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estimating inbreeding rates in natural populations: addressing the problem of incomplete pedigrees.understanding and estimating inbreeding is essential for managing threatened and endangered wildlife populations. however, determination of inbreeding rates in natural populations is confounded by incomplete parentage information. we present an approach for quantifying inbreeding rates for populations with incomplete parentage information. the approach exploits knowledge of pedigree configurations that lead to inbreeding coefficients of f = 0.25 and f = 0.125, allowing for quantification of pr(i ...201728398480
a mortality event in elk ( cervus elaphus nelsoni) calves associated with malnutrition, pasteurellosis, and deer adenovirus in colorado, usa.this report describes clinical, necropsy, and ancillary diagnostic findings for a mortality event in rocky mountain elk ( cervus elaphus nelsoni) calves attributed to malnutrition, pasteurellosis, and an alimentary presentation of adenovirus hemorrhagic disease.201728328349
can red deer antlers be used as an indicator of environmental and edible tissues' trace element contamination?venison is an attractive product for consumers concerned with healthy lifestyle; however, it can contain high levels of toxic elements, and therefore, it is a possible source of hazardous contaminants in human diet. antlers are suitable bioindicators of environmental metal contamination, and herein, we assessed the ability of trace element levels in antlers to indicate levels in edible soft tissues. we determined the concentrations of lead (pb), cadmium (cd), mercury (hg), arsenic (as), copper ( ...201728324255
optimization of protocols for iberian red deer (cervus elaphus hispanicus) sperm handling before sex sorting by flow cytometry.currently, sperm reproductive biotechnologies such as sex sorting and cryopreservation are undoubtedly valuable tools for improving the economic and biological efficiency of red deer production systems. in this context, and because of the particular characteristics of this species (extensive exploitation typically far from laboratory facilities), a key goal is to optimize the design of an adequate handling protocol of sperm samples before samples are subjected to sex sorting and cryopreservation ...201728237327
does cu supplementation affect the mechanical and structural properties and mineral content of red deer antler bone tissue?the main factors affecting the mechanical (and other) properties of bone, including antler, are the proportions of ash (especially ca and p) and collagen content. however, some trace minerals may also play more important roles than would be expected, given their low levels in bone and antler. one such trace mineral is cu. here, we studied the effects of cu supplementation on the mechanical and structural characteristics, and mineral content of antlers from yearling and adult (4 years of age) red ...201728069103
climate, female traits and population features as drivers of breeding timing in mediterranean red deer populations.understanding the factors that lead to variation in the timing of breeding in widespread species such as red deer (cervus elaphus l.) is crucial to predict possible responses of wild populations to different climate scenarios. here, we sought to further understand the causes of inter-annual variation in the reproduction timing of female deer in mediterranean environments. an integrative approach was used to identify the relative importance of individual, population and climate traits in the date ...201728054452
effect of sex-sorting and cryopreservation on the post-thaw sperm quality of iberian red deer spermatozoa.this study investigated the effect of sex-sorting and cryopreservation on post-thaw characteristics and fertility of red deer (cervus elaphus) sperm for the first time. semen was collected by electroejaculation from 10 mature stags during the breeding season, and each ejaculate split into four experimental groups: bulk sorted spermatozoa, sorted but not sexed (bss); sorted high purity x-spermatozoa (xss); sorted high purity y-spermatozoa (yss); and, control non-sorted spermatozoa (ns). following ...201728043354
expression of metallothionein in the liver and kidneys of the red deer (cervus elaphus l.) from an industrial metal smelting area of poland.the metallothionein 1 (mt1) coding sequence of red deer was identified and compared to orthologous sequences from other mammals. over 90% identity was observed between red deer mt1 amino acid sequence and mt1 sequences of other ruminants. liver and kidney samples of red deer were collected from the industrial zinc smelting site of miasteczko slaskie and from the masuria lake district serving as a pollution-free control site. the concentrations of cadmium (cd), lead (pb), copper (cu) and zinc (zn ...201727918943
glutathione in combination with trehalose has supplementary beneficial effects on cryopreserved red deer (cervus elaphus) sperm.in this study, we evaluated the effects of glutathione in combination with trehalose addition to semen extenders on the quality parameters of frozen-thawed red deer (cervus elaphus) spermatozoa.201727885744
low copper levels associated with low carcass weight in wild red deer ( cervus elaphus ) in norway.copper (cu) deficiency is associated with several disease syndromes, including poor growth, in farmed red deer ( cervus elaphus ), but little is known of the consequences of low cu levels in free-ranging populations. low hepatic cu levels have been documented in several wild red deer populations along the west coast of norway, with the lowest values found on the island of hitra. we studied the relationship between liver cu concentration and slaughter weight in 63 red deer calves and 69 yearlings ...201727788057
the role of weather and density dependence on population dynamics of alpine-dwelling red deer.the dynamics of red deer cervus elaphus populations has been investigated across different environmental conditions, with the notable exception of the european alps. although the population dynamics of mountain-dwelling ungulates is typically influenced by the interaction between winter severity and density, the increase of temperatures and the reduction of snowpack occurring on the alps since the 1980s may be expected to alter this pattern, especially in populations dwelling at medium - low ele ...201727616664
female sexual preferences toward conspecific and hybrid male mating calls in two species of polygynous deer, cervus elaphus and c. nippon.the behavioral processes at the basis of hybridization and introgression are understudied in terrestrial mammals. we use a unique model to test the role of sexual signals as a reproductive barrier to introgression by investigating behavioral responses to male sexual calls in estrous females of two naturally allopatric but reproductively compatible deer species, red deer and sika deer. previous studies demonstrated asymmetries in acoustic species discrimination between these species: most but not ...201727217596
wildlife interactions on baited places and waterholes in a french area infected by bovine tuberculosis.interactions among wildlife species are major drivers for the transmission of multi-host pathogens, such as mycobacterium bovis, which also affect livestock. although france is officially free from bovine tuberculosis (btb), some areas are still harboring infection in cattle and wildlife. we aimed at characterizing the visits of susceptible wild species (badger, red deer, and wild boar) at baited places and waterholes, considered as possible hotspots for contacts. we described the visits in term ...201728138439
frequency of gastrointestinal and pulmonary helminth infections in wild deer from western romania.a survey was carried out to assess the prevalence and the intensity of helminth infections in the roe deer (capreolus capreolus l.), red deer (cervus elaphus l.) and fallow deer (dama dama l.) from 16 hunting areas in western romania. overall, 122 deer shot during the hunting season 2013-2015 were examined. haemonchus contortus, nematodirus filicollis, oesophagostomum venulosum and dictyocalus spp. were found in all the deer species. trichuris spp. and dicrocoelium dendriticum were found in the ...201731014642
social interactions in a solitary carnivore.in total, 177 of 245 terrestrial carnivores are described as solitary, and much of carnivore ecology is built on the assumptions that interactions between adult solitary carnivores are rare. we employed global positioning system (gps) technology and motion-triggered cameras to test predictions of land-tenure territoriality and the resource dispersion hypothesis in a territorial carnivore, the puma puma concolor. we documented 89 independent gps interactions, 60% of which occurred at puma kills ( ...201729491995
chronic wasting disease (cwd) in cervids.in april and may of 2016, norway confirmed two cases of chronic wasting disease (cwd) in a wild reindeer and a wild moose, respectively. in the light of this emerging issue, the european commission requested efsa to recommend surveillance activities and, if necessary, additional animal health risk-based measures to prevent the introduction of the disease and the spread into/within the eu, specifically estonia, finland, iceland, latvia, lithuania, norway, poland and sweden, and considering seven ...201732625260
bovine tuberculosis outbreak in farmed american bison (bison bison) in poland.poland has been an officially bovine tuberculosis (btb) free country for the last seven years. the problem currently observed is the increasing number of new cases of btb in wild species, kept in a farmed herd and free-living herd: european bison (bison bonasus), wild boar (sus scrofa), wolves (canis lupus) and red deer (cervus elaphus). this article presents the case of mycobacterium caprae transmission to an american bison (bison bison) herd kept on a private farm in eastern poland.201729611649
antimicrobial activity of some plant extracts against bacterial pathogens isolated from faeces of red deer (cervus elaphus).antibacterial activity is the most widely studied aspect of plant extracts. antibiotics extensively produced and consumed in large quantities, have proved to be problematic due to various types of adverse effects. the development of bacterial resistance to currently available antibiotics has necessitated the search for new antibacterial agents. one of the alternative strategies for fighting antibiotic- resistant bacteria is the use of natural antimicrobial substances such as plant extracts. we t ...201729611658
assessment of listing and categorisation of animal diseases within the framework of the animal health law (regulation (eu) no 2016/429): bluetongue.a specific concept of strain was developed in order to classify the btv serotypes ever reported in europe based on their properties of animal health impact: the genotype, morbidity, mortality, speed of spread, period and geographical area of occurrence were considered as classification parameters. according to this methodology the strain groups identified were (i) the btv strains belonging to serotypes btv-1-24, (ii) some strains of serotypes btv-16 and (iii) small ruminant-adapted strains belon ...201732625623
spavin in red deer: a case study from the early neolithic blagotin, serbia.pathological modifications are rarely observed in the remains of wild animals from archaeological sites. we present one such specific, pathological change - a case of spavin in a red deer specimen from the early neolithic site of blagotin, in central serbia. the left tarsal joint presented proliferative new bone formation, which was analyzed macroscopically, then subjected to x-ray and computed tomography (ct) imaging. we assume that the initial degenerative changes in this red deer tarsal joint ...201629539526
elk resource selection and implications for anthrax management in montana.anthrax, caused by the spore-forming bacterium bacillus anthracis, is a zoonotic disease that affects humans and animals throughout the world. in north america, anthrax outbreaks occur in livestock and wildlife species. vaccine administration in wildlife is untenable; the most effective form of management is surveillance and decontamination of carcasses. successful management is critical because untreated carcasses can create infectious zones increasing risk for other susceptible hosts. we studi ...201629887642
serological survey of toxoplasma gondii and besnoitia besnoiti in a wildlife conservation area in southern portugal.toxoplasma gondii and besnoitia besnoiti are closely related apicomplexan protozoa. t. gondii is a zoonotic pathogen which may cause serious disease in man and warm-blooded animals, including wild species. b. besnoiti causes bovine besnoitiosis, an emergent disease in europe, which is linked to important production losses. unlike t. gondii, the life cycle of b. besnoiti remains a mystery, since the definitive host has not yet been identified. the aim of this work was to determine the seroprevale ...201631014504
late pleistocene/early holocene migratory behavior of ungulates using isotopic analysis of tooth enamel and its effects on forager mobility.zooarchaeological and paleoecological investigations have traditionally been unable to reconstruct the ethology of herd animals, which likely had a significant influence on the mobility and subsistence strategies of prehistoric humans. in this paper, we reconstruct the migratory behavior of red deer (cervus elaphus) and caprids at the pleistocene-holocene transition in the northeastern adriatic region using stable oxygen isotope analysis of tooth enamel. the data show a significant change in δ18 ...201627275784
evidence of shared bovine viral diarrhea infections between red deer and extensively raised cattle in south-central spain.bovine viral diarrhea virus (bvdv) is a pestivirus that affects cattle production worldwide and that can infect other ungulates such as cervids and even wild boar (sus scrofa). it is believed that domestic livestock can become infected through contact with wild animals, though it is known that infection can spread among wild animals in the absence of contact with livestock. little is known about the sharing of bvdv infection between wild and domestic animals in the same habitat, which is importa ...201626767363
post-entry blockade of small ruminant lentiviruses by wild ruminants.small ruminant lentivirus (srlv) infection causes losses in the small ruminant industry due to reduced animal production and increased replacement rates. infection of wild ruminants in close contact with infected domestic animals has been proposed to play a role in srlv epidemiology, but studies are limited and mostly involve hybrids between wild and domestic animals. in this study, srlv seropositive red deer, roe deer and mouflon were detected through modified elisa tests, but virus was not suc ...201626738942
serological survey of coxiella burnetii at the wildlife-livestock interface in the eastern pyrenees, spain.coxiella burnetii is a zoonotic bacterium that infects a wide range of animal species and causes the disease q fever. both wild and domestic ruminants may be relevant in the epidemiology of c. burnetii infection. in order to investigate the significance of the ruminant host community in the alpine and subalpine ecosystems of the eastern pyrenees, northeastern spain, in the epidemiology of q fever, a serological survey was performed on samples from 599 wild and 353 sympatric domestic ruminants.201627121001
multiple-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis potentially reveals the existence of two groups of anaplasma phagocytophilum circulating in cattle in france with different wild reservoirs.anaplasma phagocytophilum is the causative agent of tick-borne fever, a disease with high economic impact for domestic ruminants in europe. epidemiological cycles of this species are complex, and involve different ecotypes circulating in various host species. to date, these epidemiological cycles are poorly understood, especially in europe, as european reservoir hosts (i.e. vertebrate hosts enabling long-term maintenance of the bacterium in the ecosystem), of the bacterium have not yet been clea ...201627876073
markers for ongoing or previous hepatitis e virus infection are as common in wild ungulates as in humans in sweden.hepatitis e virus (hev) is a human pathogen with zoonotic spread, infecting both domestic and wild animals. about 17% of the swedish population is immune to hev, but few cases are reported annually, indicating that most infections are subclinical. however, clinical hepatitis e may also be overlooked. for identified cases, the source of infection is mostly unknown. in order to identify whether hev may be spread from wild game, the prevalence of markers for past and/or ongoing infection was invest ...201627657108
prevalence of liver fluke (fasciola hepatica) in wild red deer (cervus elaphus): coproantigen elisa is a practicable alternative to faecal egg counting for surveillance in remote populations.red deer (cervus elaphus) are hosts of liver fluke (fasciola hepatica); yet, prevalence is rarely quantified in wild populations. testing fresh samples from remote regions by faecal examination (fe) can be logistically challenging; hence, we appraise frozen storage and the use of a coproantigen elisa (celisa) for f. hepatica surveillance. we also present celisa surveillance data for red deer from the highlands of scotland. diagnoses in faecal samples (207 frozen, 146 fresh) were compared using a ...201627598003
effects of repeated comparative intradermal tuberculin testing on test results: a longitudinal study in tb-free red deer.diagnosing tuberculosis (tb) in farmed red deer (cervus elaphus) is challenging and might require combining cellular and humoral diagnostic tests. repeated skin-testing with mycobacterial purified protein derivatives (ppds) might sensitize or desensitize the subjects to both kinds of diagnostic tools. we evaluated the effect of repeated (every 6 months) comparative tuberculin skin testing on skin test and elisa responsiveness in farmed red deer hinds from a tb-free herd. eighteen 8-month old hin ...201627596591
the influence of red deer space use on the distribution of ixodes ricinus ticks in the landscape.many wingless ectoparasites have a limited capacity for active movement and are therefore primarily dependent on hitchhiking on their hosts for transportation. the distribution of the tick ixodes ricinus is expected to depend mainly on transportation by hosts and tick subsequent survival in areas where they drop off. in europe, the most important hosts of adult female i. ricinus are cervids. the extensive space use of large hosts provides a much larger dispersal potential for i. ricinus than tha ...201627737695
molecular detection of tick-borne bacteria and protozoa in cervids and wild boars from portugal.wildlife can act as reservoir of different tick-borne pathogens, such as bacteria, parasites and viruses. the aim of the present study was to assess the presence of tick-borne bacteria and protozoa with veterinary and zoonotic importance in cervids and wild boars from the centre and south of portugal.201627160767
spatio-temporal trends and risk factors affecting west nile virus and related flavivirus exposure in spanish wild ruminants.during the last decade, the spread of many flaviviruses (genus flavivirus) has been reported, representing an emerging threat for both animal and human health. to further study utility of wild ruminant samples in west nile virus (wnv) surveillance, we assessed spatio-temporal trends and factors associated with wnv and cross-reacting flaviviruses exposure, particularly usutu virus (usuv) and meaban virus (mbv), in wild ruminants in spain. serum samples from 4693 wild ruminants, including 3073 fre ...201627829427
population dynamics of a natural red deer population over 200 years detected via substantial changes of genetic variation.most large mammals have constantly been exposed to anthropogenic influence over decades or even centuries. because of their long generation times and lack of sampling material, inferences of past population genetic dynamics, including anthropogenic impacts, have only relied on the analysis of the structure of extant populations. here, we investigate for the first time the change in the genetic constitution of a natural red deer population over two centuries, using up to 200-year-old antlers (30 ...201627096075
mercury and selenium binding biomolecules in terrestrial mammals (cervus elaphus and sus scrofa) from a mercury exposed area.mercury (hg) is likely bound to large biomolecules (e.g. proteins) in living organisms, and in order to assess hg metabolic pathways and possible toxicological effects, it is essential to study these hg containing biomolecules. however, the exact nature of most metal binding biomolecules is unknown. such studies are still in their infancy and information on this topic is scarce because the analysis is challenging, mainly due to their lability upon digestion or extraction from the tissue. new ana ...201627093497
colonization of the scottish islands via long-distance neolithic transport of red deer (cervus elaphus).red deer (cervus elaphus) have played a key role in human societies throughout history, with important cultural significance and as a source of food and materials. this relationship can be traced back to the earliest human cultures and continues to the present day. humans are thought to be responsible for the movement of a considerable number of deer throughout history, although the majority of these movements are poorly described or understood. studying such translocations allows us to better u ...201627053752
linking habitat selection to fitness-related traits in herbivores: the role of the energy landscape.animals may partially overcome environmental constraints on fitness by behaviorally adjusting their exposure to costs and supplies of energy. few studies, however, have linked spatiotemporal variation in the energy landscape to behaviorally mediated measures of performance that ostensibly influence individual fitness. we hypothesized that strength of selection by north american elk (cervus elaphus) for areas that reduced costs of thermoregulation and activity, and increased access to high-qualit ...201627003702
inbreeding depression across the lifespan in a wild mammal population.inbreeding depression is of major concern for the conservation of threatened species, and inbreeding avoidance is thought to be a key driver in the evolution of mating systems. however, the estimation of individual inbreeding coefficients in natural populations has been challenging, and, consequently, the full effect of inbreeding on fitness remains unclear. genomic inbreeding coefficients may resolve the long-standing paucity of data on inbreeding depression in adult traits and total fitness. h ...201626979959
genetic structure and effective population sizes in european red deer (cervus elaphus) at a continental scale: insights from microsatellite dna.we analyzed more than 600 red deer (cervus elaphus) from large parts of its european distribution range at 13 microsatellite loci, presenting the first continent-wide study of this species using nuclear markers. populations were clearly differentiated (overall f st = 0.166, jost's d est = 0.385), and the baps clustering algorithm yielded mainly geographically limited and adjacent genetic units. when forced into only 3 genetic clusters our data set produced a very similar geographic pattern as pr ...201626912909
a non-destructive method for distinguishing reindeer antler (rangifer tarandus) from red deer antler (cervus elaphus) using x-ray micro-tomography coupled with svm classifiers.over the last decade, biomedical 3d-imaging tools have gained widespread use in the analysis of prehistoric bone artefacts. while initial attempts to characterise the major categories used in osseous industry (i.e. bone, antler, and dentine/ivory) have been successful, the taxonomic determination of prehistoric artefacts remains to be investigated. the distinction between reindeer and red deer antler can be challenging, particularly in cases of anthropic and/or taphonomic modifications. in addit ...201626901355
tall grass invasion after grassland abandonment influences the availability of palatable plants for wild herbivores: insight into the conservation of the apennine chamois rupicapra pyrenaica ornata.invasion of the tall grass brachypodium genuense was observed in an area of the central apennines (italy) where the population size of apennine chamois (rupicapra pyrenaica ornata) was in strong decline. since this dominant tall grass threatens biodiversity and forage quality, our hypothesis was that b. genuense abundance influenced that of palatable species for the chamois, depending on their functional traits and distribution patterns. our sampling design used plots of 10 × 10 m and 1 × 1 m to ...201626899738
expression of regulatory neuropeptides in the hypothalamus of red deer (cervus elaphus) reveals anomalous relationships in the seasonal control of appetite and reproduction.red deer are seasonal with respect to reproduction and food intake, so we tested the hypothesis that their brains would show seasonal changes in numbers of cells containing hypothalamic neuropeptides that regulate these functions. we examined the brains of male and female deer in non-breeding and breeding seasons to quantify the production of kisspeptin, gonadotropin inhibitory hormone (gnih), neuropeptide y (npy) and γ-melanocyte stimulating hormone (γ-msh - an index of pro-opiomelanocortin pro ...201626899722
characteristics of antioxidant systems of yellow fraction of red deer's (cervus elaphus l.) semen during the rutting period.the objective of this study was to make the preliminary characterization of the antioxidant defence systems of the yellow fraction (yf) of red deer's (cervus elaphus l.) semen during the rutting period. the semen was collected using artificial vagina (av). the studies included spectrophotometric determination of antioxidant enzymes activities such as superoxide dismutase (sod), catalase (cat) and glutathione peroxidase (gpx). we also analysed the contents of low-molecular antioxidants such as l- ...201626854018
iberian red deer: paraphyletic nature at mtdna but nuclear markers support its genetic identity.red deer populations in the iberian glacial refugium were the main source for postglacial recolonization and subspecific radiation in north-western europe. however, the phylogenetic history of iberian red deer (cervus elaphus hispanicus) and its relationships with northern european populations remain uncertain. here, we study dna sequences at the mitochondrial control region along with str markers for over 680 specimens from all the main red deer populations in spain and other west european area ...201626843924
heterogeneity in primary productivity influences competitive interactions between red deer and alpine chamois.habitat heterogeneity can promote coexistence between herbivores of different body size limited to different extents by resource quantity and quality. red deer (cervus elaphus) are known as superior competitors to smaller species with similar diets. we compared competitive interactions and habitat use between red deer and alpine chamois (rupicapra rupicapra) in two adjacent valleys in a strictly protected area in the central alps. red deer density was higher in the valley with higher primary pro ...201626824867
behavioural flexibility in migratory behaviour in a long-lived large herbivore.migratory animals are predicted to enhance lifetime fitness by obtaining higher quality forage and/or reducing predation risk compared to non-migratory conspecifics. despite evidence for behavioural flexibility in other taxa, previous research on large mammals has often assumed that migratory behaviour is a fixed behavioural trait. migratory behaviour may be plastic for many species, although few studies have tested for individual-level flexibility using long-term monitoring of marked individual ...201626790111
the odocoileus virginianus femur: mechanical behavior and morphology.biomechanical research relies heavily on laboratory evaluation and testing with osseous animal structures. while many femora models are currently in use, including those of the european red deer (cervus elaphus), the odocoileus virginianus femur remains undocumented, despite its regional abundance in north america. the objective of this study was to compare biomechanical and morphological properties of the odocoileus virginianus femur with those of the human and commonly used animal models. sixt ...201626757205
long term study of ixodid ticks feeding on red deer (cervus elaphus) in a meso-mediterranean climate.red deer (cervus elaphus l.) are very valuable in trophy-hunting but also contribute to the preservation of natural areas. they are affected by many parasites and pathogens, including hard ticks that are not only important parasites themselves but can also act as vectors and/or reservoirs of pathogens. tick phenology is complex insofar as population dynamics depend on environmental conditions, vegetation, host availability and their own intrinsic characteristic. ticks were collected monthly from ...201626715543
mhc, parasites and antler development in red deer: no support for the hamilton & zuk hypothesis.the hamilton-zuk hypothesis proposes that the genetic benefits of preferences for elaborated secondary sexual traits have their origins in the arms race between hosts and parasites, which maintains genetic variance in parasite resistance. infection, in turn, can be reflected in the expression of costly sexual ornaments. however, the link between immune genes, infection and the expression of secondary sexual traits has rarely been investigated. here, we explored whether the presence and identity ...201626687843
production of prostaglandins in placentae and corpus luteum in pregnant hinds of red deer (cervus elaphus).prostaglandins (pgs) are synthesized from arachidonic acid by prostaglandin synthase 2 (ptgs2) and specific terminal pg synthases such as pges and pgfs. the role of pgs in the reproductive processes of domestic ruminants is well recognized, whereas in cervidae, it is almost unknown, although it is noteworthy because some species of this family are valued in meat production and trophies. the aim of this study was to determine an effective marker of pregnancy and investigate the production and sec ...201626553568
parasite load and seasonal migration in red deer.northern deer populations are typically partially migratory, but the relationship between migratory movements and parasites has received little attention. migration often involves movement from a low-elevation winter range towards a summer range at higher elevation. in europe these movements may also involve a gradient in abundance of ixodes ricinus ticks, but whether tick loads on deer differ depending on migration tactic has not been quantified. based on the examination of ears from 49 red dee ...201626450650
micness: genotyping microsatellite loci from a collection of (ngs) reads.microsatellites are widely used in population genetics to uncover recent evolutionary events. they are typically genotyped using capillary sequencer, which capacity is usually limited to 9, at most 12 loci for each run, and which analysis is a tedious task that is performed by hand. with the rise of next-generation sequencing (ngs), a much larger number of loci and individuals are available from sequencing: for example, on a single run of a gs junior, 28 loci from 96 individuals are sequenced wi ...201626400716
relative costs of offspring sex and offspring survival in a polygynous mammal.costs of reproduction are expected to be ubiquitous in wild animal populations and understanding the drivers of variation in these costs is an important aspect of life-history evolution theory. we use a 43 year dataset from a wild population of red deer to examine the relative importance of two factors that influence the costs of reproduction to mothers, and to test whether these costs vary with changing ecological conditions. like previous studies, our analyses indicate fitness costs of lactati ...201627601725
red deer bone and antler collagen are not isotopically equivalent in carbon and nitrogen.bone and antler collagen δ(13) c and δ(15) n values are often assumed to be equivalent when measured in palaeodietary, palaeoclimate and palaeocological studies. although compositionally similar, bone grows slowly and is remodelled whereas antler growth is rapid and remodelling does not occur. these different patterns of growth could result in isotopic difference within antler and between the two tissue types. here we test whether red deer (cervus elaphus) bone and antler δ(13) c and δ(15) n val ...201627501431
morphological and molecular identification of nasopharyngeal bot fly larvae infesting red deer (cervus elaphus) in austria.nasopharyngeal myiases are caused by larvae of bot flies (diptera: oestridae), which have evolved a high specificity for their hosts. bot flies (n = 916) were collected from 137 (57.6 %) out of 238 red deer (cervus elaphus) hunted in vorarlberg and tyrol (western austria). after being stored in 75 % ethanol, larvae were identified to species level and developmental stage using morphological and morphometric keys. larvae were also molecularly characterized by polymerase chain reaction (pcr) ampli ...201627492199
the petrosal bone and bony labyrinth of early to middle miocene european deer (mammalia, cervidae) reveal their phylogeny.deer (cervidae) have a long evolutionary history dating back to the early miocene, around 19 million years ago. the best known fossils to document this history belong to european taxa, which all bear cranial appendages more or less similar to today's deer antlers. despite the good fossil record, relationships of the earliest stem deer and earliest crown deer are much debated. this hampers precise calibration against the independent evidence of the fossil record in molecular clock analyses. while ...201627460747
climate-mediated shifts in neandertal subsistence behaviors at pech de l'azé iv and roc de marsal (dordogne valley, france).neandertals disappeared from europe just after 40,000 years ago. some hypotheses ascribe this to numerous population crashes associated with glacial cycles in the late pleistocene. the goal of this paper is to test the hypothesis that glacial periods stressed neandertal populations. if cold climates stressed neandertals, their subsistence behaviors may have changed-requiring intensified use of prey through more extensive nutrient extraction from faunal carcasses. to test this, an analysis of nea ...201627343769
leave before it's too late: anthropogenic and environmental triggers of autumn migration in a hunted ungulate population.autumn has to a large extent been neglected in the climate effect literature, yet autumn events, e.g., plant senescence and animal migration, affect fitness of animals differently than spring events. understanding how variables including plant phenology influence timing of autumn migrations is important to gain a comprehensive understanding of the full annual cycle of migratory species. here we use 13 yr of data from 60 male and 168 female red deer (cervus elaphus) to identify triggers of autumn ...201627220221
linking landscape-scale differences in forage to ungulate nutritional ecology.understanding how habitat and nutritional condition affect ungulate populations is necessary for informing management, particularly in areas experiencing carnivore recovery and declining ungulate population trends. variations in forage species availability, plant phenological stage, and the abundance of forage make it challenging to understand landscape-level effects of nutrition on ungulates. we developed an integrated spatial modeling approach to estimate landscape-level elk (cervus elaphus) n ...201627755722
changes in the rumen microbiome and metabolites reveal the effect of host genetics on hybrid crosses.the rumen microbiota plays important roles in nutrient metabolism and absorption of the host. however, it is poorly understood how host genetic variation shapes the community structure of the rumen microbiota and its metabolic phenotype. here, we used sika deer (cervus nippon) and elk (cervus elaphus) to produce the following two types of hybrid offspring: sika deer ♀ × elk ♂ (seh) and elk ♀ × sika deer ♂ (esh). then, we examined the rumen microbiome and metabolites in the parents and their hybr ...201627717170
[a rare zoonosis in hungary: cercarial dermatitis caused by schistosoma turkestanicum blood-fluke].several trematodes that parasitize vertebrate animals utilize swimming aquatic larvae to infect the host percutaneously. the most important ones among these parasites are the blood-flukes of birds and mammals comprising species that are also zoonotic. within this latter group are species that cause the bilharziasis or schistosomiasis of inhabitants of the tropical countries, and other trematode species that are able to penetrate human skin, but do not develop to an adult form of the worm in the ...201627690621
green wave tracking by large herbivores: an experimental approach.the forage maturation hypothesis (fmh) states that herbivores should follow the onset of growth in spring to obtain access to forage of higher quality and quantity, the so-called "green wave surfing." several studies have found correlative evidence in support of this by associating animal movement with plant phenology. however, experimental manipulation of vast natural systems determining causes of large herbivore movement is usually beyond reach. the unique management system involving winter en ...201627912000
[phylogeography of red deer (cervus elaphus): data of analysis of polymorphism of the mitochondrial gene for cytochrome b].analysis of polymorphism of the gene for cytochrome b (1140 bp) of 106 samples of red deer (cervus elaphus) of eurasia is carried out, and the phylogenetic relationships of groups throughout the entire geographic range, including north america, are reconstructed. in total, the paper describes 75 haplotypes, 33 of them for the european and 42 for the asian part of the geographic range. common haplotypes for these two parts of the range were not found. the genetic kinship of asian siberian stags a ...201622988755
resolving the phylogenetic status and taxonomic relationships of the hangul (cervus elaphus hanglu) in the family cervidae.the hangul (cervus elaphus hanglu) is a "least concern" deer species, and it is the only survivor of the red deer group in the indian subcontinent. the phylogenetic status of the hangul relative to the other members of the family cervidae is not known because sequence data are not available in public databases. therefore, this study was carried out to determine the phylogenetic status and delineate the genetic boundaries of the hangul with respect to the other red deer subspecies on the basis of ...201627937071
endocranial volume is heritable and is associated with longevity and fitness in a wild mammal.research on relative brain size in mammals suggests that increases in brain size may generate benefits to survival and costs to fecundity: comparative studies of mammals have shown that interspecific differences in relative brain size are positively correlated with longevity and negatively with fecundity. however, as yet, no studies of mammals have investigated whether similar relationships exist within species, nor whether individual differences in brain size within a wild population are herita ...201628083105
complete mitochondrial genome of cervus elaphus songaricus (cetartiodactyla: cervinae) and a phylogenetic analysis with related species.complete mitochondrial genome of tianshan wapiti, cervus elaphus songaricus, is 16,419 bp in length and contains 13 protein-coding genes, 2 rrna genes, 22 trna genes and 1 control region. the phylogenetic trees were reconstructed with the concatenated nucleotide sequences of the 13 protein-coding genes using maximum parsimony (mp) and bayesian inference (bi) methods. mp and bi phylogenetic trees here showed an identical tree topology. the monopoly of red deer, wapiti and sika deer was well suppo ...201624725059
serological survey of avian influenza virus infection in non-avian wildlife in xinjiang, china.we conducted a serological survey to detect antibodies against avian influenza virus (aiv) in gazella subgutturosa, canis lupus, capreolus pygargus, sus scrofa, cervus elaphus, capra ibex, ovis ammon, bos grunniens and pseudois nayaur in xinjiang, china. two hundred forty-six sera collected from 2009 to 2013 were assayed for antibodies against h5, h7 and h9 aivs using hemagglutination inhibition (hi) tests and a pan-influenza competitive elisa. across all tested wildlife species, 4.47 % harbored ...201626733295
identification of velvet antler by random amplified polymorphism dna combined with non-gel sieving capillary electrophoresis.mitochondrial dna of velvet antler was amplified with random amplified polymorphic dna (rapd) technique and the pcr products were detected with non-gel sieving capillary electrophoresis to establish a rapd-hpce method used for identifying the authenticity of velvet antler or it counterfeits. factors that could affect the pcr amplification and capillary electrophoresis were optimized. under the optimized conditions, namely, 20 mmol l(-1) nah2po4-na2hpo4-2 mmol l(-1) edta buffer solution [0.8% (w/ ...201625103424
the bioaccumulation of lead in the organs of roe deer (capreolus capreolus l.), red deer (cervus elaphus l.), and wild boar (sus scrofa l.) from poland.the aim of this study was to evaluate the level of lead (pb) in the livers and kidneys of free-living animals from poland, with regard to the differences in tissue pb content between the species. the research material consisted of liver and kidney samples collected from roe deer (capreolus capreolus), red deer (cervus elaphus), and wild boar (sus scrofa) that had been hunted in 16 voivodeships of poland. the concentration of lead had been measured using inductively coupled plasma optical emissio ...201627068893
simulation of potential habitat overlap between red deer (cervus elaphus) and roe deer (capreolus capreolus) in northeastern china.background. understanding species distribution, especially areas of overlapping habitat between sympatric species, is essential for informing conservation through natural habitat protection. new protection strategies should simultaneously consider conservation efforts for multiple species that exist within the same landscape, which requires studies that include habitat overlap analysis. methods. we estimated the potential habitat of cervids, which are typical ungulates in northern china, using t ...201627019775
identification of host blood-meal sources and borrelia in field-collected ixodes ricinus ticks in north-western poland.forest animals play fundamental roles in the maintenance of ixodes ricinus and borrelia species in the forest biotope. to identify the forest vertebrate species that are host for i. ricinus and for the recognition of the reservoirs of borrelia species, the blood-meal of 325 i. ricinus ticks collected at two forest sites in north-western poland were analysed. nested pcr was used to detect polymorphisms in a fragment of the mitochondrial 12s rrna gene for the identification of the hosts species. t ...201627007518
elemental composition of game meat from austria.concentrations of 26 elements (b, na, mg, p, s, k, ca, v, cr, mn, fe, co, ni, cu, zn, as, se, rb, sr, mo, cd, sb, ba, hg, pb, u) in wild game meat from austria were analysed using an inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer. all investigated animals were culled during the hunting season 2012/2013, including 10 chamois (rupicapra rupicapra), 9 hare (lepus europaeus), 10 pheasant (phasianus colchicus), 10 red deer (cervus elaphus), 12 roe deer (capreolus capreolus) and 10 wild boar (sus scrofa ...201626886253
complete mitochondrial genome sequence of a hungarian red deer (cervus elaphus hippelaphus) from high-throughput sequencing data and its phylogenetic position within the family cervidae.recently, there has been considerable interest in genetic differentiation in the cervidae family. a common tool used to determine genetic variation in different species, breeds and populations is mitochondrial dna analysis, which can be used to estimate phylogenetic relationships among animal taxa and for molecular phylogenetic evolution analysis. with the development of sequencing technology, more and more mitochondrial sequences have been made available in public databases, including whole mit ...201627165525
rusa alfredi papillomavirus 1 - a novel deltapapillomavirus inducing endemic papillomatosis in the endangered visayan spotted deer.we describe a novel papillomavirus - rusa alfredi papillomavirus 1 (ralpv1) - which causes endemic fibropapillomatosis in the european conservation breeding population of the highly endangered visayan spotted deer (rusa alfredi). degenerated papillomavirus-specific primers were used to amplify and sequence parts of the viral dna. subsequently, the complete genomic dna was cloned and the sequence was determined. the ralpv1 genome has a length of 8029 bp, encodes the early proteins e6, e7, e1, e2 ...201626555294
rumen microbiota for wild boreal cervids living in the same habitat.knowledge about the factors shaping the rumen microbiota in wild animals is limited. therefore, the aim of this study was to compare the microbiota from the three cervid species moose (alces alces, n = 5), red deer (cervus elaphus, n = 4) and roe deer (capreolus capreolus, n = 12), sharing the same habitat. using deep 16s rrna gene sequencing, we found that the largest species moose had the highest number of unique operational taxonomic units. furthermore, red deer and moose shared more of the m ...201627737946
[reduction of plant fibers in the digestive tract of the moose and the red deer].a comparative study of the reduction of plant fibers moving in the digestive tract of nine red deer (cervus elaphus) and six moose (alces alces) was made. in the winter season, the character of fiber reduction in the moose and the red deer was similar. in the deer obtained in the early autumn, the relative concentration of small-sized fractions was significantly higher. a sharp decrease in the share oflarge-sized fibers was observed in the omasum as compared to the rumen and the reticulum. it wa ...201623136740
sarcocystosis in wild red deer (cervus elaphus) in patagonia, argentina.sarcocystis spp. are protozoan parasites with a heteroxenous life cycle, which produce cysts in the muscle of herbivorous animals. in these animal species, sarcocystosis is frequently asymptomatic, although it may occur with high prevalence. seven sarcocystis spp. have been described in red deer (cervus elephus). the aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of sarcocystosis, and to perform the morphological and molecular characterization of sarcocystis spp. found in wild red deer of the ...201626779923
detection and characterisation of yersinia enterocolitica strains in cold-stored carcasses of large game animals in poland.yersinia enterocolitica is an important foodborne pathogen. the aim of the present study was to identify the bioserotypes and virulence markers of y.enterocolitica strains isolated from three different anatomical regions of cold-stored carcasses of large game animals intended for human consumption. y.enterocolitica strains were found in 12/20 (60%) of the roe deer carcasses examined, 7/16 (43.8%) of red deer carcasses and 11/20 (55%) of wild boar carcasses. of the 52 y.enterocolitica strains, 19 ...201626626093
seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii and neospora caninum in red deer from central italy.neospora caninum and toxoplasma gondii are cosmopolite protozoan parasites impacting on human and animal health. in particular, t. gondii commonly infects human beings and all warm-blooded animals, while n. caninum is responsible for bovine abortion and neuromuscular disease in dogs. the aim of the presented survey was to evaluate the occurrence and prevalence of these parasites in the most numerous italian red deer population. the sera of 60 red deer (cervus elaphus) inhabiting central italy (4 ...201628030947
effect of different ecosystems and management practices on toxoplasma gondii and neospora caninum infections in wild ruminants in spain.toxoplasma gondii and neospora caninum are two major abortifacient protozoans in domestic small ruminants and cattle, respectively, and they also parasitize a wide range of wildlife. numerous serosurveys have been conducted in wild ruminants worldwide. however, the potential effect of different ecosystems and management practices on these infections has not been investigated. we studied the prevalence of antibodies to t. gondii and n. caninum in wild ruminants between 2007 and 2012 from four nat ...201626967135
molecular identification of the rumen flukes paramphistomum leydeni and paramphistomum cervi in a concurrent infection of the red deer cervus elaphus.paramphistomosis, caused by paramphistomid flukes, is a gastrointestinal parasitic disease of domestic and wild ruminants. originally thought to be limited to the tropics and subtropics, the disease has recently been reported in temperate regions. here we describe the concurrent infection of a red deer doe (cervus elaphus) with paramphistomum leydeni and paramphistomum cervi. this is the first report of p. leydeni in croatia. flukes were identified on the basis of morphological keys (tegumental ...201627813468
the first detection and whole genome characterization of the g6p[15] group a rotavirus strain from roe deer.although rotaviruses have been detected in a variety of host species, there are only limited records of their occurrence in deer, where their role is unknown. in this study, group a rotavirus was identified in roe deer during a study of enteric viruses in game animals. 102 samples of intestinal content were collected from roe deer (56), wild boars (29), chamois (10), red deer (6) and mouflon (1), but only one sample from roe deer was positive. following whole genome sequence analysis, the rotavi ...201627374907
morphological and molecular characterization of sarcocystis taeniata and sarcocystis pilosa n. sp. from the sika deer (cervus nippon) in lithuania.the diaphragm muscles of eight sika deer (cervus nippon) bred in lithuania were examined for sarcocystis cysts. two sarcocystis species, sarcocystis taeniata, which were previously reported in canadian moose (alces alces) and argentinean red deer (cervus elaphus), and sarcocystis pilosa n. sp. were described using light microscopy (lm), transmission electron microscopy (tem), 18s ribosomal dna (rdna), and subunit i of cytochrome c oxidase (cox1) sequences analysis. by lm, cysts of s. taeniata we ...201627086872
association between vitamin d supplementation and severity of tuberculosis in wild boar and red deer.tuberculosis (tb) is a chronic disease affecting humans and other mammal species. severity of tb caused by mycobacterium tuberculosis in humans seems to be influenced by nutritional factors like vitamin d3 intake. however, this relationship has been scarcely studied in cattle and other mammals infected with mycobacterium bovis. the aim of this work was to assess if wildlife reservoirs of m. bovis show different levels of tb severity depending on the level of vitamin d found in serum after supple ...201627663379
two alternative dna extraction methods to improve the detection of mycobacterium-tuberculosis-complex members in cattle and red deer tissue samples.bovine tuberculosis (btb), which is caused by mycobacterium bovis and m. caprae, is a notifiable animal disease in germany. diagnostic procedure is based on a prescribed protocol that is published in the framework of german btb legislation. in this protocol small sample volumes are used for dna extraction followed by real-time pcr analyses. as mycobacteria tend to concentrate in granuloma and the infected tissue in early stages of infection does not necessarily show any visible lesions, it is li ...201627629399
spoligotype diversity and 5-year trends of bovine tuberculosis in extremadura, southern spain.bovine tuberculosis (btb) causes significant losses to farming economies worldwide. a better understanding on the epidemiology of this disease and the role that the different hosts develop in the maintenance and spread of btb is vital to control this zoonotic disease. this study reports the spoligotype diversity and temporal evolution of mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (mtbc) isolates obtained from extremadura (southern spain). genotyping data of mycobacterium bovis (n = 2102) and mycobacteri ...201627524741
tuberculosis, genetic diversity and fitness in the red deer, cervus elaphus.understanding how genetic diversity, infections and fitness interact in wild populations is a major challenge in ecology and management. these interactions were addressed through heterozygosity-fitness correlation analyses, by assessing the genetic diversity, tuberculosis (tb) and body size in adult red deer. heterozygosity-fitness correlation models provided a better understanding of the link between genetic diversity and tb at individual and population levels. a single local effect was found f ...201627245150
oral administration of heat-inactivated mycobacterium bovis reduces the response of farmed red deer to avian and bovine tuberculin.orally delivered mycobacterial antigens may not sensitize the immunized animals causing a positive tuberculin skin test response. as the first step to address this critical issue, we characterized the response of farmed red deer (cervus elaphus) to orally delivered heat-inactivated mycobacterium bovis. thirty-two adult red deer hinds from a farm known to be free of tuberculosis (tb) were randomly assigned to two different treatment groups, immunized (n=24) and control (n=8). immunized hinds were ...201627032499
mycobacterium spp. in wild game in slovenia.wildlife species are an important reservoir of mycobacterial infections that may jeopardise efforts to control and eradicate bovine tuberculosis (btb), caused by mycobacterium bovis. slovenia is officially free of btb, but no data on the presence of mycobacteria in wild animals has been reported. in this study, samples of liver and lymph nodes were examined from 306 apparently healthy free-range wild animals of 13 species in slovenia belonging to the families cervidae, suidae, canidae, mustelida ...201626639827
solid sage sequencing shows differential gene expression in jejunal lymph node samples of resistant and susceptible red deer (cervus elaphus) challenged with mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis.this study compared in vivo lymph node gene expression levels between six young red deer that were either relatively resistant (r) or susceptible (s) to paratuberculosis following experimental challenge with mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. intestinal lymph nodes were biopsied at 4, 12 and 50 weeks post challenge (pc) and parallel changes in histopathology, immunology and bacterial load monitored. solid sage (serial analysis of gene expression) next generation sequencing of biopsied ...201626620077
constant hepatitis e virus (hev) circulation in wild boar and red deer in spain: an increasing concern source of hev zoonotic transmission.hepatitis e is a viral zoonosis that affects multiple hosts. the complete dynamics of infection in wildlife are still unknown, but the previous fact facilitates the maintenance and circulation of the virus, posing a risk to human health in the case of meat consumption from susceptible animals. in spain, it has been shown how domestic pigs, cattle and wildlife (i.e. wild boar and red deer) clearly interact in hunting farms, generating a complex epidemiological situation in terms of interspecies p ...201625571944
new insights into mycobacterium bovis prevalence in wild mammals in portugal.a survey to determine the prevalence of mycobacterium bovis in wild mammals in portugal was conducted by testing samples from hunted animals and those found dead between 2009 and 2013. in this study, we investigated 2116 wild mammals. post-mortem examinations were performed, and tissues were collected from wild mammals representing 8 families and 11 different species, with a total of 393 animals analysed. cultures were performed, and acid-fast isolates were identified by pcr. tissues were also s ...201625484245
listeria monocytogenes in different specimens from healthy red deer and wild boars.in the past, listeria monocytogenes has been isolated from game feces and meat. however, less information is available on the occurrence of l. monocytogenes in other specimens originating from game animals. hence, the aim of this study was to get an overview of the occurrence and distribution of l. monocytogenes in game animals by characterization of isolates from different matrices. for that purpose, samples were collected from red deer (cervus elaphus), wild boars (sus scrofa), and feed during ...201627159352
spatially explicit modeling of animal tuberculosis at the wildlife-livestock interface in ciudad real province, spain.eurasian wild boar (sus scrofa) and red deer (cervus elaphus) are the most important wildlife reservoirs for animal tuberculosis (tb) caused by the mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (mtc), in mediterranean spain. these species are considered to play an important role in the transmission and persistence of mtc in cattle in some regions; however the factors contributing to the risk of transmission at the wildlife-livestock interface and the areas at highest risk for such transmission are largely ...201627237396
first description of onchocerca jakutensis (nematoda: filarioidea) in red deer (cervus elaphus) in switzerland.twenty-seven species of the genus onchocerca (nematoda; filarioidea) can cause a vector-borne parasitic disease called onchocercosis. most onchocerca species infect wild and domestic ungulates or the dog, and one species causes river blindness in humans mainly in tropical africa. the european red deer (cervus e. elaphus) is host to four species, which are transmitted by blackflies (simuliids) or biting midges (ceratopogonids). two species, onchocerca flexuosa and onchocerca jakutensis, produce s ...201627617204
serologic and molecular survey of hepatitis e virus in german deer populations.hepatitis e virus (hev) is a human pathogen that is primarily transmitted by the fecal-oral route and causes a usually self-limiting acute viral hepatitis. the virus is endemic in developing countries of africa, asia, and latin america and is responsible for sporadic cases in industrialized countries. in western europe, an increasing number of autochthonous cases have been associated with zoonotic transmissions of hev from domestic and wild animals. in germany, animal reservoirs for hev have bee ...201626528571
benzimidazole resistance in haemonchus contortus recovered from farmed red deer.thirty haemonchus contortus male worms were collected from farmed red deer yearlings in order to determine whether routine administration of albendazole for a long-term period (17 years) could select anthelmintic resistance. pcr-rflp method based on single-nucleotide polymorphism of codon 200 in isotype 1 ß-tubulin gene (phe200tyr) was applied. the results showed a significant frequency of either the resistant allele (85 %) or the homozygous resistant genotype (70 %). by chi-square test, hardy-w ...201627249966
detection of wide genetic diversity and several novel strains among non-avium nontuberculous mycobacteria isolated from farmed and wild animals in hungary.besides mycobacterium avium numerous nontuberculous mycobacterium (ntm) species exist, which pose constant health risk to both humans and animals. the aim of our study was to identify non-avium ntm isolates from veterinary origin in hungary, and to detect the occurrence of rifampicin resistance among them.201627038193
antimicrobial resistance in faecal escherichia coli isolates from farmed red deer and wild small mammals. detection of a multiresistant e. coli producing extended-spectrum beta-lactamase.eighty-nine escherichia coli isolates recovered from faeces of red deer and small mammals, cohabiting the same area, were analyzed to determine the prevalence and mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance and molecular typing. antimicrobial resistance was detected in 6.7% of isolates, with resistances to tetracycline and quinolones being the most common. an e. coli strain carrying blactx-m-1 as well as other antibiotic resistant genes included in an unusual class 1 integron (intl1-dfra16-blapse-1-a ...201627012919
coxiella burnetii genotypes in iberian wildlife.to investigate if coxiella burnetii, the causative agent of q fever, genotypes circulating in wildlife are associated with those infecting livestock and humans, multiple-locus variable number tandem-repeat analysis (mlva-6-marker) was carried out over c. burnetii obtained from red deer (cervus elaphus), eurasian wild boar (sus scrofa), european wild rabbit (oryctolagus cuniculus), black rat (rattus rattus), and wood mouse (apodemus sylvaticus). mlva typing was performed by using six variable loc ...201627216529
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