatter plot and cluster of orthologous groups (cog) fraction analyses supported the result. second, from 20 to 400 hypothetical pr ...201323571676
salmonella enterica suppresses pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum population and soft rot progression by acidifying the microaerophilic environment.although enteric human pathogens are usually studied in the context of their animal hosts, a significant portion of their life cycle occurs on plants. plant disease alters the phyllosphere, leading to enhanced growth of human pathogens; however, the impact of human pathogens on phytopathogen biology and plant health is largely unknown. to characterize the interaction between human pathogens and phytobacterial pathogens in the phyllosphere, we examined the interactions between pectobacterium caro ...201323404399
crisprtarget: bioinformatic prediction and analysis of crrna targets.the bacterial and archaeal crispr/cas adaptive immune system targets specific protospacer nucleotide sequences in invading organisms. this requires base pairing between processed crispr rna and the target protospacer. for type i and ii crispr/cas systems, protospacer adjacent motifs (pam) are essential for target recognition, and for type iii, mismatches in the flanking sequences are important in the antiviral response. in this study, we examine the properties of each class of crispr. we use thi ...201323492433
are there acyl-homoserine lactones within mammalian intestines?many proteobacteria are capable of quorum sensing using n-acyl-homoserine lactone (acyl-hsl) signaling molecules that are synthesized by luxi or luxm homologs and detected by transcription factors of the luxr family. most quorum-sensing species have at least one luxr and one luxi homolog. however, members of the escherichia, salmonella, klebsiella, and enterobacter genera possess only a single luxr homolog, sdia, and no acyl-hsl synthase. the most obvious hypothesis is that these organisms are e ...201323144246
oligogalacturonides: plant damage-associated molecular patterns and regulators of growth and development.oligogalacturonides (ogs) are oligomers of alpha-1,4-linked galacturonosyl residues released from plant cell walls upon partial degradation of homogalacturonan. ogs are able to elicit defense responses, including accumulation of reactive oxygen species and pathogenesis-related proteins, and protect plants against pathogen infections. recent studies demonstrated that ogs are perceived by wall-associated kinases and share signaling components with microbe-associated molecular patterns. for this re ...201323493833
interference of bacterial cell-to-cell communication: a new concept of antimicrobial chemotherapy breaks antibiotic resistance.bacteria use a cell-to-cell communication activity termed "quorum sensing" to coordinate group behaviors in a cell density dependent manner. quorum sensing influences the expression profile of diverse genes, including antibiotic tolerance and virulence determinants, via specific chemical compounds called "autoinducers". during quorum sensing, gram-negative bacteria typically use an acylated homoserine lactone (ahl) called autoinducer 1. since the first discovery of quorum sensing in a marine bac ...201323720655
synthesis and structure-activity relationship of n-(cinnamyl) chitosan analogs as antimicrobial agents.the current study focuses on the preparation of new n-(cinnamyl) chitosan derivatives as antimicrobial agents against nine types of crop-threatening pathogens. chitosan was reacted with a set of aromatic cinnamaldehyde analogs by reductive amination involving formation of the corresponding imines, followed by reduction with sodium borohydride to produce n-(cinnamyl) chitosan derivatives. the structural characterization was confirmed by (1)h and (13)c nmr spectroscopy and the degrees of substitut ...201323511055
alternating electric fields combined with activated carbon for disinfection of gram negative and gram positive bacteria in fluidized bed electrode system.strong electric fields for disinfection of wastewaters have been employed already for several decades. an innovative approach combining low strength (7 v/cm) alternating electric fields with a granular activated carbon fluidized bed electrode (fbe) for disinfection was presented recently. for disinfection performance of fbe several pure microbial cultures were tested: bacillus subtilis, bacillus subtilis subsp. subtilis, enterococcus faecalis as representatives from gram positive bacteria and er ...201324012021
control of postharvest soft rot caused by erwinia carotovora of vegetables by a strain of bacillus amyloliquefaciens and its potential modes of action.erwinia carotovora subsp. carotovora (ecc), the causal agent of bacterial soft rot, is one of the destructive pathogens of postharvest vegetables. in this study, a bacterial isolate (bgp20) from the vegetable farm soil showed strong antagonistic activity against ecc in vitro, and its twofold cell-free culture filtrate showed excellent biocontrol effect in controlling the postharvest bacterial soft rot of potatoes at 25 °c. the anti-ecc metabolites produced by the isolate bgp20 had a high resista ...201323117674
the fire blight pathogen erwinia amylovora requires the rpon gene for pathogenicity in apple.rpon is a σ(54) factor regulating essential virulence gene expression in several plant pathogenic bacteria, including pseudomonas syringae and pectobacterium carotovorum. in this study, we found that mutation of rpon in the fire blight pathogen erwinia amylovora caused a nonpathogenic phenotype. the e. amylovora rpon tn5 transposon mutant rpon1250::tn5 did not cause fire blight disease symptoms on shoots of mature apple trees. in detached immature apple fruits, the rpon1250::tn5 mutant failed to ...201323721085
structural and functional role of gly281 in l-asparaginase from erwinia carotovora.l-asparaginases (e.c.3.5.1.1, l- asnases) have been widely used in clinical practice as chemotherapeutic drugs of acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (all). in order to evaluate the structural and functional role of selected residues in asnases we report the screening of a library of l-asnase mutants aiming to find detrimental mutations that significantly affect catalysis and substrate specificity. the library of mutants was created using the staggered extension process (step) and the genes of l- asna ...201324261975
role of duox in gut inflammation: lessons from drosophila model of gut-microbiota interactions.it is well-known that certain bacterial species can colonize the gut epithelium and induce inflammation in the mucosa, whereas other species are either benign or beneficial to the host. deregulation of the gut-microbe interactions may lead to a pathogenic condition in the host, such as chronic inflammation, tissue injuries, and even cancer. however, our current understanding of the molecular mechanisms that underlie gut-microbe homeostasis and pathogenesis remains limited. recent studies have us ...201324455491
role of duox in gut inflammation: lessons from drosophila model of gut-microbiota interactions.it is well-known that certain bacterial species can colonize the gut epithelium and induce inflammation in the mucosa, whereas other species are either benign or beneficial to the host. deregulation of the gut-microbe interactions may lead to a pathogenic condition in the host, such as chronic inflammation, tissue injuries, and even cancer. however, our current understanding of the molecular mechanisms that underlie gut-microbe homeostasis and pathogenesis remains limited. recent studies have us ...201324455491
antagonistic bacillus species as a biological control of ginseng root rot caused by fusarium cf. incarnatum.this study aimed to develop a biocontrol system for ginseng root rot caused by fusarium cf. incarnatum.201324748838
antagonistic bacillus species as a biological control of ginseng root rot caused by fusarium cf. incarnatum.this study aimed to develop a biocontrol system for ginseng root rot caused by fusarium cf. incarnatum.201324748838
host-microbe interactions in the gut of drosophila melanogaster.many insect species subsist on decaying and contaminated matter and are thus exposed to large quantities of microorganisms. to control beneficial commensals and combat infectious pathogens, insects must be armed with efficient systems for microbial recognition, signaling pathways, and effector molecules. the molecular mechanisms regulating these host-microbe interactions in insects have been largely clarified in drosophila melanogaster with its powerful genetic and genomic tools. here we review ...201324381562
intestinal inflammation and stem cell homeostasis in aging drosophila melanogaster.as a barrier epithelium, the intestinal epithelium has to coordinate physiological functions like digestion and nutrient resorption with the control of commensal bacteria and the prevention of pathogenic infections. it can therefore mount powerful innate immune and inflammatory responses, while, at the same time, maintaining tissue homeostasis through regenerative processes. how these different functions are coordinated remains unclear, and further insight is required to understand the age-relat ...201324380076
global analysis of cis-natural antisense transcripts and their heat-responsive nat-sirnas in brassica rapa.brassica rapa includes several important leaf vegetable crops whose production is often damaged by high temperature. cis-natural antisense transcripts (cis-nats) and cis-nats-derived small interfering rnas (nat-sirnas) play important roles in plant development and stress responses. however, genome-wide cis-nats in b. rapa are not known. the nats and nat-sirnas that respond to heat stress have never been well studied in b. rapa. here, we took advantage of rna-seq and small rna (srna) deep sequenc ...201324320882
knockdown of asparagine synthetase a renders trypanosoma brucei auxotrophic to asparagine.asparagine synthetase (as) catalyzes the atp-dependent conversion of aspartate into asparagine using ammonia or glutamine as nitrogen source. there are two distinct types of as, asparagine synthetase a (as-a), known as strictly ammonia-dependent, and asparagine synthetase b (as-b), which can use either ammonia or glutamine. the absence of as-a in humans, and its presence in trypanosomes, suggested as-a as a potential drug target that deserved further investigation. we report the presence of func ...201324340117
early and late trisporoids differentially regulate β-carotene production and gene transcript levels in the mucoralean fungi blakeslea trispora and mucor mucedo.the multistep cleavage of carotenoids in mucorales during the sexual phase results in a cocktail of trisporic acid (c18) sex pheromones. we hypothesized that the c18 trisporoid intermediates have a specific regulatory function for sex pheromone production and carotenogenesis that varies with genus/species and vegetative and sexual phases of their life cycles. real-time quantitative pcr kinetics determined for blakeslea trispora displayed a very high transcript turnover in the gene for carotenoid ...201324056470
screening and characterization of extracelluar l-asparaginase producing bacillus subtilis strain hswx88, isolated from taptapani hotspring of odisha, india.to screen and isolate an eco-friendly, a thermophilic and potent l-asparaginase producing bacterium, with novel immunological properties that may obviates hypersensitivity reactions.201324093783
the influence of antibody fragment format on phage display based affinity maturation of igg.today, most approved therapeutic antibodies are provided as immunoglobulin g (igg), whereas small recombinant antibody formats are required for in vitro antibody generation and engineering during drug development. particularly,single chain (sc) antibody fragments like scfv or scfab are well suited for phage display and bacterial expression, but some have been found to lose affinity during conversion into igg.in this study, we compared the influence of the antibody format on affinity maturation o ...201324262918
the influence of antibody fragment format on phage display based affinity maturation of igg.today, most approved therapeutic antibodies are provided as immunoglobulin g (igg), whereas small recombinant antibody formats are required for in vitro antibody generation and engineering during drug development. particularly,single chain (sc) antibody fragments like scfv or scfab are well suited for phage display and bacterial expression, but some have been found to lose affinity during conversion into igg.in this study, we compared the influence of the antibody format on affinity maturation o ...201324262918
cloning, characterization and effect of tmpgrp-le gene silencing on survival of tenebrio molitor against listeria monocytogenes infection.peptidoglycan recognition proteins (pgrps) are a family of innate immune molecules that recognize bacterial peptidoglycan. pgrp-le, a member of the pgrp family, selectively binds to diaminopimelic acid (dap)-type peptidoglycan to activate both the immune deficiency (imd) and prophenoloxidase (propo) pathways in insects. a pgrp-le-dependent induction of autophagy to control listeria monocytogenes has also been reported. we identified and partially characterized a novel pgrp-le homologue, from ten ...201324240808
stimulating crosstalk between commensal bacteria and intestinal stem cells. 201324193404
dynamic interplay between the periplasmic and transmembrane domains of gspl and gspm in the type ii secretion system.the type ii secretion system (t2ss) is a multiprotein nanomachine that transports folded proteins across the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria. the molecular mechanisms that govern the secretion process remain poorly understood. the inner membrane components gspc, gspl and gspm possess a single transmembrane segment (tms) and a large periplasmic region and they are thought to form a platform of unknown function. here, using two-hybrid and pull-down assays we performed a systematic mapping ...201324223969
the acyl-homoserine lactone synthase yeni from yersinia enterocolitica modulates virulence gene expression in enterohemorrhagic escherichia coli o157:h7.the human pathogen enterohemorrhagic escherichia coli (ehec) o157:h7 colonizes the rectoanal junction (raj) in cattle, its natural reservoir. colonization at the raj poses a serious risk for fecal shedding and contamination of the environment. we previously demonstrated that ehec senses acyl-homoserine lactones (ahls) produced by the microbiota in the rumen to activate the gad acid resistance genes necessary for survival through the acidic stomachs in cattle and to repress the locus of enterocyt ...201323980115
steroid hormone signaling is essential to regulate innate immune cells and fight bacterial infection in drosophila.coupling immunity and development is essential to ensure survival despite changing internal conditions in the organism. drosophila metamorphosis represents a striking example of drastic and systemic physiological changes that need to be integrated with the innate immune system. however, nothing is known about the mechanisms that coordinate development and immune cell activity in the transition from larva to adult. here, we reveal that regulation of macrophage-like cells (hemocytes) by the steroi ...201324204269
symbiotic lactobacilli stimulate gut epithelial proliferation via nox-mediated generation of reactive oxygen species.the resident prokaryotic microbiota of the metazoan gut elicits profound effects on the growth and development of the intestine. however, the molecular mechanisms of symbiotic prokaryotic-eukaryotic cross-talk in the gut are largely unknown. it is increasingly recognized that physiologically generated reactive oxygen species (ros) function as signalling secondary messengers that influence cellular proliferation and differentiation in a variety of biological systems. here, we report that commensa ...201324141879
oligopeptide m13 phage display in pathogen research.phage display has become an established, widely used method for selection of peptides, antibodies or alternative scaffolds. the use of phage display for the selection of antigens from genomic or cdna libraries of pathogens which is an alternative to the classical way of identifying immunogenic proteins is not well-known. in recent years several new applications for oligopeptide phage display in disease related fields have been developed which has led to the identification of various new antigens ...201324136040
expression of an engineered heterologous antimicrobial peptide in potato alters plant development and mitigates normal abiotic and biotic responses.antimicrobial cationic peptides (amps) are ubiquitous small proteins used by living cells to defend against a wide spectrum of pathogens. their amphipathic property helps their interaction with negatively charged cellular membrane of the pathogen causing cell lysis and death. amps also modulate signaling pathway(s) and cellular processes in animal models; however, little is known of cellular processes other than the pathogen-lysis phenomenon modulated by amps in plants. an engineered heterologou ...201324147012
understanding specificity of the mycosin proteases in esx/type vii secretion by structural and functional analysis.mycobacteria use specialized esx secretion systems to transport proteins across their cell membranes in order to manipulate their environment. in pathogenic mycobacterium tuberculosis there are five paralogous esx secretion systems, named esx-1 through esx-5. each system includes a subtilisin-like protease (mycosin or mycp) as a core component essential for secretion. here we report crystal structures of mycp1 and mycp3, the mycosins expressed by the esx-1 and esx-3 systems, respectively. in bot ...201324113528
new role for dcr-1/dicer in caenorhabditis elegans innate immunity against the highly virulent bacterium bacillus thuringiensis db27.bacillus thuringiensis produces toxins that target invertebrates, including caenorhabditis elegans. virulence of bacillus strains is often highly specific, such that b. thuringiensis strain db27 is highly pathogenic to c. elegans but shows no virulence for another model nematode, pristionchus pacificus. to uncover the underlying mechanisms of the differential responses of the two nematodes to b. thuringiensis db27 and to reveal the c. elegans defense mechanisms against this pathogen, we conducte ...201323918784
bacterial mg2+ homeostasis, transport, and virulence.organisms must maintain physiological levels of mg(2+) because this divalent cation is critical for the stabilization of membranes and ribosomes, for the neutralization of nucleic acids, and as a cofactor in a variety of enzymatic reactions. in this review, we describe the mechanisms that bacteria utilize to sense the levels of mg(2+) both outside and inside the cytoplasm. we examine how bacteria achieve mg(2+) homeostasis by adjusting the expression and activity of mg(2+) transporters and by ch ...201324079267
extensive differences in antifungal immune response in two drosophila species revealed by comparative transcriptome analysis.the innate immune system of drosophila is activated by ingestion of microorganisms. d. melanogaster breeds on fruits fermented by saccharomyces cerevisiae, whereas d. virilis breeds on slime flux and decaying bark of tree housing a variety of bacteria, yeasts, and molds. in this study, it is shown that d. virilis has a higher resistance to oral infection of a species of filamentous fungi belonging to the genus penicillium compared to d. melanogaster. in response to the fungal infection, a transc ...201324151578
the tip of the tail needle affects the rate of dna delivery by bacteriophage p22.the p22-like bacteriophages have short tails. their virions bind to their polysaccharide receptors through six trimeric tailspike proteins that surround the tail tip. these short tails also have a trimeric needle protein that extends beyond the tailspikes from the center of the tail tip, in a position that suggests that it should make first contact with the host's outer membrane during the infection process. the base of the needle serves as a plug that keeps the dna in the virion, but role of th ...201323951045
an easy, simple inexpensive test for the specific detection of pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum based on sequence analysis of the pmra gene.the species pectobacterium carotovorum includes a diverse subspecies of bacteria that cause disease on a wide variety of plants. in morocco, approximately 95% of the p. carotovorum isolates from potato plants with tuber soft rot are p. carotovorum subsp. carotovorum. however, identification of this pathogen is not always related to visual disease symptoms. this is especially true when different pathogen cause similar diseases on potato, citing as an example, p. carotovorum, p. atrosepticum and p ...201323890050
functional analysis of pgrp-la in drosophila immunity.peptidoglycan recognition proteins (pgrps) are key regulators of the insect innate antibacterial response. even if they have been intensively studied, some of them have yet unknown functions. here, we present a functional analysis of pgrp-la, an as yet uncharacterized drosophila pgrp. the pgrp-la gene is located in cluster with pgrp-lc and pgrp-lf, which encode a receptor and a negative regulator of the imd pathway, respectively. structure predictions indicate that pgrp-la would not bind to pept ...201323922788
the drosophila jak-stat pathway in blood cell formation and immunity.genetic alterations affecting the jak-stat signaling pathway are linked to several malignancies and hematological disorders in humans. despite being one of the most extensively studied pathways, there remain many gaps to fill. jak-stat components are widely conserved during evolution. here, we review the known roles of the jak-stat pathway in drosophila immunity: controlling the different steps of hematopoiesis, both under physiological conditions and in response to immune challenge, and contrib ...201324069567
an acidic thermostable recombinant aspergillus nidulans endoglucanase is active towards distinct agriculture residues.aspergillus nidulans is poorly exploited as a source of enzymes for lignocellulosic residues degradation for biotechnological purposes. this work describes the a. nidulans endoglucanase a heterologous expression in pichia pastoris, the purification and biochemical characterization of the recombinant enzyme. active recombinant endoglucanase a (reg a) was efficiently secreted as a 35 kda protein which was purified through a two-step chromatography procedure. the highest enzyme activity was detecte ...201323936633
addition of a carbohydrate-binding module enhances cellulase penetration into cellulose substrates.cellulases are of great interest for application in biomass degradation, yet the molecular details of the mode of action of glycoside hydrolases during degradation of insoluble cellulose remain elusive. to further improve these enzymes for application at industrial conditions, it is critical to gain a better understanding of not only the details of the degradation process, but also the function of accessory modules.201323819686
characterization of genes required for the pathogenicity of pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum pcc21 in chinese cabbage.pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum is a well-known plant pathogen that causes severe soft rot disease in various crops, resulting in considerable economic loss. to identify pathogenicity-related factors, chinese cabbage was inoculated with 5314 transposon mutants of p. carotovorum subsp. carotovorum pcc21 derived using tn5 transposon mutagenesis. a total of 35 reduced-virulence or avirulent mutants were isolated, and 14 loci were identified. the 14 loci could be functionally grouped i ...201323676432
mapping and regulation of genes within salmonella pathogenicity island 12 that contribute to in vivo fitness of salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium.salmonella pathogenicity island 12 (spi-12) of salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium is a 15-kb region that encompasses genes stm2230 to stm2245 and encodes a remnant phage known to contribute to bacterial virulence. in mouse infection experiments and replication assays in macrophages, we demonstrated a role for four genes in spi-12 for bacterial survival in the host. stm2239, a potential q antiterminator, showed a prominent contribution to bacterial fitness. transcriptional reporter experimen ...201323630960
a design principle of group-level decision making in cell populations.populations of cells often switch states as a group to cope with environmental changes such as nutrient availability and cell density. although the gene circuits that underlie the switches are well understood at the level of single cells, the ways in which such circuits work in concert among many cells to support group-level switches are not fully explored. experimental studies of microbial quorum sensing show that group-level changes in cellular states occur in either a graded or an all-or-none ...201323825937
mutations in the imd pathway and mustard counter vibrio cholerae suppression of intestinal stem cell division in drosophila.vibrio cholerae is an estuarine bacterium and an intestinal pathogen of humans that causes severe epidemic diarrhea. in the absence of adequate mammalian models in which to study the interaction of v. cholerae with the host intestinal innate immune system, we have implemented drosophila melanogaster as a surrogate host. we previously showed that immune deficiency pathway loss-of-function and mustard gain-of-function mutants are less susceptible to v. cholerae infection. we find that although the ...201323781070
biochemical characterization of udp-n-acetylmuramoyl-l-alanyl-d-glutamate: meso-2,6-diaminopimelate ligase (mure) from verrucomicrobium spinosum dsm 4136(t.).verrucomicrobium spinosum is a gram-negative bacterium that is related to bacteria from the genus chlamydia. the bacterium is pathogenic towards drosophila melanogaster and caenorhabditis elegans, using a type iii secretion system to facilitate pathogenicity. v. spinosum employs the recently discovered l,l-diaminopimelate aminotransferase biosynthetic pathway to generate the bacterial cell wall and protein precursors diaminopimelate and lysine. a survey of the v. spinosum genome provides evidenc ...201323785498
injury-induced bmp signaling negatively regulates drosophila midgut homeostasis.although much is known about injury-induced signals that increase rates of drosophila melanogaster midgut intestinal stem cell (isc) proliferation, it is largely unknown how isc activity returns to quiescence after injury. in this paper, we show that the bone morphogenetic protein (bmp) signaling pathway has dual functions during midgut homeostasis. constitutive bmp signaling pathway activation in the middle midgut mediated regional specification by promoting copper cell differentiation. in the ...201323733344
promoting plant protection by root-associated microbes. 201325288938
in vitro characterization of a recombinant ahl-lactonase from bacillus cereus isolated from a striped catfish (pangasianodon hypophthalmus) pond.aiia gene encoding ahl-lactonase was isolated from bacillus cereus strain n26.2, originating from a striped catfish (pangasianodon hypophthalmus) pond in vietnam. this gene, abbreviated as aiia(n26.2), was cloned and expressed in a competent escherichia coli strain bl21(de3)plyss. the resulting protein, abbreviated as aiian26.2, was highly active in the ph range of 6-8 and could retain 80 % of the maximum activity under storage for 5 days at 4 °c or for 3 days at 20 °c. these properties of aiian ...201324426155
mechanistic insights into the bifunctional non-heme iron oxygenase carbapenem synthase by active site saturation mutagenesis.the carbapenem class of β-lactam antibiotics is known for its remarkable potency, antibacterial spectrum, and resistance to β-lactamase-mediated inactivation. while the biosynthesis of structurally "complex" carbapenems, such as thienamycin, share initial biochemical steps with carbapenem-3-carboxylate ("simple" carbapenem), the requisite inversion at c5 and formation of the characteristic α,β-unsaturated carboxylate are different in origin between the two groups. here, we consider carbapenem sy ...201323611403
effect of signal peptide on stability and folding of escherichia coli thioredoxin.the signal peptide plays a key role in targeting and membrane insertion of secretory and membrane proteins in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. in e. coli, recombinant proteins can be targeted to the periplasmic space by fusing naturally occurring signal sequences to their n-terminus. the model protein thioredoxin was fused at its n-terminus with male and pelb signal sequences. while wt and the pelb fusion are soluble when expressed, the male fusion was targeted to inclusion bodies and was refold ...201323667620
dsba and mgrb regulate stea expression through the two-component system phoq/phop in salmonella enterica.stea is a protein that can be translocated into host cells through the two virulence-related type iii secretion systems that are present in salmonella enterica. we used the t-pop system to carry out general screens for loci that exhibited activation or repression of a stea::lacz fusion. these screens identified the histidine kinase phoq and the response regulator phop as positive regulators of stea. transcription of this gene is σ70 dependent, and the promoter of stea contains a phop-binding sit ...201323504014
seasonal variation in functional properties of microbial communities in beech forest soil.substrate quality and the availability of nutrients are major factors controlling microbial decomposition processes in soils. seasonal alteration in resource availability, which is driven by plants via belowground c allocation, nutrient uptake and litter fall, also exerts effects on soil microbial community composition. here we investigate if seasonal and experimentally induced changes in microbial community composition lead to alterations in functional properties of microbial communities and th ...201323645937
e. coli-derived l-asparaginase retains enzymatic and cytotoxic activity in vitro for canine and feline lymphoma after cold storage.background. l-asparaginase is effective in treating canine and feline lymphoma, however chemotherapy poses a significant financial cost to veterinary clients, limiting therapy for many pets. single dose vials result in significant drug wastage, and drug shortages limit consistent availability for pets. hypothesis. e. coli-derived asparaginase retains enzymatic and antineoplastic activity in canine and feline lymphoma cells after cold storage. methods. e. coli-derived asparaginase was cold-stored ...201323738234
structural basis for hypermodification of the wobble uridine in trna by bifunctional enzyme mnmc.methylaminomethyl modification of uridine or 2-thiouridine (mnm5u34 or mnm5s2u34) at the wobble position of trnas specific for glutamate, lysine and arginine are observed in escherichia coli and allow for specific recognition of codons ending in a or g. in the biosynthetic pathway responsible for this post-transcriptional modification, the bifunctional enzyme mnmc catalyzes the conversion of its hypermodified substrate carboxymethylaminomethyl uridine (cmnm5u34) to mnm5u34. mnmc catalyzes the fl ...201323617613
enhanced biocidal activity of au nanoparticles synthesized in one pot using 2, 4-dihydroxybenzene carbodithioic acid as a reducing and stabilizing agent.the conjugation of gold nanoparticles with biocides such as natural products, oligosaccharides, dna, proteins has attracted great attention of scientists recently. gold nps covered with biologically important molecules showed significant enhancement in biological activity in comparison with the activity of the free biocides. however, these reports are not very systematic and do not allow to draw definitive conclusions. we therefore embarked in a systematic study related to the synthesis and char ...201323607626
synthesis, characterization, in vitro antimicrobial, and u2os tumoricidal activities of different coumarin derivatives.coumarin and its derivatives are biologically very active. it was found that the enhanced activities are dependent on the coumarin nucleus. biological significance of these compounds include anti-bacterial, anti-thrombotic and vasodilatory, anti-mutagenic, lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase inhibition, scavenging of reactive oxygen species, and anti-tumourigenic. our interest in medicinal chemistry of dicoumarol compounds have been developed by keeping in view the importance of coumarins along with ...201323587363
drybp contributes to the negative regulation of the drosophila imd pathway.the drosophila humoral innate immune response fights infection by producing antimicrobial peptides (amps) through the microbe-specific activation of the toll or the imd signaling pathway. upon systemic infection, the production of amps is both positively and negatively regulated to reach a balanced immune response required for survival. here, we report the function of the drybp (drosophila ring and yy1 binding protein) protein, which contains a ubiquitin-binding domain, in the imd pathway. we ha ...201323596533
mechanisms and consequence of bacteria detection by the drosophila gut epithelium.since insect mostly developed on decaying matter and contaminated fruits, they are constantly ingesting bacteria. the insect model, drosophila, is therefore well adapted to study the interactions that take place between the gut epithelia and either resident or infectious bacteria. in order to provide an ad hoc immune response, gut epithelial cells must detect the presence of bacteria. in a recent report, bosco-drayon et al. identify the main receptors by which drosophila sense gut associated bac ...201323633672
the effect of 'candidatus liberibacter asiaticus' infection on the proteomic profiles and nutritional status of pre-symptomatic and symptomatic grapefruit (citrus paradisi) plants.huanglongbing (hlb) is a highly destructive citrus disease which threatens citrus production worldwide and 'candidatus liberibacter asiaticus' (las), a non-culturable phloem-limited bacterium, is an associated causal agent of the disease. to better understand the physiological and molecular processes involved in host responses to las, 2-de and mass spectrometry analyses, as well as icp spectroscopy analysis were employed to elucidate the global protein expression profiles and nutrient concentrat ...201323578104
wound-induced pectin methylesterases enhance banana (musa spp. aaa) susceptibility to fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense.recent studies suggest that plant pectin methylesterases (pmes) are directly involved in plant defence besides their roles in plant development. however, the molecular mechanisms of pme action on pectins are not well understood. in order to understand how pmes modify pectins during banana (musa spp.)-fusarium interaction, the expression and enzyme activities of pmes in two banana cultivars, highly resistant or susceptible to fusarium, were compared with each other. furthermore, the spatial distr ...201323580752
regenerative inflammation: lessons from drosophila intestinal epithelium in health and disease.intestinal inflammation is widely recognized as a pivotal player in health and disease. defined cytologically as the infiltration of leukocytes in the lamina propria layer of the intestine, it can damage the epithelium and, on a chronic basis, induce inflammatory bowel disease and potentially cancer. the current view thus dictates that blood cell infiltration is the instigator of intestinal inflammation and tumor-promoting inflammation. this is based partially on work in humans and mice showing ...201325437036
characterization of a novel metagenome-derived 6-phospho-β-glucosidase from black liquor sediment.the enzyme 6-phospho-β-glucosidase is an important member of the glycoside hydrolase family 1 (gh1). however, its catalytic mechanisms, especially the key residues determining substrate specificity and affinity, are poorly understood. a metagenome-derived gene sequence, encoding a novel 6-phospho-β-glucosidase designated pbgl25-217, was isolated and characterized. the optimal conditions for enzymatic activity were 37°c and ph 7; ca(2+), mg(2+), and mn(2+) stabilized the activity of pbgl25-217, w ...201323335769
crispr-cas systems preferentially target the leading regions of mobf conjugative plasmids.most prokaryotes contain crispr-cas immune systems that provide protection against mobile genetic elements. we have focused on the ability of crispr-cas to block plasmid conjugation, and analyzed the position of target sequences (protospacers) on conjugative plasmids. the analysis reveals that protospacers are non-uniformly distributed over plasmid regions in a pattern that is determined by the plasmid's mobilization type (mob). while mobp plasmids are most frequently targeted in the region ente ...201323535265
development of somatic hybrids solanum × michoacanum bitter. (rydb.) (+) s. tuberosum l. and autofused 4x s. × michoacanum plants as potential sources of late blight resistance for potato breeding.phytophthora infestans resistant somatic hybrids of s. × michoacanum (+) s. tuberosum and autofused 4 x s. × michoacanum were obtained. our material is promising to introgress resistance from s. × michoacanum into cultivated potato background. solanum × michoacanum (bitter.) rydb. (mch) is a wild diploid (2n = 2x = 24) potato species derived from spontaneous cross of s. bulbocastanum and s. pinnatisectum. this hybrid is a 1 ebn (endosperm balance number) species and can cross effectively only wi ...201323525760
acute lymphoblastic leukaemia.acute lymphoblastic leukaemia occurs in both children and adults but its incidence peaks between 2 and 5 years of age. causation is multifactorial and exogenous or endogenous exposures, genetic susceptibility, and chance have roles. survival in paediatric acute lymphoblastic leukaemia has improved to roughly 90% in trials with risk stratification by biological features of leukaemic cells and response to treatment, treatment modification based on patients' pharmacodynamics and pharmacogenomics, a ...201323523389
paraoxonases as protective agents against n-acyl homoserine lactone - producing pathogenic microorganisms.paraoxonases are a group of enzymes with a high "substrate-promiscuity", being able to act on many structurally different compounds. to date, there is no consensus regarding the physiological substrate(s) of these enzymes. recent data suggest that the n-acyl homoserine lactones (ahls) produced by different gram-negative bacteria, including the opportunistic pseudomonas aeruginosa, could be such substrates. due to the ability of paraoxonases to hydrolyze ahls, they represent an alternative mechan ...201324023599
scar/wave-mediated processing of engulfed apoptotic corpses is essential for effective macrophage migration in drosophila.in vitro studies have shown that scar/wave activates the arp2/3 complex to generate actin filaments, which in many cell types are organised into lamellipodia that are thought to have an important role in cell migration. here we demonstrate that scar is utilised by drosophila macrophages to drive their developmental and inflammatory migrations and that it is regulated via the hem/kette/nap1-containing scar/wave complex. scar is also important in protecting against bacterial pathogens and in wound ...201323328632
the use of fluorescent reporter protein tagging to study the interaction between root-knot nematodes and soft rot enterobacteriaceae.the study of plant parasitic nematodes such as meloidogyne spp. and their interactions with phytopathogenic bacteria remains underexplored. one of the challenges towards establishing such interactions is the dependence on symptom development as a measure of interaction. in this study, mcherry was employed as a reporter protein to investigate the interaction between the soft rot enterobacteriaceae (sre) pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. brasiliensis (pcb) and root-knot nematode (m. incognita). pe ...201323347004
elicitation of induced resistance against pectobacterium carotovorum and pseudomonas syringae by specific individual compounds derived from native korean plant species.plants have developed general and specific defense mechanisms for protection against various enemies. among the general defenses, induced resistance has distinct characteristics, such as broad-spectrum resistance and long-lasting effectiveness. this study evaluated over 500 specific chemical compounds derived from native korean plant species to determine whether they triggered induced resistance against pectobacterium carotovorum supsp. carotovorum (pcc) in tobacco (nicotiana tabacum) and pseudo ...201324135942
colonization patterns of an mcherry-tagged pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. brasiliense strain in potato plants.pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. brasiliense is a newly identified member of the potato soft rot enterobacteriaceae. the pathogenesis of this pathogen is still poorly understood. in this study, an mcherry-p. carotovorum subsp. brasiliense-tagged strain was generated to study p. carotovorum subsp. brasiliense-potato plant interactions. prior to use, the tagged strain was evaluated for in vitro growth, plasmid stability, and virulence on potato tubers and shown to be similar to the wild type. fou ...201323758294
biocontrol of pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum using bacteriophage pp1.pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum (formerly erwinia carotovora subsp. carotovora) is a plant pathogen that causes soft rot and stem rot diseases in several crops, including chinese cabbage, potato, and tomato. to control this bacterium, we isolated a bacteriophage, pp1, with lytic activity against p. carotovorum subsp. carotovorum. transmission electron microscopy revealed that the pp1 phage belongs to the podoviridae family of the order caudovirales, which exhibit icosahedral heads ...201323727798
consequences of disrupting salmonella ai-2 signaling on interactions within soft rots.within soft rots, salmonella spp. reach population densities 10- to 100-fold higher than within intact plants. the hypothesis that salmonella spp. exchange ai-2 signals with pectobacterium carotovorum to increase its competitive fitness was tested using mutants involved in ai-2 production (luxs) or perception (lsracdbf or lsrg). co-infections of a wild-type salmonella sp. and its ai-2 mutants (at ≈3 to 10(4)) were established in green or red tomato ('fl 47' or 'campari' for 3 or 5 days) as well ...201323324045
pectobacterium aroidearum sp. nov., a soft rot pathogen with preference for monocotyledonous plants.several pectolytic bacterial strains, mainly isolated from monocotyledonous plants and previously identified as pectobacterium carotovorum, were thought to belong to a novel species after several taxonomic analyses including dna-dna hybridization. in 16s rrna gene sequence analyses, these strains had a similarity of >97.9 % to the 16s rrna gene sequence of strains representing six other pectobacterial species and subspecies. these strains, represented by strain scri 109(t), also showed some uniq ...201323223819
activation of a casb gene encoding β-glucosidase of pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum ly34.two cas genes were isolated from pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum ly34 (pcc ly34). sequence analysis of the 4873 bp cloned dna fragment (accession number ay866383) revealed two open reading frames (casf and casb) that are predicted to encode 658 and 467 amino acid proteins, respectively. the casf protein is similar to other pts enzyme ii components. casb encodes β-glucosidase, a member of the glycosyl hydrolase family 1. an inverted repeat sequence was identified in the casb promote ...201323176777
consequences of flagellin export through the type iii secretion system of pseudomonas syringae reveal a major difference in the innate immune systems of mammals and the model plant nicotiana benthamiana.bacterial flagellin is perceived as a microbe (or pathogen)-associated molecular pattern (mamp or pamp) by the extracellular pattern recognition receptors, fls2 and tlr5, of plants and mammals respectively. flagellin accidently translocated into mammalian cells by pathogen type iii secretion systems (t3sss) is recognized by nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat receptor nlrc4 as a pattern of pathogenesis and induces a death-associated immune response. the non-pathogen pseudomonas fluorescens pf ...201323107228
priming of the arabidopsis pattern-triggered immunity response upon infection by necrotrophic pectobacterium carotovorum bacteria.boosted responsiveness of plant cells to stress at the onset of pathogen- or chemically induced resistance is called priming. the chemical β-aminobutyric acid (baba) enhances arabidopsis thaliana resistance to hemibiotrophic bacteria through the priming of the salicylic acid (sa) defence response. whether baba increases arabidopsis resistance to the necrotrophic bacterium pectobacterium carotovorum ssp. carotovorum (pcc) is not clear. in this work, we show that treatment with baba protects arabi ...201322947164
effects of pesticides on the reduction of plant and human pathogenic bacteria in application water.overhead spray applications of in-field tomato treatments dissolved in aqueous solutions have specific pest targets (fungal, bacterial, insect, or other). any organism present in the solution or on treated plant surfaces that is not a specific target of the application is unlikely inactivated and can instead be spread through the phyllosphere. in this laboratory study, commercially labeled pesticides (including actigard 50wg, bravo weather stik 6f, cabrio 20eg, kasumin, kocide 3000 46wg, oxidate ...201323575141
[expression of cecropin p1 gene increases resistance of camelina sativa (l.) plants to microbial phytopathogenes].transgenic plants of camelina (camelina sativa (l.) crantz) with the synthetic gene of antimicrobial peptide cecropin p1 (cecp1) were obtained. agrobacterium-mediated transformation is performed using the binary vector pga482::cecp1 by vacuum infiltration of flower buds. the presence of the cecp1 gene in the genome of plants was confirmed by pcr. cecp1 gene expression in transgenic plants was shown by western blot analysis and by antimicrobial activity of plant extracts against the bacterial phy ...201324159802
jnk/foxo mediated peroxiredoxinv expression regulates redox homeostasis during drosophila melanogaster gut infection.innate immunity plays an important role in combating microbial infection in animals. during bacterial infection in drosophila melanogaster gut, dual oxidase (duox) generates reactive oxygen species (ros) to fight against the infected microbes. concurrently, antioxidant systems eliminate residual ros and protect the hosts. here we found that drosophila melanogaster peroxiredoxin v (dprxv) is an immune-related antioxidant enzyme which maintains intestinal redox homeostasis. dprxv was highly expres ...201222858408
[function of flgk gene in pectobacterium carotovorum subsp, carotovorum].to investigate functions of flgkpcc gene in pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum (p. c. c).201222934350
taxonomic relatedness between pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum, pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. odoriferum and pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. brasiliense subsp. nov.pectobacterium carotovorum is a heterogeneous species consisting of two named subspecies, p. carotovorum subsp. carotovorum and p. carotovorum subsp. odoriferum. a third subspecies, p. carotovorum subsp. brasiliense, was previously proposed. the study aimed to confirm the subspecies status and validate the proposed name of p. carotovorum subsp. brasiliense using a novel and standard microbial taxonomy.201222747943
over-expression of rice leucine-rich repeat protein results in activation of defense response, thereby enhancing resistance to bacterial soft rot in chinese cabbage.pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum causes soft rot disease in various plants, including chinese cabbage. the simple extracellular leucine-rich repeat (elrr) domain proteins have been implicated in disease resistance. rice leucine-rich repeat protein (oslrp), a rice simple elrr domain protein, is induced by pathogens, phytohormones, and salt. to see whether oslrp enhances disease resistance to bacterial soft rot, oslrp was introduced into chinese cabbage by agrobacterium-mediated trans ...201222717673
[dissociation of pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorumrelated to the changes in the cell wall lipopolysaccharide].it is shown for the first time that population heterogeneity of pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum is applicable to a wide range of strains and therefore is a universal characteristic. using the method of specific selection with the help of carotovoricins which are identical to the phage tails a set of population dissociants of different types was obtained, due to the fact that s-lps is the part of the cell wall which contains their attachment sites. it was determined that changes in ...201222545443
characteristics of defective phage particles of pectobacterium carotovorum zm1.it is shown for the first time that the expression products of defective prophages are typical of defective lysogenic systems of phytopathogenic pectobacterium carotovorum. it is established that virus-like particles (lp) such as phage capsids are packing bacterial dna which size is determined by pulse field gel electrophoresis separation. based on data about capsid structures which are formed by the virulent mutant zf40/421, there is made a suggestion about the forming mechanism of defective vi ...201222545442
cloning and biochemical analysis of β-glucoside utilization (bgl) operon without phosphotransferase system in pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum ly34.β-glucosidases are widespread in bacteria and involved in the metabolism of various carbohydrate substrates. studying of β-glucoside utilization (bgl) operons on operon of pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum ly34 (pcc ly34) will help us understanding how β-glucoside utilization (bgl) operon can cooperate with other systems in bacterium caused soft-rot disease. pcc ly34 causes soft-rot disease in plants and expresses multiple enzymatic forms of β-glucosidases. to fully explore the β-glu ...201222502871
identification and characterization of stress resistance related genes of brassica rapa.two biotic stress resistance related genes from the full-length cdna library of brassica rapa cv. osome were identified from est analysis and determined to be pathogenesis-related (pr) 12 brassica defensin-like family protein (brdlfp) and pr-10 brassica betv1 allergen family protein (brbetv1afp) after sequence analysis and homology study with other stress resistance related same family genes. in the expression analysis, both genes expressed in different organs and during all developmental growth ...201222286206
identification of the major proteins of the virions of bacteriophage zf40 pectobacterium carotovorum.the vast variety of bacteriophages and the uniqueness of their individual representatives dictate to perform the detailed study of the actual phage-cell interactions, the virion morphogenesis and morphopoiesis in particular. an analysis of the complete genome sequence of the temperate phage zf40 pectobacterium carotovorum has shown that it is a representative of a unique group of phages of the myoviridae family [comeau a. m, tremblay d., moineau s., rattei t., kushkina a. i, tovkach f i., h.m. k ...201223088102
study of antibacterial activity by capillary electrophoresis using multiple uv detection points.a new methodology for an antibacterial assay based on capillary electrophoresis with multiple uv detection points has been proposed. the possible antibacterial activity of cationic molecules on bacteria (gram-positive and gram-negative) is studied by detecting the bacteria before, during, and after their meeting with the cationic antibacterial compound. for that, a uv area imaging detector having two loops and three detection windows was used with a 95 cm ×100 μm i.d. capillary. in the antibacte ...201222448657
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