Publications

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the contribution of skin antimicrobial peptides to the system of innate immunity in anurans.cationic peptides with the propensity to adopt an amphipathic α-helical conformation in a membrane-mimetic environment are synthesized in the skins of many species of anurans (frogs and toads). these peptides frequently display cytolytic activities against a range of pathogenic bacteria and fungi consistent with the idea that they play a role in the host's system of innate immunity. however, the importance of the peptides in the survival strategy of the animal is not clearly understood. it is a ...201120640445
epidemic disease decimates amphibian abundance, species diversity, and evolutionary history in the highlands of central panama.amphibian populations around the world are experiencing unprecedented declines attributed to a chytrid fungal pathogen, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. despite the severity of the crisis, quantitative analyses of the effects of the epidemic on amphibian abundance and diversity have been unavailable as a result of the lack of equivalent data collected before and following disease outbreak. we present a community-level assessment combining long-term field surveys and dna barcode data describing ch ...201020643927
amphibian chytridiomycosis.amphibian chytridiomycosis is a fungal disease caused by the chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. it is arguably the most significant recorded infectious disease of any vertebrate class. the disease is reducing amphibian biodiversity across most continents and regions of the world, affecting the resilience of surviving populations and driving multiple species to extinction. it is now recognised by the world organisation for animal health (oie) as an internationally notifiable disease. ...201021268969
amphibian decline and extinction: what we know and what we need to learn.for over 350 million yr, thousands of amphibian species have lived on earth. since the 1980s, amphibians have been disappearing at an alarming rate, in many cases quite suddenly. what is causing these declines and extinctions? in the modern era (post 1500) there are 6 leading causes of biodiversity loss in general, and all of these acting alone or together are responsible for modern amphibian declines: commercial use; introduced/exotic species that compete with, prey on, and parasitize native fr ...201021268970
two amphibian diseases, chytridiomycosis and ranaviral disease, are now globally notifiable to the world organization for animal health (oie): an assessment.the global trade in amphibians entails the transport of tens of millions of live animals each year. in addition to the impact harvesting wild animals can have on amphibian populations, there is mounting evidence that the emerging pathogens batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and ranaviruses, the aetiological agents of chytridiomycosis and ranaviral disease, respectively, are spread through this trade. the link between these pathogens and amphibian declines and extinctions suggests that the epidemiolo ...201021268971
batrachochytrium dendrobatidis: requirement for further isolate collection and archiving.the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) causes the disease chytridiomycosis, which is lethal to many species of amphibians worldwide. many studies have investigated the epidemiology of chytridiomycosis in amphibian populations, but few have considered possible host-pathogen coevolution. more specifically, investigations focused on the evolution of bd, and the link with bd virulence, are needed. such studies, which may be important for conservation management of amphibians, depend ...201021268972
bsa reduces inhibition in a taqman assay for the detection of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.a taqman assay for the causative agent of chytridiomycosis in amphibians (batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) can be inhibited by phenolic compounds, including humic and tannic acids, resulting in false negatives. bovine serum albumin (bsa) is known to reduce inhibition of pcr when samples are contaminated with these inhibitors. we assessed the effect of bsa in reducing inhibition of the taqman assay when analyzing skin swabs for b. dendrobatidis. we found that the addition of bsa to the taqman reac ...201021268973
application of the survey protocol for chytridiomycosis to queensland, australia.spread of the amphibian chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), which causes chytridiomycosis, has resulted in the extinction of frogs, but the distribution of bd is incompletely known. we trialled the survey protocol for bd by attempting to systematically map its distribution in queensland, australia. bd was easily detected in known infected areas, such as the wet tropics and south east queensland. it was not detected in bioregions adjacent to, but inland from or to the north of, in ...201021268974
a molecular perspective: biology of the emerging pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.ten years after the first discovery of the chytrid pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), the catastrophic effect of bd on wild amphibian populations is indisputable. however, a number of persistent questions remain about bd's origin and mechanisms of pathogenicity. here we discuss the promise of genetic and genomic tools for answering these previously intractable questions about the biology and evolutionary history of bd. full genomes of 2 bd strains have recently been sequenced, and bd ...201021268975
identification and partial characterization of an elastolytic protease in the amphibian pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) is a fungus that causes chytridiomycosis, a disease that has been implicated as a cause of amphibian population declines worldwide. infected animals experience hyperkeratosis and sloughing of the epidermis due to penetration of the keratinized tissues by the fungus. these symptoms have led us to postulate that bd produces proteases that play a role in the infection process. here, we show that bd is capable of degrading elastin in vitro, a protein found in the ...201021268976
experimental infection of self-cured leiopelma archeyi with the amphibian chytrid batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.the susceptibility of archey's frog leiopelma archeyi to batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) is unknown, although one large population is thought to have declined sharply due to chytridiomycosis. as primary infection experiments were not permitted in this endangered new zealand species, 6 wild-caught l. archeyi that naturally cleared infections with bd while in captivity were exposed again to bd to assess their immunity. these frogs were from an infected population at whareorino, which has no kn ...201021268977
treatment of chytridiomycosis requires urgent clinical trials.effective and safe treatments of amphibian chytridiomycosis, caused by batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), are needed to prevent mortality in captive programs, reduce the risk of disease spread, and better manage the disease in threatened wild populations. bd is susceptible to a range of antifungal agents and low levels of heat (>30 degrees c) when tested in vitro, but there are few proven methods for clearing adult amphibians of bd, and acute drug toxicity is a problem for tadpoles and juvenil ...201021268978
batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in the live frog trade of telmatobius (anura: ceratophryidae) in the tropical andes.species of frogs in the genus telmatobius are traded and sold for human consumption in the andes and in coastal cities of peru and bolivia. these frogs are harvested from wild populations. we report high prevalence of infection by the pathogenic fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in live frogs purchased at the main market in cusco, peru, from january 2008 to january 2010. we suggest that the transport of native anurans through the live frog trade could facilitate the spread of this fungus amo ...201021268980
distribution and risk factors for spread of amphibian chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in the tasmanian wilderness world heritage area, australia.chytridiomycosis is an emerging infectious disease caused by the pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) and is the cause of the decline and extinction of amphibian species throughout the world. we surveyed the distribution of bd within and around the tasmanian wilderness world heritage area (twwha), a 1.38 million ha area of significant fauna conservation value, which provides the majority of habitat for tasmania's 3 endemic frog species (litoria burrowsae, bryobatrachus nimbus and crinia ...201021268981
future potential distribution of the emerging amphibian chytrid fungus under anthropogenic climate change.anthropogenic climate change poses a major threat to global biodiversity with a potential to alter biological interactions at all spatial scales. amphibians are the most threatened vertebrates and have been subject to increasing conservation attention over the past decade. a particular concern is the pandemic emergence of the parasitic chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, which has been identified as the cause of extremely rapid large-scale declines and species extinctions. experimenta ...201021268982
presence of the amphibian chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in threatened corroboree frog populations in the australian alps.since the early 1980s, the southern corroboree frog pseudophryne corroboree and northern corroboree frog p. pengilleyi have been in a state of decline from their sub-alpine and high montane bog environments on the southern tablelands of new south wales, australia. to date, there has been no adequate explanation as to what is causing the decline of these species. we investigated the possibility that a pathogen associated with other recent frog declines in australia, the amphibian chytrid fungus b ...201021268983
batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in darwin's frog rhinoderma spp. in chile.the presence of the chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in chile was evaluated in 2 endangered frog species of the genus rhinoderma. specimens from a captive rearing facility, wild populations and preserved collection material were analyzed using histological and molecular techniques. the fungus was identified in the rearing facility and in wild populations, but not in the archived frogs. this study confirms, for first time, the presence of chytridiomycosis in rhinoderma darwinii in ch ...201021268984
batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection dynamics in the columbia spotted frog rana luteiventris in north idaho, usa.the pathogenic chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) is contributing to amphibian declines worldwide. temperature plays an important role in both pathogen growth and host immune function, but little is known about seasonal dynamics of bd infection in north temperate regions. our objective was to increase understanding of bd disease ecology by investigating patterns of bd infection of columbia spotted frogs rana luteiventris across seasons, age classes, and sexes in north idaho, usa. ...201021268985
amphibian chytrid fungus and ranaviruses in the northwest territories, canada.pathogens can cause serious declines in host species, and knowing where pathogens associated with host declines occur facilitates understanding host-pathogen ecology. suspected drivers of global amphibian declines include infectious diseases, with 2 pathogens in particular, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) and ranaviruses, causing concern. we explored the host range and geographic distribution of bd and ranaviruses in the taiga plains ecoregion of the northwest territories, canada, in 2007 an ...201021268986
early-spring survey for batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in wild rana dybowskii in heilongjiang province, china.batrachochytrium dendrobatidis has been investigated worldwide because of its importance in population declines in multiple species of amphibians; however, little is known regarding the disease status of all native amphibian species in china. the present study is the first survey of chytridiomycosis in free-ranging amphibian populations in china, and it examined the possible presence of b. dendrobatidis in rana dybowskii in northeastern china (heilongjiang province). r. dybowskii is mainly distr ...201021268987
amphibian chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in cusuco national park, honduras.amphibian population declines in honduras have long been attributed to habitat degradation and pollution, but an increasing number of declines are now being observed from within the boundaries of national parks in pristine montane environments. the amphibian chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis has been implicated in these declines and was recently documented in honduras from samples collected in pico bonito national park in 2003. this report now confirms cusuco national park, a protect ...201021268988
seasonality of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection in direct-developing frogs suggests a mechanism for persistence.batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), a disease-causing amphibian-specific fungus, is widely distributed in puerto rico, but is restricted to elevations above 600 m. the effect of this pathogen in the wild was studied by monitoring eleutherodactylus coqui and e. portoricensis in 2 upland forests at el yunque, a site characterized by historic population declines in the presence of chytridiomycosis. we tested a potential synergistic interaction between climate and bd by measuring prevalence of infe ...201021268989
development of in vitro models for a better understanding of the early pathogenesis of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infections in amphibians.batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, the causal agent of chytridiomycosis, is implicated in the global decline of amphibians. this chytrid fungus invades keratinised epithelial cells, and infection is mainly associated with epidermal hyperplasia and hyperkeratosis. since little is known about the pathogenesis of chytridiomycosis, this study was designed to optimise the conditions under which primary keratinocytes and epidermal explants of amphibian skin could be maintained ex vivo for several days. t ...201021275473
preliminary amphibian health survey in the delaware water gap national recreation area.to detect aquatic animal diseases of national concern, 111 individual amphibians, including wood frogs rana sylvatica (28), spring peepers pseudacris crucifer (35), red-spotted newts notophthalmus viridescens (41), and gray tree frogs hyla versicolor (7), were sampled at seven different sites in the delaware water gap national recreation area (dgnra), pennsylvania, from june 14 to july 19, 2007. these samples were screened for batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and viral pathogens at the u.s. fish a ...201020848885
amphibian pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis prevalence is correlated with season and not urbanization in central virginia.the global amphibian pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) has been documented among many species throughout the united states, though cases of chytridiomycosis, the resulting disease, have occurred mostly on the west coast. we conducted a 2 yr survey of amphibians along an urban gradient in virginia, u.s.a., to test whether bd prevalence among the amphibians sampled varied with urbanization and/or season. a total of 867 adult amphibians from 13 species and 49 tadpoles from 3 species were ...201020853737
effects of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection on ion concentrations in the boreal toad anaxyrus (bufo) boreas boreas.batrachochytrium dendrobatidis causes mortality in various amphibian species including the boreal toad anaxyrus (bufo) boreas boreas. the purpose of this study was to determine the physiological effects of this pathogen on experimentally infected boreal toads. plasma osmolality, sodium, and potassium concentrations were analyzed to evaluate the differences between diseased and non-exposed animals. infected animals with clinical signs of chytridiomycosis had significantly lower plasma osmolality, ...201020853738
conservation, duplication, and loss of the tor signaling pathway in the fungal kingdom.the nutrient-sensing tor pathway governs cell growth and is conserved in nearly all eukaryotic organisms from unicellular yeasts to multicellular organisms, including humans. tor is the target of the immunosuppressive drug rapamycin, which in complex with the prolyl isomerase fkbp12 inhibits tor functions. rapamycin is a gold standard drug for organ transplant recipients that was approved by the fda in 1999 and is finding additional clinical indications as a chemotherapeutic and antiproliferativ ...201020863387
immmunological clearance of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection at a pathogen-optimal temperature in the hylid frog hypsiboas crepitans.amphibian declines worldwide have been linked to the fungal disease chytridiomycosis. its causative agent (batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, hereafter bd), however, also infects many nondeclining species. experimental infections have shown species-specific and temperature-dependent frog responses to bd infection. although bd infection may be eliminated by housing amphibians at temperatures above those tolerated by the fungus, the question of whether frogs can eliminate infection under more favorab ...201020890631
interactions between batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and its amphibian hosts: a review of pathogenesis and immunity.the fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) causes a lethal skin disease of amphibians, chytridiomycosis, which has caused catastrophic amphibian die-offs around the world. this review provides a summary of host characteristics, pathogen characteristics and host-pathogen responses to infection that are important for understanding disease development.201020951224
batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and the collapse of anuran species richness and abundance in the upper manu national park, southeastern peru.amphibians are declining worldwide, but these declines have been particularly dramatic in tropical mountains, where high endemism and vulnerability to an introduced fungal pathogen, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), is associated with amphibian extinctions. we surveyed frogs in the peruvian andes in montane forests along a steep elevational gradient (1200-3700 m). we used visual encounter surveys to sample stream-dwelling and arboreal species and leaf-litter plots to sample terrestrial-breedi ...201021054530
using amphibians in laboratory studies: precautions against the emerging infectious disease chytridiomycosis.the african clawed frog xenopus laevis is by far the most widely used amphibian species in laboratories. in the wild, x. laevis is an asymptomatic carrier of an emerging infectious disease called chytridiomycosis. the vector is the chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), which has devastating effects on wild amphibian populations around the world. the impact of bd on the metabolism of x. laevis has not been comprehended yet. however, even if asymptomatic, an infection is likely to af ...201021075827
what drives chytrid infections in newt populations? associations with substrate, temperature, and shade.the pathogenic chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) is considered responsible for the population declines and extinctions of hundreds of amphibian species worldwide. the panzootic was likely triggered by human-assisted spread, but once the pathogen becomes established in a given region, its distribution is probably determined by local drivers. to assess the relative importance of potential drivers of infection in red-spotted newts (notophthalmus viridescens), we measured bd levels ...201021125308
prevalence of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in three species of wild frogs on prince edward island, canada.chytridiomycosis, caused by the fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), has resulted in the decline or extinction of approximately 200 frog species worldwide. it has been reported throughout much of north america, but its presence on prince edward island (pei), on the eastern coast of canada, was unknown. to determine the presence and prevalence of bd on pei, skin swabs were collected from 115 frogs from 18 separate sites across the province during the summer of 2009. the swabs were tested t ...201021387987
effects of temperature and hydric environment on survival of the panamanian golden frog infected with a pathogenic chytrid fungus.considerable controversy exists concerning whether or not climate changes (particularly global warming) are causing outbreaks of a lethal amphibian pathogen, the chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (longcore, pessier & d.k. nichols 1999). in the present study, groups of panamanian golden frogs (atelopus zeteki dunn, 1993), a critically endangered amphibian thought to be nearly extinct in panama, were exposed to varying dosages of zoospores of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, temperature ...201021392332
experimental examination of the effects of ultraviolet-b radiation in combination with other stressors on frog larvae.ultraviolet-b radiation (uvb) is a ubiquitous stressor with negative effects on many aquatic organisms. in amphibians, ambient levels of uvb can result in impaired growth, slowed development, malformations, altered behavior and mortality. uvb can also interact with other environmental stressors to amplify these negative effects on individuals. in outdoor mesocosm and laboratory experiments we studied potential synergistic effects of uvb, a pathogenic fungus, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), ...201019727829
thermoregulatory behaviour affects prevalence of chytrid fungal infection in a wild population of panamanian golden frogs.predicting how climate change will affect disease dynamics requires an understanding of how the environment affects host-pathogen interactions. for amphibians, global declines and extinctions have been linked to a pathogenic chytrid fungus, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. using a combination of body temperature measurements and disease assays conducted before and after the arrival of b. dendrobatidis, this study tested the hypothesis that body temperature affects the prevalence of infection in a ...201019864287
the ecology and impact of chytridiomycosis: an emerging disease of amphibians.emerging infectious diseases are increasingly recognized as key threats to wildlife. batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), the causative agent of chytridiomycosis, has been implicated in widespread amphibian declines and is currently the largest infectious disease threat to biodiversity. here, we review the causes of bd emergence, its impact on amphibian populations and the ecology of bd transmission. we describe studies to answer outstanding issues, including the origin of the pathogen, the effe ...201019836101
blood parasites of frogs from an equatorial african montane forest in western uganda.in a survey of blood parasites in ugandan frogs, 30 (17%) of 180 frogs were infected with at least 1 species of hepatozoon or trypanosoma, or with microfilariae. there were significant differences in the prevalence of parasitism among species, with parasitemia detected in only 3 of 9 species. the intensity of blood parasite infection ranged from 1 to 1,080 infected cells per 5,000 cells examined. seasonal changes in the prevalence and intensity of parasitemia were not observed, nor was there any ...201019958047
immunization is ineffective at preventing infection and mortality due to the amphibian chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), the causative agent of chytridiomycosis, has been implicated in amphibian declines worldwide. it has been hypothesized that low inherent immunogenicity in bd may be related to the high rates of morbidity and mortality that are associated with bd-infected anuran populations. to test this idea, juvenile rana muscosa (mountain yellow-legged frogs) were immunized with adjuvants in combination with a formalin-killed bd culture to determine if i ...201020090019
factors driving pathogenicity vs. prevalence of amphibian panzootic chytridiomycosis in iberia.amphibian chytridiomycosis is a disease caused by the fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd). whether bd is a new emerging pathogen (the novel pathogen hypothesis; nph) or whether environmental changes are exacerbating the host-pathogen dynamic (the endemic pathogen hypothesis; eph) is debated. to disentangle these hypotheses we map the distribution of bd and chytridiomycosis across the iberian peninsula centred on the first european outbreak site. we find that the infection-free state is th ...201020132274
impacts of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection on tadpole foraging performance.pathogen-induced modifications in host behavior, including alterations in foraging behavior or foraging efficiency, can compromise host fitness by reducing growth and development. chytridiomycosis is an infectious disease of amphibians caused by the fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), and it has played an important role in the worldwide decline of amphibians. in larval anurans, bd infections commonly result in reduced developmental rates, however, the mechanism(s) responsible are unteste ...201020135192
chytrid blinders: what other disease risks to amphibians are we missing?amphibian declines are occurring on a global scale, and infectious disease has been implicated as a factor in some species. batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) has been associated with amphibian declines and/or extinctions in many locations, however, few of the studies have actually performed detailed pathological investigations to link the emergence of the disease with mortality rates large enough to cause the declines. many studies are based solely on the presence of infection, not disease, be ...201020135193
mortality rates differ among amphibian populations exposed to three strains of a lethal ranavirus.infectious diseases are a growing threat to biodiversity, in many cases because of synergistic effects with habitat loss, environmental contamination, and climate change. emergence of pathogens as new threats to host populations can also arise when novel combinations of hosts and pathogens are unintentionally brought together, for example, via commercial trade or wildlife relocations and reintroductions. chytrid fungus (batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) and amphibian ranaviruses (family iridovirid ...201020143127
how does chytrid infection vary among habitats? the case of litoria wilcoxii (anura, hylidae) in se queensland, australia.most analyses dealing with the geographical distribution of the chytrid fungus (batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) have been performed on large geographical scales and data on more localized distribution of the chytrid within catchments are scarce. in this study, we compare the prevalence and intensity of infection of chytrid within and outside rainforest habitats at five independent catchments in southeast queensland. in each catchment, we sampled adult litoria wilcoxii along two transects on the ...201020155300
prevalence of the pathogenic chytrid fungus, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, in an endangered population of northern leopard frogs, rana pipiens.emerging infectious diseases threaten naïve host populations with extinction. chytridiomycosis, an emerging infectious disease of amphibians, is caused by the pathogenic fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) and has been linked to global declines in amphibians.201020202208
efficacy of sybr 14/propidium iodide viability stain for the amphibian chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.the amphibian chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is a recently described pathogen that has been implicated as a causal agent in the global decline in amphibians. research into its biology and epidemiology has frequently involved in vitro experimentation. however, this research is currently limited by the inability to differentiate between viable and inviable zoospores. stains are frequently used to determine cell viability, and this study tested a 2-colour fluorescence assay for the d ...201020225679
using occupancy models to understand the distribution of an amphibian pathogen, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is a fungal pathogen that is receiving attention around the world for its role in amphibian declines. study of its occurrence patterns is hampered by false negatives: the failure to detect the pathogen when it is present. occupancy models are a useful but currently underutilized tool for analyzing detection data when the probability of detecting a species is <1. we use occupancy models to evaluate hypotheses concerning the occurrence and prevalence of b. dendrobati ...201020349848
diagnosis of aeromonas hydrophila, mycobacterium species, and batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in an african clawed frog (xenopus laevis).here we describe diagnosis of concurrent infection with aeromonas hydrophila, mycobacterium spp., and batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in a wild female xenopus laevis captured in chile and transported to the united states. after approximately 130 d in the laboratory, the frog was presented for dysecdysis and obtundation. after euthanasia, tissues were submitted for histopathologic evaluation and pcr analysis for b. dendrobatidis and ranavirus. clinically significant gross lesions included cutaneou ...201020353698
first evidence of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in china: discovery of chytridiomycosis in introduced american bullfrogs and native amphibians in the yunnan province, china.although the chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), the etiological agent of amphibian chytridiomycosis, has been implicated in mass mortality and population declines on several continents around the world, there have been no reports on the presence of bd infections in amphibians in china. we employed quantitative pcr and histological techniques to investigate the presence of bd in introduced north american bullfrogs (rana catesbeiana) (referred to hereafter as bullfrog) and native ...201020372969
linking global climate and temperature variability to widespread amphibian declines putatively caused by disease.the role of global climate change in the decline of biodiversity and the emergence of infectious diseases remains controversial, and the effect of climatic variability, in particular, has largely been ignored. for instance, it was recently revealed that the proposed link between climate change and widespread amphibian declines, putatively caused by the chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), was tenuous because it was based on a temporally confounded correlation. here we provide temp ...201020404180
effects of amphibian chytrid fungus on individual survival probability in wild boreal toads.chytridiomycosis is linked to the worldwide decline of amphibians, yet little is known about the demographic effects of the disease. we collected capture-recapture data on three populations of boreal toads (bufo boreas [bufo = anaxyrus]) in the rocky mountains (u.s.a.). two of the populations were infected with chytridiomycosis and one was not. we examined the effect of the presence of amphibian chytrid fungus (batrachochytrium dendrobatidis [bd]; the agent of chytridiomycosis) on survival proba ...201020412086
dynamics of an emerging disease drive large-scale amphibian population extinctions.epidemiological theory generally suggests that pathogens will not cause host extinctions because the pathogen should fade out when the host population is driven below some threshold density. an emerging infectious disease, chytridiomycosis, caused by the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) is directly linked to the recent extinction or serious decline of hundreds of amphibian species. despite continued spread of this pathogen into uninfected areas, the dynamics of the host-pathog ...201020457913
enzootic and epizootic dynamics of the chytrid fungal pathogen of amphibians.chytridiomycosis, the disease caused by the chytrid fungus, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), has contributed to amphibian population declines and extinctions worldwide. the impact of this pathogen, however, varies markedly among amphibian species and populations. following invasion into some areas of california's sierra nevada, bd leads to rapid declines and local extinctions of frog populations (rana muscosa, r. sierrae). in other areas, infected populations of the same frog species have de ...201020457916
cutaneous bacteria of the redback salamander prevent morbidity associated with a lethal disease.chytridiomycosis, caused by the fungal pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), is an infectious disease that causes population declines of many amphibians. cutaneous bacteria isolated from redback salamanders, plethodon cinereus, and mountain yellow-legged frogs, rana muscosa, inhibit the growth of bd in vitro. in this study, the bacterial community present on the skin of p. cinereus individuals was investigated to determine if it provides protection to salamanders from the lethal and sub- ...201020532032
within- and among-population variation in chytridiomycosis-induced mortality in the toad alytes obstetricans.chytridiomycosis is a fungal disease linked to local and global extinctions of amphibians. susceptibility to chytridiomycosis varies greatly between amphibian species, but little is known about between- and within-population variability. however, this kind of variability is the basis for the evolution of tolerance and resistance evolution to disease.201020532196
fungal pathogen changes the feeding kinematics of larval anurans.pathogens can alter host life-history traits by affecting host feeding activities. in anuran tadpoles, keratinized mouthparts (teeth and jaw sheaths) are essential for feeding. batrachochytrium dendrobatidis ( bd ) is a pathogenic fungus of amphibians that can infect these mouthparts and reduce tadpole survival. however, the precise way that bd-induced changes in tadpole mouthparts impact tadpole feeding is unknown. we use high-speed (500 frames/sec) videography to study how bd-induced mouthpart ...201020557202
immune defenses against batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, a fungus linked to global amphibian declines, in the south african clawed frog, xenopus laevis.batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is a chytrid fungus that causes the lethal skin disease chytridiomycosis in amphibians. it is regarded as an emerging infectious disease affecting diverse amphibian populations in many parts of the world. because there are few model amphibian species for immunological studies, little is known about immune defenses against b. dendrobatidis. we show here that the south african clawed frog, xenopus laevis, is a suitable model for investigating immunity to this pathoge ...201020584973
persistence with chytridiomycosis does not assure survival of direct-developing frogs.the chytrid fungus, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) has been linked to extinction and decline of numerous amphibians. we studied the population-level effects of bd in two post-decline anuran species, eleutherodactylus coqui and e. portoricensis, at el yunque national forest, puerto rico. data on amphibian abundance was updated to report long-term population trends. mark-recapture data was used to monitor bd-infection status and estimate survival probabilities of infected versus uninfected ad ...201020585971
expression profiling the temperature-dependent amphibian response to infection by batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.amphibians are experiencing a panzootic of unprecedented proportions caused by the emergence of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd). however, all species are not equally at risk of infection, and risk is further modified by environmental variables, specifically temperature. in order to understand how, and when, hosts mount a response to bd we analysed infection dynamics and patterns of gene expression in the model amphibian species silurana (xenopus) tropicalis. mathematical modelling of infecti ...200920027316
endemic and introduced haplotypes of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in japanese amphibians: sink or source?the global emergence of the amphibian chytrid pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) is one of the most compelling, and troubling, examples of a panzootic. only discovered in 1998, bd is now recognized as a proximate driver of global declines in amphibian diversity and is now widely acknowledged as a key threatening process for this ancient class of vertebrates. moreover, bd has become a member of a small group of highly virulent multihost pathogens that are known to have had effects on en ...200920078765
amphibian chytridiomycosis in japan: distribution, haplotypes and possible route of entry into japan.a serious disease of amphibians caused by the chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis was first found in japan in december 2006 in imported pet frogs. this was the first report of chytridiomycosis in asia. to assess the risk of pandemic chytridiomycosis to japanese frogs, we surveyed the distribution of the fungus among captive and wild frog populations. we established a nested pcr assay that uses two pairs of pcr primers to amplify the internal transcribed spacer (its) region of a ribosom ...200919840263
first detection of the amphibian chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in free-ranging populations of amphibians on mainland asia: survey in south korea.chytridiomycosis, a disease that has caused amphibian population declines globally and elevated many species of anurans to endangered or threatened status, has recently been declared an internationally notifiable disease. batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), the amphibian chytrid fungus causing this disease, has not been previously reported in korea or on mainland asia. thirty-six frog specimens representing 7 species were collected from the wild in south korea and examined for bd using standard ...200919899344
pathogenesis of chytridiomycosis, a cause of catastrophic amphibian declines.the pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), which causes the skin disease chytridiomycosis, is one of the few highly virulent fungi in vertebrates and has been implicated in worldwide amphibian declines. however, the mechanism by which bd causes death has not been determined. we show that bd infection is associated with pathophysiological changes that lead to mortality in green tree frogs (litoria caerulea). in diseased individuals, electrolyte transport across the epidermis was inhibited ...200919900897
distribution limits of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis: a case study in the rocky mountains, usa.knowledge of the environmental constraints on a pathogen is critical to predicting its dynamics and effects on populations. batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), an aquatic fungus that has been linked with widespread amphibian declines, is ubiquitous in the rocky mountains. as part of assessing the distribution limits of bd in our study area, we sampled the water column and sediments for bd zoospores in 30 high-elevation water bodies that lacked amphibians. all water bodies were in areas where bd ...200919901397
impact and dynamics of disease in species threatened by the amphibian chytrid fungus, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.estimating disease-associated mortality and transmission processes is difficult in free-ranging wildlife but important for understanding disease impacts and dynamics and for informing management decisions. in a capture-mark-recapture study, we used a pcr-based diagnostic test in combination with multistate models to provide the first estimates of disease-associated mortality and detection, infection, and recovery rates for frogs endemically infected with the chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendr ...200919774709
distribution of frogs in rice bays within an irrigated agricultural area: links to pesticide usage and farm practices.in the coleambally irrigation area (nsw, australia), the occurrence of four tadpole and frog species in rice bays on farms growing either rice only or both rice and corn was studied over two seasons. in addition to analysis of species occurrence, both gonadal histology and assessment of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection rates were performed. the rice acreage available as potential tadpole habitat was extensively distributed throughout the irrigation area, but more corn was grown in the no ...200919220075
proteomic and phenotypic profiling of the amphibian pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis shows that genotype is linked to virulence.population genetics of the amphibian pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) show that isolates are highly related and globally homogenous, data that are consistent with the recent epidemic spread of a previously endemic organism. highly related isolates are predicted to be functionally similar due to low levels of heritable genetic diversity. to test this hypothesis, we took a global panel of bd isolates and measured (i) the genetic relatedness among isolates, (ii) proteomic profiles of is ...200919161465
a zoospore inhibition technique to evaluate the activity of antifungal compounds against batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and unsuccessful treatment of experimentally infected green tree frogs (litoria caerulea) by fluconazole and benzalkonium chloride.effective and safe treatments of chytridiomycosis in amphibians, caused by batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, are needed to help prevent mortality in captive programs for threatened species, to reduce the risk of spread, and to better manage the disease in threatened populations. we describe a simple method to determine minimum inhibitory concentrations (mics) of antifungal agents that involves adding zoospores to various drug concentrations in 96 well plates and microscopic observation after four ...200919117582
batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, a novel pathogen approaching endemism in central california.the recent emergence of amphibian chytridiomycosis has precipitated competing hypotheses regarding the endemic versus novel nature of the causative agent, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd). we conducted a retrospective survey of the california academy of sciences' (san francisco, california, usa) amphibian collection, testing for presence of bd in 4 amphibian species collected from central california between 1897 and 2005. the earliest detection of bd was found in 2 rana catesbeiana in 1961, a ...200919301630
addition of antifungal skin bacteria to salamanders ameliorates the effects of chytridiomycosis.chytridiomycosis, caused by the skin fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), has caused population declines of many amphibians in remote protected habitats. progress has been made in understanding the pathogen's life cycle, documenting its devastating effects on individual amphibians and on populations, and understanding how and why disease outbreaks occur. no research has directly addressed the critical question of how to prevent declines and extinctions caused by outbreaks of the disease. ...200919301631
skin microbes on frogs prevent morbidity and mortality caused by a lethal skin fungus.emerging infectious diseases threaten human and wildlife populations. altered ecological interactions between mutualistic microbes and hosts can result in disease, but an understanding of interactions between host, microbes and disease-causing organisms may lead to management strategies to affect disease outcomes. many amphibian species in relatively pristine habitats are experiencing dramatic population declines and extinctions due to the skin disease chytridiomycosis, which is caused by the ch ...200919322245
the role of amphibian antimicrobial peptides in protection of amphibians from pathogens linked to global amphibian declines.amphibian species have experienced population declines and extinctions worldwide that are unprecedented in recent history. many of these recent declines have been linked to a pathogenic skin fungus, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, or to iridoviruses of the genus ranavirus. one of the first lines of defense against pathogens that enter by way of the skin are antimicrobial peptides synthesized and stored in dermal granular glands and secreted into the mucus following alarm or injury. here, i revie ...200919327341
lack of evidence for the drought-linked chytridiomycosis hypothesis.a significant amount of recent research has focused on the potentially synergistic roles of climate change and disease in causing amphibian declines and extinctions. herein i discuss the drought-linked chytridiomycosis hypothesis (dlch), which states that prolonged or intensified dry seasons trigger or exacerbate epidemics of chytridiomycosis, a potentially lethal skin disease of amphibians caused by the chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. i demonstrate that the dlch runs contrary to ...200919395768
using itraconazole to clear batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection, and subsequent depigmentation of alytes muletensis tadpoles.batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) is a global threat to amphibian biodiversity. current calls for conservation through captive breeding require that efficient and reliable antifungal treatments be developed for target species. here we confirm that the antifungal itraconazole is an effective treatment for infection in larval alytes muletensis. exceptionally low doses applied as few as 7 times were effective at clearing infection from tadpoles for up to 28 d after treatment. however, we cannot r ...200919402457
fatal chytridiomycosis in the tyrrhenian painted frog.batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), the causative agent of the amphibian disease chytridiomycosis, is an important factor in the global decline of amphibians. within europe, animals that exhibit clinical signs of the disease have only been reported in spain despite the pathogen's wide, but patchy, distribution on the continent. recently, another occurrence of chytridiomycosis was reported in euproctus platycephalus, the sardinian brook newt, on the mediterranean island of sardinia, but without ...200919418096
distribution and pathogenicity of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in boreal toads from the grand teton area of western wyoming.the pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), which causes the skin disease chytridiomycosis, has been linked to amphibian population declines and extinctions worldwide. bd has been implicated in recent declines of boreal toads, bufo boreas boreas, in colorado but populations of boreal toads in western wyoming have high prevalence of bd without suffering catastrophic mortality. in a field and laboratory study, we investigated the prevalence of bd in boreal toads from the grand teton ecosyste ...200919418097
experimental infection of north american plethodontid salamanders with the fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.the presence in the southeastern usa of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, a fungal pathogen of amphibians, is a potential threat to the diverse salamander assemblages in the region. in this study, we tested the susceptibility of plethodontid salamanders to infection with b. dendrobatidis. we experimentally infected one terrestrial species (plethodon metcalfi) and one stream-dwelling species (desmognathus monticola). mortality of p. metcalfi due to b. dendrobatidis infection was 41.7% and was highe ...200919419001
elimination of the amphibian chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis by archey's frog leiopelma archeyi.archey's frog leiopelma archeyi is a critically endangered new zealand endemic species. the discovery of the emerging infectious disease, chytridiomycosis, in wild populations of this frog raised concern that this disease may drive the species to extinction. twelve wild-caught archey's frogs naturally infected with the amphibian chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis were monitored in captivity by observing clinical signs, measuring weight gain, and performing repeated pcr tests. eight fr ...200919419002
tool for estimating the risk of anthropogenic spread of batrachochytrium denrobatidis between water bodies.batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) is a chytrid fungus, which has been associated with numerous amphibian mortality events around the world. it is hypothesized that bd was inadvertently spread through human activities. we have developed a basic risk assessment tool to better understand the potential risk of transferring bd between water bodies through field activities, and to target disinfection strategies which reduce the risk of spreading bd. the questions in the risk assessment focus on the ...200919421816
detection of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in endemic salamander species from central texas.a nested pcr protocol was used to analyze five endemic salamander species from central texas for the presence of the emerging pathogen, chytrid fungus (batrachochytrium dendrobatidis). chytrid fungus was detected from samples of each of the five species sampled: with low abundance, in the texas salamander (eurycea neotenes) (1 positive out of 16 individuals tested; 1/16), the blanco river springs salamander (e. pterophila) (1/20), the threatened san marcos salamander (e. nana) (1/17), and the en ...200919424755
dermal cytolytic peptides and the system of innate immunity in anurans.cationic peptides with the propensity to adopt an amphipathic alpha-helical conformation in a membrane-mimetic environment are synthesized in the skin of many species of frogs. these peptides frequently display potent cytolytic activities against a range of pathogenic bacteria and fungi, consistent with the hypothesis that they play a role in host defense. however, the importance of the peptides in the survival strategy of the animal is not clearly understood. at this time, antimicrobial peptide ...200919456329
chytridiomycosis in frogs from uruguay.amphibian chytridiomycosis caused by batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is reported in uruguayan native amphibians for the first time. histological evidence of infection was observed in tadpoles of hypsiboas pulchellus, odontophrynus maisuma, physalaemus henselii, and scinax squalirostris. the effects of chytridiomycosis on these species are still unknown. however, the disease is of potential concern for the conservation of the apparently declining species p. henselii and also for o. maisuma, given ...200919476286
non-invasive sampling methods for the detection of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in archived amphibians.chytridiomycosis, an emerging infectious disease of amphibians caused by the chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd), is associated with amphibian population declines worldwide. investigation of the origin and spread of the pathogen requires examination of archived museum specimens of amphibians. examination for bd infection is usually done using histological techniques, which are often too destructive for valuable museum material. three alternative methods for bd detection (skin swab ...200919476287
rapid global expansion of the fungal disease chytridiomycosis into declining and healthy amphibian populations.the fungal disease chytridiomycosis, caused by batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, is enigmatic because it occurs globally in both declining and apparently healthy (non-declining) amphibian populations. this distribution has fueled debate concerning whether, in sites where it has recently been found, the pathogen was introduced or is endemic. in this study, we addressed the molecular population genetics of a global collection of fungal strains from both declining and healthy amphibian populations us ...200919478871
immune defenses of xenopus laevis against batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.amphibian populations are declining at an unprecedented rate worldwide. a number of declines have been linked to a pathogenic skin fungus, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. although amphibians have robust immune defenses, many species seem to be very susceptible to infection by this fungus and to development of the lethal disease called chytridiomycosis. one species that is relatively resistant to b. dendrobatidis is xenopus laevis. because x. laevis has been used as a model for studies of immunit ...200919482684
widespread occurrence of the chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis on oregon spotted frogs (rana pretiosa).the pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) has been associated with amphibian declines in multiple continents, including western north america. we investigated bd prevalence in oregon spotted frog (rana pretiosa), a species that has declined across its range in the pacific northwest. polymerase chain reaction analysis of skin swabs indicated that bd was prevalent within populations (420 of 617 juvenile and adults) and widespread among populations (36 of 36 sites) where we sampled r. pretio ...200919526269
global emergence of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and amphibian chytridiomycosis in space, time, and host.batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) is a chytrid fungus that causes chytridiomycosis in amphibians. only named in 1999, bd is a proximate driver of declines in global amphibian biodiversity. the pathogen infects over 350 species of amphibians and is found on all continents except antarctica. however, the processes that have led to the global distribution of bd and the occurrence of chytridiomycosis remain unclear. this review explores the molecular, epidemiological, and ecological evidence that ...200919575560
ranavirus in wild edible frogs pelophylax kl. esculentus in denmark.a survey for the amphibian pathogens ranavirus and batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) was conducted in denmark during august and september 2008. the public was encouraged via the media to register unusual mortalities in a web-based survey. all members of the public that registered cases were interviewed by phone and 10 cases were examined on suspicion of disease-induced mortality. all samples were negative for bd. ranavirus was isolated from 2 samples of recently dead frogs collected during a m ...200919593928
experimental infection of native north carolina salamanders with batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.chytridiomycosis is an often fatal fungal disease of amphibians caused by batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. this disease has been implicated in the worldwide decline of many anuran species, but studies of chytridiomycosis in wild salamanders are limited. between august 2006 and december 2006, we tested wild amphibians in north carolina, usa (n=212) by polymerase chain reaction (pcr). we identified three pcr-positive animals: one rana clamitans and two plethodontid salamanders. we experimentally in ...200919617473
variations in the expressed antimicrobial peptide repertoire of northern leopard frog (rana pipiens) populations suggest intraspecies differences in resistance to pathogens.the northern leopard frog (rana pipiens or lithobates pipiens) is historically found in most of the provinces of canada and the northern and southwest states of the united states. in the last 50 years, populations have suffered significant losses, especially in the western regions of the species range. using a peptidomics approach, we show that the pattern of expressed antimicrobial skin peptides of frogs from three geographically separated populations are distinct, and we report the presence of ...200919622371
selecting for extinction: nonrandom disease-associated extinction homogenizes amphibian biotas.studying the patterns in which local extinctions occur is critical to understanding how extinctions affect biodiversity at local, regional and global spatial scales. to understand the importance of patterns of extinction at a regional spatial scale, we use data from extirpations associated with a widespread pathogenic agent of amphibian decline, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) as a model system. we apply novel null model analyses to these data to determine whether recent extirpations associa ...200919694784
genome-wide transcriptional response of silurana (xenopus) tropicalis to infection with the deadly chytrid fungus.emerging infectious diseases are of great concern for both wildlife and humans. several highly virulent fungal pathogens have recently been discovered in natural populations, highlighting the need for a better understanding of fungal-vertebrate host-pathogen interactions. because most fungal pathogens are not fatal in the absence of other predisposing conditions, host-pathogen dynamics for deadly fungal pathogens are of particular interest. the chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (here ...200919701481
the bacterially produced metabolite violacein is associated with survival of amphibians infected with a lethal fungus.the disease chytridiomycosis, which is caused by the chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, is associated with recent declines in amphibian populations. susceptibility to this disease varies among amphibian populations and species, and resistance appears to be attributable in part to the presence of antifungal microbial species associated with the skin of amphibians. the betaproteobacterium janthinobacterium lividum has been isolated from the skins of several amphibian species and produc ...200919717627
presence of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis at the headwaters of the mississippi river, itasca state park, minnesota, usa. 200920689665
survival of the amphibian chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis on bare hands and gloves: hygiene implications for amphibian handling.hygiene protocols for handling amphibians in the field and in laboratories have been proposed to decrease the transmission of chytridiomycosis caused by infection with the amphibian chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, which is responsible for global amphibian declines. however, these protocols are mainly based on theoretical principles. the aim of this study was to develop an evidence-based approach to amphibian handling hygiene protocols by testing the survival of b. dendrobatidis on ...200819149372
first report of spontaneous chytridiomycosis in frogs in asia.this is the first report of amphibian chytridiomycosis in asia. we discovered a lethal outbreak in japan, among 45 exotic frogs from 18 species kept for breeding by a private owner. of these 45 frogs, 16 died and another 7 were found to be infected by chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (bd) but survived after treatment. bd was detected in frogs from 9 species (lepidobatrachus laevis, ceratophrys cornuta, c. cranwelli, c. ornata, c. calcarata, chacophrys pierotti, occidozyga lima, lept ...200819149379
first record of chytridiomycosis in bolivia (rhinella quechua; anura: bufonidae).the finding of tadpoles of rhinella quechua (huayramayu river, carrasco national park, cochabamba, bolivia) with oral abnormalities caused by batrachochytrium dendrobatidis constitutes the first record of this fungal infection reported for bolivian amphibians.200819149380
persistence of the emerging pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis outside the amphibian host greatly increases the probability of host extinction.pathogens do not normally drive their hosts to extinction; however, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, which causes amphibian chytridiomycosis, has been able to do so. theory predicts that extinction can be caused by long-lived or saprobic free-living stages. the hypothesis that such a stage occurs in b. dendrobatidis is supported by the recent discovery of an apparently encysted form of the pathogen. to investigate the effect of a free-living stage of b. dendrobatidis on host population dynamics, ...200818048287
the identification of 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol as an antifungal metabolite produced by cutaneous bacteria of the salamander plethodon cinereus.beneficial bacteria that live on salamander skins have the ability to inhibit pathogenic fungi. our study aimed to identify the specific chemical agent(s) of this process and asked if any of the antifungal compounds known to operate in analogous plant-bacteria-fungi systems were present. crude extracts of bacteria isolated from salamander skin were exposed to hplc, uv-vis, gc-ms, and hr-ms analyses. these investigations show that 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol is produced by the bacteria isolate lys ...200818058176
development of an assay for testing the antimicrobial activity of skin peptides against the amphibian chytrid fungus (batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) using xenopus laevis.this report describes the preliminary characterization of a bioassay for testing the antimicrobial activity of amphibian skin peptides against the chytrid fungus, batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. peptide secretions from xenopus laevis were induced by subcutaneous injections of norepinephrine. partially purified secretions were quantified and incubated at various dilutions with 10(7) cells/ml of freshly isolated zoospores for 7 days. peptide bioactivity was measured as cell growth inhibition over ...200818067960
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