Publications

study on the mechanical transmission by tsetse fly glossina morsitans centralis of trypanosoma vivax, t. congolense or t. brucei brucei to goats.		2000	10643915
independent evolution of toll and related genes in insects and mammals.	toll and toll-related proteins play an important role in antibacterial innate immunity in insect, plants, and mammals. we present the first comprehensive phylogenetic analyses of toll-related genes from both insects and mammals. drosophila melanogaster contains toll and a highly homologous gene, tehao. the protein, dm tehao, comprises 795 amino acid residues and its cytoplasmic domain shares a striking 61% identity with dm toll. two toll homologues were found in another dipteran of medical impor ...	2000	10663571
[diversity of feeding behavior of glossina palpalis palpalis in the forest belt of the ivory coast: relation to the prevalence of human african trypanosomiasis].	the feeding habits of glossina palpalis palpalis, the main vector of human african trypanosomiasis (hat) were retrospectively analysed using data collected between 1984 and 1994 in five areas in the forest belt in the mid-west of côte d'ivoire. the authors compare the feeding habits of the vector in these different foci. this analysis is aimed at determining if there is any relationship between the feeding pattern of tsetse-flies and the prevalence rates of hat. the feeding pattern was measured ...	2000	10672209
characterisation of the loci encoding the glutamic acid and alanine rich protein of trypanosoma congolense.	we have characterised the organisation of genes encoding the glutamate and alanine rich protein (garp) surface coat of the procyclic and epimastigote stages of trypanosoma congolense in the tsetse fly. the garp genes are arranged at two, possibly physically linked, loci, one of which exhibits allelic variation. one locus contains a single garp gene, whilst both alleles of the other have a large tandem array of polycistronically transcribed garp genes. sequence analysis has revealed that there ar ...	2000	10693750
a newly developed odour-baited "h trap" for the live collection of glossina brevipalpis and glossina austeni (diptera: glossinidae) in south africa.	a new trap, named the "h trap", was developed at hellsgate tsetse research station in south africa for the simultaneous collection of live glossina brevipalpis newstead and glossina austeni newstead. its design followed an evaluation of the responses of the two species towards traps that are used elsewhere in africa for the collection of other tsetse fly species. these traps were found at hellsgate to be unsuitable for capturing both g. brevipalpis and g. austeni. some new trap designs and many ...	2000	10843318
a family of genes with growth factor and adenosine deaminase similarity are preferentially expressed in the salivary glands of glossina m. morsitans.	a cdna library constructed from salivary glands of tsetse fly, glossina morsitans morsitans (diptera: glossinidae), was differentially screened, and two related full-length cdnas were molecularly characterized: tsetse salivary growth factor, tsgf-1 and tsgf-2. the cdnas encode for open reading frames (orfs) of 494 and 506aa, respectively, and display an overall 45% amino acid identity and 61% similarity to one another. both genes are preferentially expressed in the salivary glands of male and fe ...	2000	10903440
microsatellite dna markers reveal genetic differentiation among populations of glossina palpalis gambiensis collected in the agro-pastoral zone of sideradougou, burkina faso.	intraspecific genetic variability of glossina palpalis gambiensis in the area of sideradougou, burkina faso, was studied using polymorphic microsatellite dna markers. this genetic study was combined with other epidemiological information on the same tsetse: bloodmeal identification, dissection of tsetse and molecular characterization of the trypanosomes detected. there was significant genetic differentiation among flies caught only a few kilometers apart, within the same riverine habitat. these ...	2000	10971721
[spatial distribution and bloodmeal preferences of glossina palpalis palpalis in the forest focus of zoukougbeu (ivory coast). epidemiological consequences].	in the sleeping sickness focus of zoukougbeu (côte d'ivoire), in the cropping areas which are favourable for disease transmission, more than a quarter of the flies collected were found to have fed on domestic pigs. the sites where glossina palpalis palpalis was caught fed on these animals were concordant with the sites where the patients were present. these results might indicate that in zoukougbeu, but perhaps also in other sleeping sickness foci, the pig could play an active role in disease tr ...	2000	11031763
systematic relationships and cospeciation of bacterial endosymbionts and their carpenter ant host species: proposal of the new taxon candidatus blochmannia gen. nov.	the systematic relationships of intracellular bacteria of 13 camponotus species (carpenter ants) from america and europe were compared to those of their hosts. phylogenetic trees of the bacteria and the ants were based on 16s rdna (rrs) gene sequences and mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit i (coi) gene sequences, respectively. the bacterial endosymbionts of camponotus spp. form a distinct lineage in the y-subclass of the proteobacteria. the taxa most closely related to these bacteria are e ...	2000	11034499
chalcone, acyl hydrazide, and related amides kill cultured trypanosoma brucei brucei.	protozoan parasites of the genus trypanosoma cause disease in a wide range of mammalian hosts. trypanosoma brucei brucei, transmitted by tsetse fly to cattle, causes a disease (nagana) of great economic importance in parts of africa. t. b. brucei also serves as a model for related trypanosoma species, which cause human sleeping sickness.	2000	11055585
transport of methionine in trypanosoma brucei brucei.	african trypanosomes live free in the bloodstream and central nervous system of mammalian hosts and also within the midgut of the tsetse fly vectors which transmit them. the parasite plasma membrane represents the interface between both hosts and parasite, and trypanosomes accumulate many essential metabolites via specific transport processes. l-methionine uptake by procyclic and bloodstream forms of trypanosoma brucei has been measured and shown to be mediated by a transporter presenting simila ...	2000	11163438
the major cell surface glycoprotein procyclin is a receptor for induction of a novel form of cell death in african trypanosomes in vitro.	bloodstream forms (bsf) and procyclic culture forms (pcf) of african trypanosomes were incubated with a variety of lectins in vitro. cessation of cell division and profound morphological changes were seen in procyclic forms but not in bsf after incubation with concanavalin a (con a), wheat germ agglutinin and ricinus communis agglutinin. these lectins caused the trypanosomes to cease division, become round and increase dramatically in size, the latter being partially attributable to the formatio ...	2000	11163441
framing tropical disease in london: patrick manson, filaria perstans, and the uganda sleeping sickness epidemic, 1891-1902.	much of the historical literature on tropical medicine represents the periphery as the chief site for the production of western knowledge about disease in the british empire. this study on the filaria perstans-sleeping sickness hypothesis revises this perspective by showing how the imperial metropole functioned as a culture space for the construction of knowledge about the empire. beginning in 1891, patrick manson used the publicity resources of london to generate a rhetorical imperative for the ...	2000	14535273
intraspecific variability in natural populations of glossina palpalis gambiensis from west africa, revealed by genetic and morphometric analyses.	glossina palpalis gambiensis vanderplank (diptera: glossinidae) from west africa (senegal and burkina faso) were analysed for microsatellite dna polymorphisms and size of the wings. in the overall sample a strong heterozygote deficiency was found at two polymorphic microsatellite loci. it led to a highly significant value of fis (within-sample heterozygote deficit) in the western zone of sideradougou area in burkina faso. genetic differentiation was significant on a macrogeographic scale, i.e. b ...	1999	10608229
history of sleeping sickness in east africa.	the history of human sleeping sickness in east africa is characterized by the appearance of disease epidemics interspersed by long periods of endemicity. despite the presence of the tsetse fly in large areas of east africa, these epidemics tend to occur multiply in specific regions or foci rather than spreading over vast areas. many theories have been proposed to explain this phenomenon, but recent molecular approaches and detailed analyses of epidemics have highlighted the stability of human-in ...	1999	9880477
sodalis gen. nov. and sodalis glossinidius sp. nov., a microaerophilic secondary endosymbiont of the tsetse fly glossina morsitans morsitans.	a secondary intracellular symbiotic bacterium was isolated from the haemolymph of the tsetse fly glossina morsitans morsitans and cultured in aedes albopictus cell line c6/36. pure-culture isolation of this bacterium was achieved through the use of solid-phase culture under a microaerobic atmosphere. after isolation of strain m1t, a range of tests was performed to determine the phenotypic properties of this bacterium. considering the results of these tests, along with the phylogenetic position o ...	1999	10028272
tsetse challenge, trypanosome and helminth infection in relation to productivity of village ndama cattle in senegal.	data on tsetse fly, and on village ndama cattle collected over a 4-year period in southern senegal, were analysed. a total of 431 ndama cattle in four herds of three villages in the upper casamance area of southern senegal were monitored monthly. glossina morsitans submorsitans and glossina palpalis gambiensis are present in the study area. mean tsetse apparent density was 5.4 flies/trap/day. trypanosome (trypanosoma congonlense and trypanosoma vivax) infection rate in flies was 2.4 (s.e. 0.37)% ...	1999	10190867
genetic exchange in the trypanosomatidae.	the only trypanosomatid so far proved to undergo genetic exchange is trypanosoma brucei, for which hybrid production after co-transmission of different parental strains through the tsetse fly vector has been demonstrated experimentally. analogous mating experiments have been attempted with other trypanosoma and leishmania species, so far without success. however, natural leishmania hybrids, with a combination of the molecular characters of two sympatric species, have been described amongst both ...	1999	10214689
ultrastructural localization of unique neurosecretory granules in the corpora cardiaca of the stable fly, stomoxys calcitrans, and the tsetse fly, glossina morsitans.	ultrastructural analysis of the corpora cardiaca of the stable fly, stomoxys calcitrans, and the tsetse fly, glossina morsitans, revealed the presence of elementary neurosecretory granules (eng) unique to the intrinsic neurosecretory cells (inc) of these species. in addition to electron-dense spheres, the inc of the corpus species. in addition to electron-dense spheres, the inc of the corpus cardiacum of the stable fly contain electrondense angular granules, either square or rectangular in shape ...	1999	10322625
trypanosoma brucei spp. development in the tsetse fly: characterization of the post-mesocyclic stages in the foregut and proboscis.	post-mesocyclic development of trypanosoma brucei in the tsetse fly in its migration from midgut to salivary glands, was revisited by sequential microdissection, morphometry and dna-cytofluorometry. this development started by day 6 after the infective feed, with passage of mesocyclic midgut trypomastigotes through proventriculus and upward migration along foregut and proboscis to the salivary gland ducts. kinetics of salivary gland infection showed that colonization of the salivary glands by ep ...	1999	10363280
is sleeping sickness a circadian disorder? the serotonergic hypothesis.	patients with human african trypanosomiasis (hat, sleeping sickness), due to the inoculation of trypanosoma brucei gambiense or rhodesiense by the tsetse fly, are "sleepy by day and restless by night." the first 24 h polysomnographic recording (electroencephalogram [eeg], electromyogram [emg], electrooculogram [eog]), showing a disappearance of the 24 h rhythmicity of sleep and wakefulness, was performed in 1988. thereafter, our team recorded 18 patients and 6 control volunteers at bed rest duri ...	1999	10442241
effects of urbanization on transmission of human african trypanosomiasis in a suburban relict forest area of daloa, côte d'ivoire.	the epidemiological risk of human african trypanosomiasis transmission was evaluated from entomological parameters (apparent trap density, female teneral rates, daily survival rates, proportion of human feeds) of tsetse (glossina palpalis palpalis) populations in the town of daloa, côte d'ivoire. high tsetse densities were found in the town outskirts, where the calculated risk of transmission was greatest. environmental changes brought about by urbanization did not result in the disappearance of ...	1999	10450433
resurgence of sleeping sickness in tambura county, sudan.	endemic foci of human african trypanosomiasis are present in southern sudan. in 1996 and 1997, trypanosomiasis increased sharply in tambura county. to define the magnitude and geographic distribution of the outbreak, we conducted a prevalence survey using population-based cluster sampling in 16 villages: 1,358 participants answered questions about routine activities and tsetse fly contact and received serologic testing. seroprevalence in the surveyed area was 19.4% (95% confidence interval = 16. ...	1999	10463686
[age group distribution of glossina palpalis palpalis females in plantations and shallow water of the forest region of côte d'ivoire. relation to the prevalence of sleeping sickness].	in epidemiologically dangerous biotopes of foci with high prevalence of human african trypanosomiasis (hat), different female age groups (nulliparous, young parous, old parous) were observed in the same proportions. on the contrary, in areas without hat or in low prevalence foci (< 0.2%), these proportions significantly differed. female age group distribution in epidemiologically dangerous biotopes could thus be a good indication by which to guide the control of human african trypanosomiasis (ha ...	1999	10472452
isozymic comparison of five laboratory lines of tsetse flies belonging to the two subspecies of glossina palpalis (diptera: glossinidae).	three laboratory colonies of glossina palpalis palpalis and two of g. p. gambiensis have been characterized by means of 14 polymorphic enzyme loci. the presence/absence of some alleles for three enzymes (octanol dehydrogenase, phosphoglucomutase and aldehyde oxidase) distinguished the two subspecies. other differences in allozymes could not be used to discriminate between subspecies but could be used to distinguish populations within each of the subspecies. the genetic differences between popula ...	1999	10492677
antigenic variation in trypanosoma brucei infections: an holistic view.	trypanosoma brucei parasites undergo clonal phenotypic (antigenic) variation to promote their transmission between mammals and tsetse-fly vectors. this process is classically considered to be a mechanism for evading humoral immune responses, but such an explanation cannot account for the high rate of switching between variable antigens or for their hierarchical (i.e. non-random) expression. i suggest that these anomalies can be explained by a new model: that antigenic variation has evolved as a ...	1999	10504324
identification of bloodmeals in haematophagous diptera by cytochrome b heteroduplex analysis.	we developed a dna assay for bloodmeal identification in haematophagous insects. specific host cytochrome b gene sequences were amplified by pcr and classified on the basis of their mobility in a heteroduplex assay. in the blackfly simulium damnosum s.l. (diptera: simuliidae), human cytochrome b dna sequences were identifiable up to 3 days following ingestion of the bloodmeal. in the tsetse glossina palpalis (diptera: glossinidae) collected from tsetse traps in ivory coast, bloodmeals were ident ...	1999	10514054
n-linked glycans containing linear poly-n-acetyllactosamine as sorting signals in endocytosis in trypanosoma brucei.	african trypanosomes, such as trypanosoma brucei, are protozoan parasites that are transmitted by the tsetse fly and cause sleeping sickness in humans and nagana in cattle. trypanosomes evade the immune responses of their hosts by varying their surface coat protein (vsg) and restricting exocytosis and endocytosis to an invagination of the plasma membrane called the flagellar pocket (fp). the fp represents only 0.5% of the cellular surface but membrane turnover here occurs at high rates [1] [2] [ ...	1999	10531030
a structural and transcription pattern for variant surface glycoprotein gene expression sites used in metacyclic stage trypanosoma brucei.	african trypanosomes first express the variant surface glycoprotein (vsg) at the metacyclic stage in the tsetse fly vector, in preparation for transfer into the mammal. metacyclic (m)vsgs comprise a specific vsg repertoire subset and their expression is regulated differently from that of bloodstream vsgs, involving exclusively transcriptional regulation during the life cycle. to identify basic structural and functional features that may be common to mvsg telomeric transcription units, we have ch ...	1999	10551359
the gpi biosynthetic pathway as a therapeutic target for african sleeping sickness.	african sleeping sickness is a debilitating and often fatal disease caused by tsetse fly transmitted african trypanosomes. these extracellular protozoan parasites survive in the human bloodstream by virtue of a dense cell surface coat made of variant surface glycoprotein. the parasites have a repertoire of several hundred immunologically distinct variant surface glycoproteins and they evade the host immune response by antigenic variation. all variant surface glycoproteins are anchored to the pla ...	1999	10571022
breeding structure of glossina pallidipes populations evaluated by mitochondrial variation.	mitochondrial dna diversity was studied at four loci in six natural populations of the tsetse fly glossina pallidipes from zimbabwe, mozambique, kenya, and ethiopia. single-locus diversity varied from 0.39 at 12s to 0.65 at coii. a total of 32 haplotypes was found with a mean of 6.4 +/- 2.9 per locus. to study breeding structure, diversity at two loci, coii and 16s2, was evaluated in 18 populations sampled from an area of approximately 1,611,000 km2 and in three laboratory cultures. twenty-six h ...	1999	10589514
african trypanosomiasis in two travelers from the united states.	african trypanosomiasis is a rare but well-documented cause of fever in united states travelers returning from areas where it is endemic. we report two recently diagnosed cases that involved tourists who went on safari in tanzania. review of these and 29 other published cases indicates that disease in returning united states travelers is nearly always of the east african form, a fulminant illness for which prompt diagnosis is necessary. in the united states, timely and appropriate therapy for th ...	1999	10589900
vsg gene control and infectivity strategy of metacyclic stage trypanosoma brucei.	as the metacyclic trypanosome stage develops in the tsetse fly salivary glands, it initiates expression of variant surface glycoproteins (vsgs) and does so by each cell activating, at random, one from a small subset of metacyclic vsg (m-vsg) genes. whereas differential activation of individual vsg genes in the bloodstream occurs as a function of time, to evade waves of antibody, it is believed that the aim in the metacyclic stage is simultaneously to generate population diversity. m-vsg genes ar ...	1998	9574928
effect of maternal age on offspring quality in tsetse (diptera: glossinidae).	the effects of maternal age on offspring quality were studied in 1 line of glossina palpalis palpalis robineau-desvoidy, 1 line of g. p. gambiensis vanderplank, and 3 lines of g. morsitans morsitans westwood by measuring offspring adult size and the duration of puparial period. g. p. gambiensis males also were examined for effects of maternal age on fluctuating asymmetry of wing veins. the puparial period was shorter in offspring of old females (late offspring) than in offspring of young females ...	1998	9615536
factors affecting the landing and feeding responses of the tsetse fly glossina pallidipes to a stationary ox.	in zimbabwe, studies were made of the landing and feeding responses of glossina pallidipes on an ox. of the tsetse approaching an ox, approximately 70% fed. increasing densities of tsetse increased the grooming responses of the ox but had no significant effect on the percentage of tsetse that engorged. the landing site of tsetse on the ox varied with density, with approximately 50% landing on the legs at low densities (< 20 flies per ox), compared to approximately 80% at densities > 40 flies per ...	1998	9622375
neuroendocrine dysfunction in african trypanosomiasis. the role of cytokines.	sleeping sickness (ss; african trypanosomiasis) is an anthropozoonosis transmitted by the tsetse fly. infection with trypanosoma brucei in humans is associated with adynamia, lethargy, anorexia, and more specifically amenorrhea/infertility in women and loss of libido/impotence in men. recent evidence suggests that experimental infection in animals with trypanosoma brucei species causes polyglandular endocrine failure by local inflammation of the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, and gonadal glands. i ...	1998	9629307
trypanotolerance, an option for sustainable livestock production in areas at risk from trypanosomosis.	trypanosomosis is one of the major constraints on animal production in areas of africa which have the greatest potential for significant increases in domestic livestock populations and livestock productivity. while the eradication of trypanosomosis from the entire continent is an unrealistic goal, considerable effort has been invested in the control of this disease through the use of trypanocidal drugs, management of the vector and exploitation of the genetic resistance exhibited by indigenous b ...	1998	9638808
characterization of trypanosome infections by polymerase chain reaction (pcr) amplification in wild tsetse flies in cameroon.	the polymerase chain reaction (pcr) method was used to characterize trypanosome infections in tsetse flies from 3 sleeping sickness foci in cameroon. the predominant tsetse species found was glossina palpalis palpalis. an average infection rate of 12.1% was revealed by microscopical examination of 888 non-teneral tsets flies. pcr amplification analyses for trypanosome identification were carried out on 467 flies, with primer sets specific for trypanosoma (trypanozoon) brucei s.1., t. (duttonella ...	1998	9651938
molecular characterization of the principal symbiotic bacteria of the weevil sitophilus oryzae: a peculiar g + c content of an endocytobiotic dna.	the principal intracellular symbiotic bacteria of the cereal weevil sitophilus oryzae were characterized using the sequence of the 16s rdna gene (rrs gene) and g + c content analysis. polymerase chain reaction amplification with universal eubacterial primers of the rrs gene showed a single expected sequence of 1,501 bp. comparison of this sequence with the available database sequences placed the intracellular bacteria of s. oryzae as members of the enterobacteriaceae family, closely related to t ...	1998	9664696
pcr analysis and spatial repartition of trypanosomes infecting tsetse flies in sidéradougou area of burkina faso.	a parasitological and entomological survey was conducted in the sideradougou area (south of bobo dioulasso, burkina faso) in order to identify transmission factors of african trypanosomosis. a total of 3600 tsetse flies (glossina tachinoides, glossina palpalis gambiensis) were captured along 120 km of linear gallery forest and half of them were dissected. pcr analysis was undertaken on parasitologically positive flies (161 g. tachinoides, 92 g. palpalis gambiensis) to characterize the different ...	1998	9668447
vector-borne parasitic diseases--an overview of recent changes.	this paper summarises the impact of different changes (environmental, ecological, developmental) on the one hand, with the impact of control measures on the other. the former group of changes have tended to exacerbate the incidence and prevalence of vector-borne parasitic diseases while the reduced public funds available for the health sector have reduced disease surveillance systems. however, some vector control/eradication programmes have been successful. vector control in onchocerciasis and c ...	1998	9673871
new epidemiological features on animal trypanosomiasis by molecular analysis in the pastoral zone of sideradougou, burkina faso.	a multidisciplinary work was undertaken in the agropastoral zone of sidéradougou, burkina faso to try to elucidate the key factors determining the presence of tsetse flies. in this study the pcr was used to characterize trypanosomes infecting the vector (glossina tachinoides and glossina palpalis gambiensis) and the host, i.e. cattle. a 2-year survey involved dissecting 2211 tsetse of the two glossina species. a total of 298 parasitologically infected tsetse were analysed by pcr. trypanosoma viv ...	1998	9691491
factors influencing the prevalence of trypanosome infection of glossina pallidipes on the ruvu flood plain of eastern tanzania.	we report the pattern of infection of glossina pallidipes with trypanosoma vivax and t. congolense at a site in the coast region of eastern tanzania, studied between november 1993 and december 1994. of the 2315 flies dissected 114 (4.9%) were t. congolense positive, 77 (3.3%) were t. vivax positive and 2 (0.1%) were t. brucei positive. fly age was determined by the pteridine fluorescence method. prevalence of infection was most strongly affected by month and the linear effect of age with the int ...	1998	9698260
left-right asymmetry of fly wings and the evolution of body axes.	the body plan of drosophila, and presumably that of other insects, develops under the control of anterio-posterior and dorsal ventral axes, but no evidence for a left-right axis has yet been found. we used geometric morphometrics to study the wings in three species of flies: drosophila melanogaster, musca domestica and glossina palpalis gambiensis. in all three species, we found that both size and shape showed subtle, but statistically significant directional asymmetry. for size, these asymmetri ...	1998	9699316
microsatellite markers for genetic population studies in glossina palpalis gambiensis (diptera: glossinidae).	little is known about intraspecific variability in tsetse flies and its consequences for vectorial capacity. microsatellite markers have been developed for glossina palpalis gambiensis. three loci have been identified and showed size polymorphisms for insectarium samples. g. palpalis gambiensis from burkina faso were also subjected to pcr to investigate then genetic variability. amplifications were observed in different species belonging to the palpalis group. these molecular markers will be use ...	1998	9705735
detection and identification of trypanosomes by polymerase chain reaction in wild tsetse flies in cameroon.	the prevalence of various species and subgroups of trypanosomes in infected flies from three sleeping sickness foci in cameroon was determined by the use of polymerase chain reaction (pcr). the predominant tsetse species found were glossina palpalis palpalis. microscopical examination of 943 non-teneral tsetse flies revealed an average infection rate of 10.4%. a total of 90 flies were analyzed for trypanosome identification with primer sets specific for trypanosoma (trypanozoon) brucei s.l., t. ...	1998	9707369
transformation of monomorphic trypanosoma brucei bloodstream form trypomastigotes into procyclic forms at 37 degrees c by removing glucose from the culture medium.	african trypanosomes have been shown previously to undergo efficient transformation from bloodstream forms to procyclic (insect dwelling) forms in vitro by adding citrate and/or cis-aconitate to the culture medium and lowering incubation temperature to 27 degrees c. in this paper, it is shown that strain 427 monomorphic bloodstream forms of trypanosoma brucei grown in axenic culture at 37 degrees c can be transformed to procyclic forms by simply replacing the glucose carbon source in the culture ...	1998	9719513
the modified dna base beta-d-glucosyl-hydroxymethyluracil is not found in the tsetse fly stages of trypanosoma brucei.		1998	9719516
[vectorial competence of glossina palpalis palpalis, glossina p. gambiensis and glossina morsitans morsitans flies for a clone of trypanosoma (nannomonas) congolense il 1180].	the authors report on the results of experimental infections of teneral (age < 32 hours) and non-teneral (age between 80 and 96 hours) glossina palpalis palpalis, g. p. gambiensis and g. morsitans morsitans with trypanosoma congolense il 1180. flies were infected once on a parasitaemic rat. teneral flies, both sexes indiscriminate, showed a procyclic and metacyclic infection rate respectively of 0.0588 and 0.7272 for g. p. palpalis; 0.0525 and 0.0416 for g. p. gambiensis; 0.6493 and 0.7300 for g ...	1998	9754312
identification of stage-regulated and differentiation-enriched transcripts during transformation of the african trypanosome from its bloodstream to procyclic form.	trypanosoma brucei undergoes dramatic stage-specific changes in surface antigen expression, metabolic development, cellular morphogenesis and cell-cycle control. these events can be studied in detail during the transition between the bloodstream stumpy stage and the tsetse fly midgut procyclic form. this differentiation can be induced in vitro, is synchronous in the population and there are abundant markers for stage-regulated and differentiation events. we have used this differentiation system ...	1998	9763291
susceptibility to trypanosomosis of three bos indicus cattle breeds in areas of differing tsetse fly challenge.	studies to assess the differences in susceptibility to trypanosomosis among bos indicus cattle breeds (maasai zebu, orma boran and galana boran) were conducted under conditions of varying tsetse fly challenge at the nguruman escarpment in south-western kenya, for a period of 1 year. it was found that under tsetse challenge quantified as high, maasai zebu and orma boran were less susceptible than galana boran to trypanosome infections, as judged by the significantly lower incidence of infection, ...	1998	9777722
a trypanosome metacyclic vsg gene promoter with two functionally distinct, life cycle stage-specific activities.	in the mammalian bloodstream, african trypanosomes express the variant surface glycoprotein (vsg), continual switching of which allows evasion of the host immune response. bloodstream vsg genes are transcribed from polycistronic bloodstream expression sites with promoters which are located 45-60 kb upstream. these promoters are not exclusively stage-regulated, being active in the insect midgut stage where vsg is not expressed. however, the metacyclic vsg (m-vsg) genes, a small subset activated w ...	1998	9518493
glossina morsitans morsitans and glossina palpalis palpalis: dosage compensation raises questions about the milligan model for control of trypanosome development.	evidence that dosage compensation occurs in tsetse flies was obtained by comparing the activities of x chromosome-linked enzymes, arginine phosphokinase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase in glossina m. morsitans and hexokinase and phosphoglucomutase in glossina p. palpalis, with the activity of an autosome-linked enzyme, malate dehydrogenase, in each species. the shortcomings of the x chromosome model for the control of trypanozoon maturation in tsetse are discussed in light of these finding ...	1998	9806869
review of tsetse flies and trypanosomosis in south africa.	the history of tsetse flies and nagana (trypanosomosis) in south africa, and especially in zululand, is reviewed. four valid tsetse fly species have been recorded from south africa. glossina morsitans morsitans disappeared from the most northerly parts of south africa during the rinderpest epizootic between 1896-1897. of the three remaining species that occurred in zululand, now part of kwazulunatal province, g. pallidipes was the most common vector of nagana in cattle, but was eradicated from t ...	1998	9809324
[vectorial competence of glossina tachinoides westwood and glossina palpalis gambiensis vanderplank infected by trypanosoma brucei brucei eatro 1125].	the vectorial competence (vc) of teneral (less than 32 h) glossina tachinoides westwood and g. palpalis gambiensis vanderplank, fed simultaneously on a guinea-pig infected with trypanosoma brucei brucei eatro 1125, was assessed. statistical analysis of the experimental results revealed that female g. tachinoides had a significantly higher midgut infection rate than males. such a sex-related difference was not observed in g. p. gambiensis. male g. p. gambiensis had higher midgut infection rates t ...	1998	9851007
activity of a trypanosome metacyclic variant surface glycoprotein gene promoter is dependent upon life cycle stage and chromosomal context.	african trypanosomes evade the mammalian host immune response by antigenic variation, the continual switching of their variant surface glycoprotein (vsg) coat. vsg is first expressed at the metacyclic stage in the tsetse fly as a preadaptation to life in the mammalian bloodstream. in the metacyclic stage, a specific subset (<28; 1 to 2%) of vsg genes, located at the telomeres of the largest trypanosome chromosomes, are activated by a system very different from that used for bloodstream vsg genes ...	1998	9488428
on the interpretation of age-prevalence curves for trypanosome infections of tsetse flies.	epidemiological models are used to analyse 8 published data sets reporting age-prevalence curves for trypanosome infections of the tsetse fly glossina pallidipes. a model assuming a fixed maturation period and a rate of infection which is independent of fly age is adequate for trypanosoma vivax-type infections, explaining 98% of observed variance in prevalence by site and age, allowing that the rate of infection may be site dependent. this model is not adequate for t. congolense-type infections ...	1998	9509024
geometric morphometrics of developmental instability: analyzing patterns of fluctuating asymmetry with procrustes methods.	although fluctuating asymmetry has become popular as a measure of developmental instability, few studies have examined its developmental basis. we propose an approach to investigate the role of development for morphological asymmetry by means of morphometric methods. our approach combines geometric morphometrics with the two-way anova customary for conventional analyses of fluctuating asymmetry and can discover localized features of shape variation by examining the patterns of covariance among l ...	1998	28565401
a white eye color mutant in the tsetse fly glossina morsitans submotsitans newstead (diptera: glossinidae).	a spontaneous mutation in glossina morsitans submorsitans newstead is described. the mutant, designated wht, has white compound eyes but the ocelli and testes have normal coloration. mutants have lower than normal amounts of xanthommatin and pteridines in their heads. the lesion occurs late in the tryptophan to xanthommatin pathway, in the storage of xanthommatin in the compound eyes, or, most likely, in the transport of precursors into the compound eyes. the locus wht is on the x chromosome.	1997	18464814
[redistribution of glossina in a forest area of ivory coast?].	historically the region of abengourou is a well-known of sleeping sickness in the forest area of cote d'ivoire. however data from epidemiologic studies carried out since 1980 show that this area is currently disease-free. this finding warrants study of glossina vectors to clarify the epidemiology of the disease in this area. entomologic surveys were carried out over a period of one year. traps were used to capture glossina in ten natural habitats: villages with or without pigs, coffee, cocoa and ...	1997	9513155
commitment to differentiation and cell cycle re-entry are coincident but separable events in the transformation of african trypanosomes from their bloodstream to their insect form.	african trypanosomes undergo extensive changes in cellular morphology, biochemistry and surface antigen expression as they differentiate from their bloodstream form to those forms that colonise the midgut of their tsetse fly vector. if initiated with stumpy-form cells, a non-dividing sub-type of the bloodstream parasite, differentiation and cell cycle re-entry occur synchronously in the population and provide a means to dissect the respective controls of proliferation and transformation. we have ...	1997	9372450
position-dependent and promoter-specific regulation of gene expression in trypanosoma brucei.	trypanosoma brucei evades the mammalian immune response by a process of antigenic variation. this involves mutually exclusive and alternating expression of telomere-proximal variant surface glycoprotein genes (vsgs), which is controlled at the level of transcription. to examine transcription repression in t.brucei we inserted reporter genes, under the control of either rrna or vsg expression site (es) promoters, into various chromosomal loci. position-dependent repression of both promoters was o ...	1997	9405371
factors affecting trypanosome infection rate in tsetse fly (diptera: glossinidae) populations.	wide variations in trypanosome infection rate are observed in different tsetse fly (glossina spp.) populations environmental factors and features proper to the vector, mammalian host and infecting-trypanosome species acting in the acquisition and development of infective-trypanosome infection in tsetse are examined.	1997	9419848
comparison between tsetse fly synthetic diet and bovine blood on reproduction and survivorship in tabanus nigrovittatus (diptera: tabanidae).	a synthetic diet, developed for tsetse flies and fed to tabanus nigrovittatus macquart before the 2nd gonotrophic cycle, supported complete egg maturation. t. nigrovittatus is autogenous only during the 1st cycle. overall, 52% of females fed bovine blood and 46% fed the synthetic diet produced mature, stage 10 follicles. of these, 76% of the blood-fed females and 65% of those fed the synthetic diet laid egg masses, all of which hatched. the median adult survivorship was 9 d for blood-fed and 8 d ...	1997	9439131
localization of genes controlling resistance to trypanosomiasis in mice.	tsetse fly-transmitted trypanosomes (trypanosoma spp.) cause "sleeping sickness' in man and have a serious impact on livestock-based agriculture in large areas of africa. multigene control of variation in susceptibility to trypanosomiasis is known to occur in mice, where the c57bi/6 (b6) strain is relatively resistant and the a/j (a) and balb/c (b) strains are susceptible. such resistance is also well described among several types of west african cattle. we report here the results of genome-wide ...	1997	9171834
microsatellite markers for genetic population studies in glossina palpalis (diptera: glossinidae).	little is known about tsetse intraspecific variability and its consequences on vectorial capacity. since isoenzyme analyses revealed little polymorphism, microsatellite markers have been developed for glossina palpalis gambiensis species. three loci have been identified and showed size polymorphisms for insectarium samples. moreover, amplifications were observed in different species belonging to palpalis group. these molecular markers will be useful to estimate gene flow within g. p. gambiensis ...	1997	9177579
survival of trypanosoma brucei in the tsetse fly is enhanced by the expression of specific forms of procyclin.	african trypanosomes are not passively transmitted, but they undergo several rounds of differentiation and proliferation within their intermediate host, the tsetse fly. at each stage, the survival and successful replication of the parasites improve their chances of continuing the life cycle, but little is known about specific molecules that contribute to these processes. procyclins are the major surface glycoproteins of the insect forms of trypanosoma brucei. six genes encode proteins with exten ...	1997	9182668
cloning and expression of a bacillus thuringiensis (l1-2) gene encoding a crystal protein active against glossina morsitans morsitans and chilo partellus.	a local isolate of bacillus thuringiensis,designated l1-2, that is toxic to chilo partellus was found to be toxic to the adult tsetse fly, glossina morsitans morsitans. the delta-endotoxin crystals derived from the isolate gave a major protein band with a molecular weight of mr 130,000-140,000 on denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. the sequence of the cloned gene was found to be similar to that of the b. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki hd-73 cryia(c) gene, having one amino acid differen ...	1997	9003589
kinetoplastid glucose transporters.	protozoa of the order kinetoplastida have colonized many habitats, and several species are important parasites of humans. adaptation to different environments requires an associated adaptation at a cell's interface with its environment, i.e. the plasma membrane. sugar transport by the kinetoplastida as a phylogenetically related group of organisms offers an exceptional model in which to study the ways by which the carrier proteins involved in this process may evolve to meet differing environment ...	1997	9271074
molecular characterization of trypanosome isolates from naturally infected domestic animals in burkina, faso.	a total of 33 trypanosome cryostabilates isolated from domestic animals (bovine and dogs) were analysed using the polymerase chain reaction (pcr). the pcr was undertaken on diluted and treated buffy coat solutions according to an easy protocol of purification, using primers specific to trypanosoma (nannomonas) congolense of savannah, riverine-forest, kilifi and tsavo types, t. (n) simiae, t. (trypanozoon) brucei and t. (duttonella) vivax. the results showed a lack of pcr sensitivity when target ...	1997	9299694
trypanosomiasis.	african (sleeping sickness) and american (chagas' disease) trypanosomiasis, caused by protozoa of the family trypanosomatidae, are diseases that are endemic in parts of africa and latin america, respectively. physicians in developed countries may occasionally see cases because of extensive travel and immigration from endemic countries. although neurological involvement is common in both, its incidence and clinical presentation differ considerably. african trypanosomiasis, caused by subspecies of ...	1997	9034568
effect of the life-span of female glossina palpalis gambiensis on the weight and size of its progeny.	pupae and teneral flies of glossina palpalis gambiensis originating from three successive reproductive cycles were compared for their size and weight. in general, pupal weight and fly weight increased, whereas fly size, measured as wing vein length, decreased with the number of reproductive cycles. the linear regression observed between weight and wing vein length of the fly demonstrated that, particularly for flies originating from the first and second larvipositions, small changes in wing vein ...	1997	9061683
determination of the insemination time of the glossina palpalis robineau desvoidy, 1830 in the forest belt of daloa, côte d'ivoire.	the observations on the insemination of the glossina palpalis have been made in the forest belt of daloa in the côte d'ivoire through the test of the spermathecae of females caught in different biotopes. the testing of 8342 glossina show that the ratio of females with empty spermathecae is low, with a rate of 0.88%. most of the captured glossina are tenerals or tsetse flies which have not yet been fed. we did not find a single virgin female among the young parous glossina above the age of 9 days ...	1997	9088424
degradation of a radiolabeled juvenile hormone analog using two insect species.	a synthetic insect juvenile hormone analog (a juvenoid), ethyl n-[2-[4-[[2,2-(ethylenedioxy)cyclohexyl]methyl]phenox]ethyl]carbam ate, which has displayed high biological activity against different insect species and high stability under field conditions, was selected as a biologically active model compound for a study of a juvenile hormone analog degradation. the biologically active compound itself and its three diversely radiolabeled derivatives were applied to the flesh fly (sarcophaga bullat ...	1997	9783444
trypanosomiasis re-emerges under cover of war.	the incidence of trypanosomiasis has increased in southern sudan along the border of the central african republic; up to 30% of the population is infected in some areas. a study conducted by care and the us centers for disease control (cdc) has shown that the disease has spread to over 30,000 people in tambura county alone; up to 4% of the local population is expected to die this year. according to the local coordinator for care, the pyramidal effect is great; when a tsetse fly bites a human, ...	1997	12321240
a hormone from the uterus of the tsetse fly, glossina morsitans, stimulates parturition and abortion.	unlike most insects, the tsetse female gives birth to a single, fully grown larva at the culmination of each pregnancy cycle. the expulsion of the larva is regulated by a hormone present in rich abundance within the female's uterus. the hormone elicits parturition when injected into neck-ligated females at late stages of pregnancy and abortion when injected at earlier stages. we refer to this highly active material (0.043 uterus equivalents stimulates parturition in 50% of the females) as partur ...	1997	12769917
prevalence of tsetse fly and ruminant trypanosomosis in katsina-ala local government area, nigeria.	the prevalence of ruminant trypanosomosis and tsetse flies was investigated in katsina-ala local government area--a sleeping sickness endemic area--between the valleys of river benue, katsina-ala and donga in central nigeria. analysis of three hundred and twenty blood samples showed that among semi-nomadic animals, about one cattle (21.3%; 0.213, confidence interval c1 +/- 0.06) and two sheep (38.0%; 0.380, c1 +/- 0.10) out of five carried mature trypanosome infections. significantly lower (p < ...	1996	9558969
distribution and abundance of trypanosome (subgenus nannomonas) infections of the tsetse fly glossina pallidipes in southern africa.	over 10 000 glossina pallidipes tsetse flies were collected during two field studies in the zambezi valley, zimbabwe and one in the luangwa valley, zambia. these were screened for mature trypanosome infections and 234 dot-blot preparations were made of infected midguts, which were screened using dna probes or pcr with primers specific to different species or types of the trypanosome subgenus nannomonas. over 70% of midgut infections were successfully identified as either trypanosoma godfreyi, t. ...	1996	9147687
intracellular endosymbiotic bacteria of camponotus species (carpenter ants): systematics, evolution and ultrastructural characterization.	intracellular endosymbiotic bacteria inherent to ants of the genus camponotus were characterized. the bacteria were localized in bacteriocytes, which are specialized cells of both workers and queen ants; these cells are intercalated between epithelial cells of the midgut. the bacteriocytes show a different morphology from the normal epithelial cells and carry a large number of the rod-shaped gram-negative bacteria free in the cytoplasm. the bacteria were never observed in the neighbouring epithe ...	1996	8866472
[human african trypanosomiasis].	human african trypanosomiasis (hat) is caused by infestation with a flagellate protozoan, the trypanosome which is inoculated by the bite of the tsetse fly glossina. the particular ecological conditions of parasites and vectors are such that the disease is only found in the intertropical regions of africa. although there are many species of trypanosomes, only two, belonging to the brucei group are likely to lead to hat. these two species are quite similar morphologically but have different patho ...	1996	8952890
genetic exchange in trypanosomes.	the process of genetic exchange in trypanosomes was first described 10 years ago, when jenni and colleagues obtained hybrid trypanosomes after cotransmitting 2 trypanosoma brucei ssp. clones through the tsetse fly. the process is a non-obligatory part of the trypanosome life cycle and takes place in the fly, probably during development in the salivary glands. nuclear dna markers are inherited for the most-part in a mendelian fashion, indicating that meiosis is involved. however, there is no evid ...	1996	8989895
trypanosome characterization by polymerase chain reaction in glossina palpalis gambiensis and g.tachinoides from burkina faso.	following the discovery of four cases of african human trypanosomiasis, an entomological survey was conducted along the mouhoun river in southwest burkina faso to collect glossina palpalis gambiensis and g.tachinoides. among 226 flies dissected, 4.87% (eleven individuals) were infected in midgut or proboscis, but never in the salivary glands. polymerase chain reaction analysis was undertaken, and was able to characterize all the proboscis infections, and half of the midgut infections. only trypa ...	1996	8994137
a high prevalence of mixed trypanosome infections in tsetse flies in sinfra, côte d'ivoire, detected by dna amplification.	the prevalence of various species and subgroups of trypanosomes in the sinfra area of côte d'ivoire was determined using the polymerase chain reaction (pcr). using this technique to amplify specific satellite dna targets, it was possible to identify developmental-stage trypanosomes in the midguts and the proboscides of tsetse without expansion of parasite populations. the predominant tsetse species in the area was glossina palpalis, while g. pallicera and g. nigrofusca were also present. microsc ...	1996	8587804
composition of the peritrophic matrix of the tsetse fly, glossina morsitans morsitans.	the three-layered peritrophic matrix of glossina morsitans morsitans is shown, by histochemistry, to be formed of a mixture of glycosaminoglycans, glycoproteins and chitin. in all three layers the glycosaminoglycans contain glcnac-hexuronic and gal-glcnac moieties, together with chitin. glycosaminoglycans in layer 3 are sulphated and sulphated sites have a mean interspace distance of 53 nm - similar to the spacing of fixed charge sites in glomerular basement membrane suggesting a rôle for these ...	1996	8593667
the parp promoter of trypanosoma brucei is developmentally regulated in a chromosomal context.	african trypanosomes are extracellular protozoan parasites that are transmitted from one mammalian host to the next by tsetse flies. bloodstream forms express variant surface glycoprotein (vsg); the tsetse fly (procyclic) forms express instead the procyclic acidic repetitive protein (parp). parp mrna is abundant in procyclic forms and almost undetectable in blood-stream forms. post-transcriptional mechanisms are mainly responsible for parp mrna regulation but results of nuclear run-on experiment ...	1996	8614620
a promotor directing alpha-amanitin-sensitive transcription of garp, the major surface antigen of insect stage trypanosoma congolense.	the major surface antigen of procyclic and epimastigote forms of trypanosoma congolense in the tsetse fly is garp (glutamic acid/alanine-rich protein), which is thought to be the analogue of procyclin/parp in trypanosoma brucei. we have studied two t.congolense garp loci (the 4.3 and 4.4 loci) whose transcription is alpha-amanitin sensitive. whilst a transcriptional gap 5' of the first garp gene in the cloned region of the 4.4 locus could not be detected, such a gap was present in the 5' flank o ...	1996	8628650
isolation and characterization of the tsetse thrombin inhibitor: a potent antithrombotic peptide from the saliva of glossina morsitans morsitans.	a potent and specific inhibitor of the human coagulation protease thrombin was identified in salivary gland extracts of the tsetse fly, glossina morsitans morsitans, an important vector of african trypanosomiasis. this low molecular weight peptide (mw = 3,530 da as determined by laser desorption mass spectrometry) was purified using a combination of size-exclusion chromatography and reverse-phase, high-performance liquid chromatography, respectively. amino terminal sequencing of the purified pro ...	1996	8644901
are stable flies (diptera: stomoxyinae) vectors of trypanosoma vivax in the central african republic?	the epidemiology of trypanosoma vivax infections was studied at a riverside site in the ouro-djafoun livestock area situated in the central african republic during the period between july 1991 and july 1992. this paper examines the possibility that stable flies (diptera: stomoxyinae) were also vectors of this trypanosome species in a non-cyclic way. previous studies have revealed that the usual cyclic transmission by the tsetse fly glossina fuscipes fuscipes was probably not the only transmissio ...	1996	8721295
pharmacokinetics of diminazene in plasma and lymph of goats.	to characterize the pharmacokinetics of diminazene in plasma and pseudo-afferent lymph of east africa x galla goats.	1996	8723887
remotely sensed surrogates of meteorological data for the study of the distribution and abundance of arthropod vectors of disease.	this paper gives an overview of how certain meteorological data used in studies of the population dynamics of arthropod vectors of disease may be predicted using remotely sensed, satellite data. details are given of the stages of processing necessary to convert digital data arising from satellite sensors into ecologically meaningful information. potential sources of error in these processing steps are also highlighted. relationships between ground-measured meteorological variables (saturation de ...	1996	8729623
anaphylactic reaction after bites by glossina morsitans (tsetse fly) in a laboratory worker.		1996	8828549
is point mutagenesis a mechanism for antigenic variation in trypanosoma brucei?	antigenic variation in african trypanosomes proceeds by switching between different variant surface glycoprotein (vsg) molecules, whose extensive epitope differences enable evasion of antibody responses. each trypanosome has approximately 1000 basic copy vsg genes inside chromosomes and a subset located at telomeres. switching usually involves different individual basic copy genes being duplicated, as an expression linked copy, into a transcriptionally active site. in a few cases expression link ...	1996	8844670
[experimental infection of glossina morsitans morsitans (mall) with trypanosoma congolense (zre/g143/90). parasite cycle and vector competence in the tsetse fly].	this report presents an experimental study of the life cycle of trypanosoma congolense (zre/g 143/90) in relation to the vectorial competence of glossina morsitans (mall). the rate of engorgement at the time of an infectious meal and the mortality before day 15 of the life cycle were not significantly different between male and female flies. the mesocyclic forms of trypanosomes were regularly observed in the proventriculus, crop duct, oesophagus, cibarium and proboscis, except in the crop. on da ...	1996	9026227
trypanosome-binding proteins of the tsetse flies glossina palpalis gambiensis and g. morsitans morsitans.	in this paper we describe a new, selective approach to identify protein ligand-receptor interactions between an arthropod vector and the parasite it transmits. biotinylated vector proteins were incubated with living parasites in physiological conditions. after extensive washing, the parasites were subjected to sds-page electrophoresis and the polypeptides were electroblotted onto nitrocellulose membrane. staining with avidin-horseradish peroxidase revealed only biotin-labeled proteins from the v ...	1996	9198586
electrical transients in the cell-volume response to cyclic amp of the tsetse fly malpighian tubule	1. using cyclic amp to stimulate perfused tsetse fly malpighian tubules bathed in so42- ringer frequently causes an immediate but transient peak in transtubular potential (vt), before stabilisation of vt at an increased value. 2. these transients were investigated by monitoring the associated changes in cable properties and currentvoltage (i/v) relationships. tubules were perfused and bathed in either cl- ringer or so42- ringer (containing 8 mmol l-1 cl-). 3. tubules bathed in cl- ringer sh ...	1996	9319501
analysis of the mating scar pattern of glossina palpalis palpalis (rob.-desv.) and glossina fuscipes fuscipes newstead (diptera: glossinidae).	an analysis was made of the mating scar pattern of female glossina palpalis palpalis robineau-desvoidy and glossina fuscipes fuscipes newstead. measurements on fifty permanent preparations of the mating scars of females reared in the laboratory revealed significant differences in the length, width and in the distance between the centers of the mating scars of the two species. plotting the distance between the centers of the two mating scars against the ratio width/length resulted in a 93% separa ...	1995	8849301
decline of glossina morsitans ugadensis in gambella, ethiopia.	gambella is the only area where sleeping sickness is endemic in ethiopia. four species of glossina had been reported from gambella out of the five species found in the country in surveys made before 1985. these are glossina morsitans ugadensis, g. pallidipes, g. fuscipes and g. tachinoides. a tsetse fly survey was carried out in parts of gambella owing to the fact that the area is undergoing ecological changes due to massive deforestation (because of resettlement and development programmes), poa ...	1995	7498005
wigglesworthia gen. nov. and wigglesworthia glossinidia sp. nov., taxa consisting of the mycetocyte-associated, primary endosymbionts of tsetse flies.	the primary endosymbionts (p-endosymbionts) of tsetse flies (diptera: glossinidae) are harbored inside specialized cells (mycetocytes) in the anterior region of the gut, and these specialized cells form a white, u-shaped organelle called mycetome. the p-endosymbionts of five tsetse fly species belonging to the glossinidae have been characterized morphologically, and their 16s ribosomal dna sequences have been determined for phylogenetic analysis. these organisms were found to belong to a distinc ...	1995	7547309
identification of a mariner element from the tsetse fly, glossina palpalis palpalis.	in the present study, the polymerase chain reaction was used initially to demonstrate the presence of mariner sequences in seven species/subspecies of tsetse flies. dna hybridization experiments show mariner sequences to be dispersed within the tsetse genome and that there are large variations in copy numbers among the various taxa. a genomic library was used to isolate and characterize a full-length mariner element from g. p. palpalis. the results indicate that this element is 1257 bp in length ...	1995	7551197
transcriptional regulation of metacyclic variant surface glycoprotein gene expression during the life cycle of trypanosoma brucei.	in antigenic variation in african trypanosomes, switching of the variant surface glycoprotein (vsg) allows evasion of the mammalian host immune response. trypanosomes first express the vsg in the tsetse fly vector, at the metacyclic stage, in preparation for transfer into the mammal. in this life cycle stage, a small, specific subset (1 to 2%) of vsgs are activated, and we have shown previously that the system of activation and expression of metacyclic vsg (m-vsg) genes is very different from th ...	1995	7565747