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icp0 antagonizes icp4-dependent silencing of the herpes simplex virus icp0 gene.icp0 is a regulatory protein that plays a critical role in the replication-latency balance of herpes simplex virus (hsv). absence of icp0 renders hsv prone to establish quiescent infections, and thus cellular repressor(s) are believed to silence hsv mrna synthesis when icp0 fails to accumulate. to date, an icp0-antagonized repressor has not been identified that restricts hsv mrna synthesis by more than 2-fold. we report the unexpected discovery that hsv's major transcriptional regulator, icp4, m ...201020098619
herpes simplex virus type 1 infection of the rat enteric nervous system evokes small-bowel neuromuscular abnormalities.infectious agents, such as neurotropic viruses, are proposed to disrupt the enteric neuromuscular system, leading to dysmotility, although the mechanisms are unknown. our purpose was to assess whether herpes simplex virus type-1 (hsv-1) establishes an enteric-neuronal infection and induces gut dysmotility.201020102717
natural zoonotic infections of two marmosets and one domestic rabbit with herpes simplex virus type 1 did not reveal a correlation with a certain gg-, gi- or ge genotype.infections with herpes simplex virus type 1 (hsv-1) are not restricted to humans but infrequently may be transmitted to certain animal species, in some cases resulting in severe disease, including encephalitis and death. recent studies demonstrate that humanderived hsv-1 field isolates can be typed according to their gg- giand ge gene sequences. we investigated whether hsv-1 infections of animals were predominantly caused by a certain genotype. isolates derived from two marmosets and one domesti ...201020121821
the term newborn potentially exposed to herpes simplex virus. 201020122480
evaluation of [11c]-daa1106 for imaging and quantification of neuroinflammation in a rat model of herpes encephalitis.many neurological and psychiatric disorders are associated with neuroinflammation. positron emission tomography (pet) with [(11)c]-pk11195 can be used to study neuroinflammation in these disorders. however, [(11)c]-pk11195 may not be sensitive enough to visualize mild neuroinflammation. as a potentially more sensitive pet tracer for neuroinflammation, [(11)c]-n-(2,5-dimethoxybenzyl)-n-(4-fluoro-2-phenoxyphenyl)-acetamide (daa1106) was evaluated in a rat model of herpes encephalitis.201020122662
a novel hla (hla-a*0201) transgenic rabbit model for preclinical evaluation of human cd8+ t cell epitope-based vaccines against ocular herpes.we introduced a novel humanized hla-a*0201 transgenic (hla tg) rabbit model to assess the protective efficacy of a human cd8(+) t cell epitope-based vaccine against primary ocular herpes infection and disease. each of the three immunodominant human cd8(+) t cell peptide epitopes from hsv-1 glycoprotein d (gd(53-61), gd(70-78), and gd(278-286)) were joined with a promiscuous human cd4(+) t cell peptide epitope (gd(49-82)) to construct three separate pairs of cd4-cd8 peptides. each cd4-cd8 peptide ...201020124097
cutting edge: priming of cd8 t cell immunity to herpes simplex virus type 1 requires cognate tlr3 expression in vivo.despite its potential for involvement in viral immunity, little evidence links tlr3 to adaptive antiviral responses. here we show that tlr3 is required for the generation of cd8 t cell immunity to hsv-1. the magnitude of the gb-specific cd8 t cell response after flank infection by hsv-1 was significantly reduced in mice lacking tir domain-containing adaptor-inducing ifn-beta or tlr3, but not myd88. impaired ctl induction was evident in chimeric mice lacking tlr3 in bone marrow (bm)-derived cells ...201020124105
involvement of the contact phase and intrinsic pathway in herpes simplex virus-initiated plasma coagulation.a hemostatic response to vascular injury is initiated by the extrinsic pathway of coagulation and amplified by the intrinsic pathway. we previously reported that purified herpes simplex virus type-1 (hsv1) has constitutive extrinsic pathway tissue factor (tf) and anionic phospholipid on its surface derived from the host cell, and can consequently bypass strict cellular control of coagulation.201020128864
different strategies for reducing intestinal background radioactivity associated with imaging hsv1-tk expression using established radionucleoside probes.one limitation of hsv1-tk reporter positron emission tomography (pet) with nucleoside analogues is the high background radioactivity in the intestine. we hypothesized that endogenous expression of thymidine kinase in bacterial flora could phosphorylate and trap such radiotracers, contributing to the high radioactivity levels in the bowel, and therefore explored different strategies to increase fecal elimination of radiotracer. intestinal radioactivity was assessed by in vivo micropet imaging and ...201020128998
alzheimer's disease and infection: do infectious agents contribute to progression of alzheimer's disease? 201020129323
bimolecular complementation defines functional regions of herpes simplex virus gb that are involved with gh/gl as a necessary step leading to cell fusion.herpes simplex virus (hsv) entry into cells requires four membrane glycoproteins: gd is the receptor binding protein, and gb and gh/gl constitute the core fusion machinery. crystal structures of gd and its receptors have provided a basis for understanding the initial triggering steps, but how the core fusion proteins function remains unknown. the gb crystal structure shows that it is a class iii fusion protein, yet unlike other class members, gb itself does not cause fusion. bimolecular compleme ...201020130048
addition of a single e2 binding site to the human papillomavirus (hpv) type 16 long control region enhances killing of hpv positive cells via hpv e2 protein-regulated herpes simplex virus type 1 thymidine kinase-mediated suicide gene therapy.human papillomavirus type 16 (hpv16) is associated with the development of anogenital cancers and their precursor lesions, intraepithelial neoplasia. treatment strategies against hpv-induced intraepithelial neoplasia are not hpv specific and mostly consist of physical removal or ablation of lesions. we had previously designed an hpv-specific approach to kill hpv-infected cells by the herpes simplex virus type 1 thymidine kinase (tk) gene driven by hpv e2 binding to e2-binding sites (e2bs) in the ...201020132050
kupfer-type immunological synapse characteristics do not predict anti-brain tumor cytolytic t-cell function in vivo.to analyze the in vivo structure of antigen-specific immunological synapses during an effective immune response, we established brain tumors expressing the surrogate tumor antigen ovalbumin and labeled antigen-specific anti-glioma t cells using specific tetramers. using these techniques, we determined that a significant number of antigen-specific t cells were localized to the brain tumor and surrounding brain tissue and a large percentage could be induced to express ifngamma when exposed to the ...201020133734
transcriptional coactivator hcf-1 couples the histone chaperone asf1b to hsv-1 dna replication components.the cellular transcriptional coactivator hcf-1 interacts with numerous transcription factors as well as other coactivators and is a component of multiple chromatin modulation complexes. the protein is essential for the expression of the immediate early genes of both herpes simplex virus (hsv) and varicella zoster virus and functions, in part, by coupling chromatin modification components including the set1 or mll1 histone methyltransferases and the histone demethylase lsd1 to promote the install ...201020133788
grey matter changes associated with host genetic variation and exposure to herpes simplex virus 1 (hsv1) in first episode schizophrenia.we previously reported reduced prefrontal cortex (pfc) grey matter volume among first episode, antipsychotic-naïve schizophrenia subjects (sz) exposed to hsv1 but not among healthy subjects (hs) (prasad et al., 2007). independently, rs1051788, an exonic polymorphism of the mhc class i polypeptide-related sequence b (micb) gene was associated with hsv1 seropositivity, as well as sz risk. in this study, we examined whether pfc grey matter changes associated with hsv1 exposure varied against the ba ...201020138739
chromatin dynamics during herpes simplex virus-1 lytic infection.herpes simplex virus type 1 is a dna virus that can establish lytic infections in epithelial cells and latent infections in sensory neurons. upon entry into the nucleus the genome of hsv-1 rapidly associates with histone proteins. similar to the genomes of the cellular host, hsv-1 is subject to chromatin-based regulation of transcription and replication. however, unlike the host genome, nucleosomes appear to be underrepresented on the hsv genome. during lytic infection, when the genome is transc ...201020139038
hexokinase ii gene transfer protects against neurodegeneration in the rotenone and mptp mouse models of parkinson's disease.a typical feature of parkinson's disease is the progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, in which inhibition of mitochondrial complex i activity may play an important role. rotenone or 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (mptp) inhibit the mitochondrial complex i and they cause the death of substantia nigra dopaminergic neurons, thereby providing acute murine models of parkinson's disease. we have found that increasing mitochondrial hexokinase ii activity can pr ...201020143419
systemic inflammatory response syndrome in diseases of the skin.a number of dermatological conditions present with features of systemic inflammatory response syndrome (sirs). this study evaluated the incidence and outcome of sirs in patients with dermatological diseases.201020145056
regulation of icp0-null mutant herpes simplex virus type 1 infection by nd10 components atrx and hdaxx.herpes simplex virus type 1 (hsv-1) immediate-early gene product icp0 activates lytic infection and relieves cell-mediated repression of viral gene expression. this repression is conferred by preexisting cellular proteins and is commonly referred to as intrinsic antiviral resistance or intrinsic defense. pml and sp100, two core components of nuclear substructures known as nd10 or pml nuclear bodies, contribute to intrinsic resistance, but it is clear that other proteins must also be involved. we ...201020147399
herpes simplex virus glycoproteins h/l bind to cells independently of {alpha}v{beta}3 integrin and inhibit virus entry, and their constitutive expression restricts infection.herpes simplex virus (hsv) fusion with cells requires the gd, gb, and gh/gl glycoprotein quartet. gd serves as a receptor binding glycoprotein. gb and gh/gl execute fusion in an as-yet-unclear manner. to better understand the role of gh/gl in hsv entry, we produced a soluble version of gh/gl carrying a one-strep tag (gh(t.st)/gl). previous findings implicated integrins as possible ligands to gh/gl (c. parry et al., j. gen. virol. 86:7-10, 2005). we report that (i) gh(t.st)/gl bound a number of c ...201020147400
relocalization of upstream binding factor to viral replication compartments is ul24 independent and follows the onset of herpes simplex virus 1 dna synthesis.herpes simplex virus 1 (hsv-1) induces relocalization of several nucleolar proteins. we have found that, as for fibrillarin, the hsv-1-induced redistribution of two rna polymerase i components, upstream binding factor (ubf) and rpa194, was independent of the viral protein ul24, which affects nucleolin localization. nevertheless, the kinetics and sites of redistribution for fibrillarin and ubf differed. interestingly, ubf remained associated with rpa194 during infection. although ubf is redistrib ...201020147409
evaluation of the adjuvant activity of naloxone, an opioid receptor antagonist, in combination with heat-killed listeria monocytogenes vaccine.we have previously demonstrated the adjuvant activity of naloxone (nlx), a general opioid antagonist, using a dna vaccine for herpes simplex virus type 1. here, the adjuvant activity of nlx has been evaluated using a heat-killed listeria monocytogenes (hklm) vaccine as a model for general immunization against intracellular bacteria. balb/c mice were divided into three groups: the vac group received the hklm vaccine alone; the nlx-vac group received the hklm vaccine in combination with the adjuva ...201020152926
neuroanatomic and cognitive abnormalities related to herpes simplex virus type 1 in schizophrenia.herpes simplex virus 1 (hsv-1) tends to replicate in the temporal cortex and can damage the limbic system. the presence of serum antibodies to hsv-1 is associated with cognitive impairment in adults with schizophrenia, suggesting that cerebral gray matter abnormalities might distinguish patient subgroups defined by hsv-1 exposure. we assessed 43 adult outpatients with schizophrenia. the assessment included clinical interviews, neurocognitive testing, anatomic brain magnetic resonance imaging and ...201020153952
oncolysis using herpes simplex virus type 1 engineered to express cytosine deaminase and a fusogenic glycoprotein for head and neck squamous cell carcinoma.to determine if prodrug conversion of fluorocytosine to fluorouracil by an engineered herpes virus, oncovex(galv/cd), enhances oncolytic therapy of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma.201020157061
maturation of dendritic cell precursors into il12-producing dcs by j-leaps immunogens.leaps (ligand epitope antigen presentation system) vaccines consist of a peptide containing a major histocompatibility antigen binding peptide conjugated to an immune cell binding ligand (icbl) such as the 'j' peptide from beta-2-microglobulin. treatment of monocytes, monocytes plus gmcsf, or monocytes plus gmcsf and il4 with jgd (containing a peptide from gd of herpes simplex virus type 1) or jh (with a peptide from hiv p17 gag protein) was sufficient to promote their maturation into interleuki ...201020163792
a boy unable to move his arm.an 11-year-old boy presented with inability to move his right arm, back and neck pain, and fever. he had a history of recurrent vesicular rash on his face three times over the past two years. magnetic resonance imaging (mri) showed diffuse expansile cervical cord, leading to a diagnosis of transverse myelitis. after 3 days of intravenous solumedrol, the patient was discharged, but returned the following day with a vesicular rash to the right arm, as well as vomiting, malaise and diffuse pruritus ...201020164075
recruitment of herpes simplex virus type 1 immediate-early protein icp0 to the virus particle.although the herpes simplex virus type 1 (hsv-1) tegument is comprised of a large number of viral and cellular proteins, how and where in the cell these proteins are recruited into the virus structure is poorly understood. we have shown previously that the immediate-early gene product icp0 is packaged by a mechanism dependent on the major tegument protein vp22, while others have shown a requirement for icp27. we now extend our studies to show that icp0 packaging correlates directly with the abil ...201020164220
role of herpes simplex virus icp0 in the transactivation of genes introduced by infection or transfection: a reappraisal.icp0, a promiscuous transactivator that enhances the expression of genes introduced by infection or transfection, functions in both nucleus and cytoplasm. the nuclear functions include degradation and dispersal of nd10 bodies and suppression of silencing of viral dna. subsequently, icp0 shifts to the cytoplasm. transfection of dna prior to infection has no effect on the localization of icp0 in cells that are efficient expressers of transgenes (e.g., vero and hek293) but results in delayed cytopl ...201020164233
herpes simplex virus 1 regulatory protein icp27 undergoes a head-to-tail intramolecular interaction.herpes simplex virus type 1 (hsv-1) regulatory protein icp27 is a multifunction functional protein that interacts with many cellular proteins. a number of the proteins with which icp27 interacts require that both the n and c termini of icp27 are intact. these include rna polymerase ii, tap/nxf1, and hsc70. we tested the possibility that the n and c termini of icp27 could undergo a head-to-tail intramolecular interaction that exists in open and closed configurations for different binding partners ...201020164236
detailed characterization of t cell responses to herpes simplex virus-2 in immune seronegative persons.in 2003, we described a small cohort of subjects (n = 6) who possessed no detectable serum abs to hsv-1 or hsv-2 and no clinical or virological evidence of mucosal hsv infection yet possessed consistently detectable hsv-specific t cell responses measured primarily by lymphoproliferative (lp) and ctl assays to whole hsv-2 ag. we termed these persons immune seronegative (is). this report characterizes the t cell responses in 22 is subjects largely recruited from studies of hsv-seronegative subject ...201020164419
diversity of the cd8+ t cell repertoire elicited against an immunodominant epitope does not depend on the context of infection.the diversity of the pathogen-specific t cell repertoire is believed to be important in allowing recognition of different pathogen epitopes and their variants and thereby reducing the opportunities for mutation-driven pathogen escape. however, the extent to which the tcr repertoire can be manipulated by different vaccine strategies so as to obtain broad diversity and optimal protection is incompletely understood. we have investigated the influence of the infectious/inflammatory context on the tc ...201020164421
[a case of herpetic meningoencephalitis associated with massive intracerebral hemorrhage during acyclovir treatment: a rare complication].we report a case of a 35-year-old female with herpetic meningoencephalitis confirmed by polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemical study for herpes simplex virus-1 accompanied with a massive intracerebral hematoma as a complication. a hematoma localized at the medial temporal lobe and the medial frontal lobe occurred on the 11th day after initiation of acyclovir treatment. she subsequently required emergency surgery for temporal lobectomy, as well as hematoma and external decompression. i ...201020166530
towards an understanding of the herpes simplex virus type 1 latency-reactivation cycle.infection by herpes simplex virus type 1 (hsv-1) can cause clinical symptoms in the peripheral and central nervous system. recurrent ocular shedding can lead to corneal scarring and vision loss making hsv-1 a leading cause of corneal blindness due to an infectious agent. the primary site of hsv-1 latency is sensory neurons within trigeminal ganglia. periodically, reactivation from latency occurs resulting in virus transmission and recurrent disease. during latency, the latency-associated transcr ...201020169002
the glycoproteins c and g are equivalent target antigens for the determination of herpes simplex virus type 1-specific antibodies.seroreactivity to the glycoproteins c and g of herpes simplex virus type 1 (hsv-1) was compared in 310 serum samples using a western blot assay containing a whole antigen extract of hsv-1 and an elisa employing gc1 isolated from hsv-1. the prevalence of reactivity to gc1 was 75.8% by western blot and 73.9% by elisa, while antibody responses to gg1 were detected in 72.9% of sera by western blot. an absolute correlation of 96.1% between the reactivity to gc1 and gg1 was demonstrated using the west ...201020171247
microsatellite analysis of hsv-1 isolates: from oropharynx reactivation toward lung infection in patients undergoing mechanical ventilation.according to recent reports, herpes simplex virus type 1 (hsv-1) induces bronchopneumonitis (bpn) in immunocompetent patients undergoing prolonged mechanical ventilation (mv), whose respiratory functions deteriorate with a poor outcome. hsv-1 bpn is associated with hsv symptomatic or symptomless reactivation in the oropharynx.201020172760
the virion host shut-off (vhs) protein blocks a tlr-independent pathway of herpes simplex virus type 1 recognition in human and mouse dendritic cells.molecular pathways underlying the activation of dendritic cells (dcs) in response to herpes simplex virus type 1 (hsv-1) are poorly understood. removal of the hsv virion host shut-off (vhs) protein relieves a block to dc activation observed during wild-type infection. in this study, we utilized a potent dc stimulatory hsv-1 recombinant virus lacking vhs as a tool to investigate the mechanisms involved in the activation of dcs by hsv-1. we report that the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines by ...201020174621
therapeutic efficacy of human hepatocyte transplantation in a scid/upa mouse model with inducible liver disease.severe combined immune deficient (scid)/urokinase-type plasminogen activator (upa) mice undergo liver failure and are useful hosts for the propagation of transplanted human hepatocytes (hh) which must compete with recipient-derived hepatocytes for replacement of the diseased liver parenchyma. while partial replacement by hh has proven useful for studies with hepatitis c virus, complete replacement of scid/upa mouse liver by hh has never been achieved and limits the broader application of these m ...201020174638
advances in viral transneuronal tracing.powerful transneuronal tracing technologies exploit the ability of some neurotropic viruses to travel across neuronal pathways and to function as self-amplifying markers. two main classes of viral transneuronal tracers are available, derived from alpha-herpesviruses (herpes simplex virus type 1, pseudorabies) and rabies virus. depending on the virus type and strain, there are major differences with regard to host range, peripheral uptake, replication mechanisms, transport direction and specifici ...201020004688
expanding the role of 3-o sulfated heparan sulfate in herpes simplex virus type-1 entry.heparan sulfate (hs) proteoglycans are commonly exploited by multiple viruses for initial attachment to host cells. herpes simplex virus-1 (hsv-1) is unique because it can use hs for both attachment and penetration, provided specific binding sites for hsv-1 envelope glycoprotein gd are present. the interaction with gd is mediated by specific hs moieties or 3-o sulfated hs (3-os hs), which are generated by all but one of the seven isoforms of 3-o sulfotransferases (3-osts). here we demonstrate th ...201020004926
during lytic infections, herpes simplex virus type 1 dna is in complexes with the properties of unstable nucleosomes.the genomes of herpes simplex virus type 1 (hsv-1) are regularly chromatinized during latency such that their digestion with micrococcal nuclease (mcn) releases nucleosome-sized dna fragments. in lytically infected cells, in contrast, mcn releases hsv-1 dna in primarily heterogeneously sized fragments. consistently, only a small percentage of this hsv-1 dna coimmunoprecipitates with histones. most current models propose that histones associate with hsv-1 dna during lytic infections at low occupa ...201020007274
insertion mutations in herpes simplex virus 1 glycoprotein h reduce cell surface expression, slow the rate of cell fusion, or abrogate functions in cell fusion and viral entry.of the four required herpes simplex virus (hsv) entry glycoproteins, the precise role of gh-gl in fusion remains the most elusive. the heterodimer gh-gl has been proposed to mediate hemifusion after the interaction of another required glycoprotein, gd, with a receptor. to identify functional domains of hsv-1 gh, we generated 22 randomized linker-insertion mutants. analyses of 22 gh mutants revealed that gh is relatively tolerant of insertion mutations, as 15 of 22 mutants permitted normal proces ...201020007280
evaluation of three multiplex flow immunoassays compared to an enzyme immunoassay for the detection and differentiation of igg class antibodies to herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2.the diagnosis of herpes simplex virus (hsv) infections is routinely made based on clinical findings and supported by laboratory testing using pcr or viral culture. however, in instances of subclinical or unrecognized hsv infection, serologic testing for igg class antibodies to type-specific hsv glycoprotein g (gg) may be useful. this study evaluated and compared the performances of three multiplex flow immunoassays (athena multi-lyte [zeus scientific], bioplex 2200 [bio-rad laboratories], and pl ...201020007366
icp27 phosphorylation site mutants display altered functional interactions with cellular export factors aly/ref and tap/nxf1 but are able to bind herpes simplex virus 1 rna.herpes simplex virus 1 (hsv-1) protein icp27 is a multifunctional regulatory protein that is phosphorylated. phosphorylation can affect protein localization, protein interactions, and protein function. the major sites of icp27 that are phosphorylated are serine residues 16 and 18, within a ck2 site adjacent to a leucine-rich region required for icp27 export, and serine 114, within a pka site in the nuclear localization signal. viral mutants bearing serine-to-alanine or glutamic acid substitution ...201020015986
icp27 phosphorylation site mutants are defective in herpes simplex virus 1 replication and gene expression.herpes simplex virus 1 (hsv-1) protein icp27 is a multifunctional regulatory protein that is posttranslationally modified by phosphorylation during viral infection. icp27 has been shown to be phosphorylated on three serine residues, specifically serine residues 16 and 18, which are within casein kinase 2 (ck2) sites, and serine residue 114, which is within a protein kinase a (pka) site. phosphorylation is an important regulatory mechanism that is reversible and controls many signaling pathways, ...201020015991
bovine herpesvirus-1 us3 protein kinase: critical residues and involvement in the phosphorylation of vp22.the us3 gene product of bovine herpesvirus-1 (bohv-1) is a protein kinase that is expressed early during infection and capable of autophosphorylation. by examining differentially labelled us3 moieties by co-immunoprecipitation, we demonstrated that the protein kinase interacts with itself in vitro, which supports autophosphorylation by us3. based on its homology to other serine/threonine protein kinases, we defined two highly conserved lysines in us3, at position 195 within the atp-binding pocke ...201020016039
induction of il-6 in transcriptional networks in corneal epithelial cells after herpes simplex virus type 1 infection.to determine the transcriptional responses of human corneal epithelial cells (hcecs) after herpes simplex virus type (hsv)-1 infection and to identify the critical inflammatory element(s).201020019363
construction of a ganciclovir-sensitive lentiviral vector to assess the influence of angiopoietin-3 and soluble tie2 on glioma growth.malignant brain tumors grow by coopting the existing vasculature, a process involving the release of angiopoietin-2 (angpt2) from endothelial cells and its binding to the tie2 receptor. the first goal of this study was to examine the therapeutic potential of two proteins that could interfere with angpt2, namely angpt3 and the soluble extracellular domain of tie2 (stie2). the second goal was to develop a lentiviral vector capable of delivering such proteins while offering the possibility to ident ...201020020177
xylans from scinaia hatei: structural features, sulfation and anti-hsv activity.natural compounds offer interesting pharmacological perspectives for antiviral drug development with regard to broad-spectrum antiviral properties and novel modes of action. in this study, we have analyzed alkali-extracted xylan of scinaia hatei. alkali extraction of this red alga yielded a xylan shown to have a molecular mass of 120kda and a linear structure of (1-->4)-linked beta-d-xylopyranosyl residues. derivatives (s1, s2, s3 and s4) generated by chemical sulfation from this macromolecule h ...201020026104
evaluation of apoptotic and anti-apoptotic genes on efficacy of dna vaccine encoding glycoprotein b of herpes simplex virus type 1.many approaches have so far been tried to enhance the immunogenicity of dna vaccine. these include the use of various factors that induce apoptosis or anti-apoptosis effects when co-delivered with dna vaccine. in the present study, the effects of pro-apoptotic bax encoding plasmid (pbax) and anti-apoptotic bcl-x(l) encoding plasmid (pbcl-xl), intradermally co-injected with glycoprotein b (gb) of herpes simplex virus (hsv)-1 encoding plasmid (pgb) into the c57bl/6 mice were evaluated. immune resp ...201020026118
vegf-a expression by hsv-1-infected cells drives corneal lymphangiogenesis.inflammatory lymphangiogenesis plays a crucial role in the development of inflammation and transplant rejection. the mechanisms of inflammatory lymphangiogenesis during bacterial infection, toll-like receptor ligand administration, and wound healing are well characterized and depend on ligands for the vascular endothelial grow factor receptor (vegfr) 3 that are produced by infiltrating macrophages. but inflammatory lymphangiogenesis in nonlymphoid tissues during chronic viral infection is unstud ...201020026662
detection of varicella-zoster virus dna in 414 human trigeminal ganglia from cadavers by the polymerase chain reaction: a comparison of the detection rate of varicella-zoster virus and herpes simplex virus type 1.investigation of varicella-zoster virus (vzv) is important epidemiologically, and determination of its prevalence rate in human trigeminal ganglia is important to provide surveillance data. to date, studies on vzv detection in trigeminal ganglia have used specimens obtained from a relatively limited number of cadavers. this study attempted to detect vzv dna as well as herpes simplex virus type 1 (hsv-1) dna by the polymerase chain reaction (pcr) from 414 samples of trigeminal ganglia obtained fr ...201020029810
herpes simplex virus type 1 immediate-early protein icp22 is required for vice domain formation during productive viral infection.during productive infection, herpes simplex virus type 1 (hsv-1) induces the formation of discrete nuclear foci containing cellular chaperone proteins, proteasomal components, and ubiquitinated proteins. these structures are known as vice domains and are hypothesized to play an important role in protein turnover and nuclear remodeling in hsv-1-infected cells. here we show that vice domain formation in vero and other cells requires the hsv-1 immediate-early protein icp22. since icp22 null mutants ...201020032172
heterologous cd8 t cell immune response to hsv induced by toll like receptor ligands.a memory response is established following primary antigen exposure that stays more or less constant. it appears to adopt a set-point in magnitude but upon re-exposure the response is quicker and better and there is an upward shift in memory frequency that varies with individuals based on the exposure pattern to other microbes or its components. our investigations were designed to test such differences of non-specific stimulation by pamps in lowering the threshold of activation. neonatal mice we ...201020022593
a simplified one-pot automated synthesis of [18f]fhbg for imaging reporter gene expression.9-(4-[f]fluoro-3-hydroxymethylbutyl) guanine ([f]fhbg) has been used as a reporter probe to image the expression of the herpes simplex virus type 1 thymidine kinase (tk) reporter gene in living organisms with positron emission tomography (pet). however, the routine production of [f]fhbg presents many challenging laboratory requirements.201020032804
the brca-1 binding protein brap2 is a novel, negative regulator of nuclear import of viral proteins, dependent on phosphorylation flanking the nuclear localization signal.this study describes for the first time the ability of the novel brca1-binding protein 2 (brap2) to inhibit the nuclear import of specific viral proteins dependent on phosphorylation. ectopic expression of brap2 in transfected african green monkey kidney cos-7 cells was found to significantly reduce nuclear localization signal (nls)-dependent nuclear accumulation of either simian virus sv40 large-tumor antigen (t-ag) or human cytomegalovirus dna polymerase processivity factor ppul44; this was al ...201020040518
in vitro antiviral activity of neem (azardirachta indica l.) bark extract against herpes simplex virus type-1 infection.herpes simplex virus type 1 (hsv-1) causes significant health problems from periodical skin and corneal lesions to encephalitis. we report here that an aqueous extract preparation from the barks of neem plant azardirachta indica acts as a potent entry inhibitor against hsv-1 infection into natural target cells. the neem bark extract (nbe) significantly blocked hsv-1 entry into cells at concentrations ranging from 50 to 100 microg/ml. the blocking activity of nbe was observed when the extract was ...201020041417
interaction domains of the ul16 and ul21 tegument proteins of herpes simplex virus.the ul16 protein of herpes simplex virus is capsid associated and was previously identified as a binding partner of the membrane-associated ul11 tegument protein (j. s. loomis, r. j. courtney, and j. w. wills, j. virol. 77:11417-11424, 2003). in those studies, a less-prominent, approximately 65-kda binding partner of unknown identity was also observed. mass spectrometry studies have now revealed this species to be ul21, a tegument protein that has been implicated in the transport of capsids in t ...201020042500
identification of an icp27-responsive element in the coding region of a herpes simplex virus type 1 late gene.during productive herpes simplex virus type 1 (hsv-1) infection, a subset of viral delayed-early (de) and late (l) genes require the immediate-early (ie) protein icp27 for their expression. however, the cis-acting regulatory sequences in de and l genes that mediate their specific induction by icp27 are unknown. one viral l gene that is highly dependent on icp27 is that encoding glycoprotein c (gc). we previously demonstrated that this gene is posttranscriptionally transactivated by icp27 in a pl ...201020042503
epigenetic regulation of latent hsv-1 gene expression.like other alpha-herpesviruses, herpes simplex virus type 1 (hsv-1) possesses the ability to establish latency in sensory ganglia as a non-integrated, nucleosome-associated episome in the host cell nucleus. transcription of the genome is limited to the latency-associated transcript (lat), while the lytic genes are maintained in a transcriptionally repressed state. this partitioning of the genome into areas of active and inactive transcription suggests epigenetic control of hsv-1 latent gene expr ...201020045093
a human microsatellite dna-mimicking oligodeoxynucleotide with cct repeats negatively regulates tlr7/9-mediated innate immune responses via selected tlr pathways.a human microsatellite dna-mimicking odn (ms odn) composed of cct repeats, designated as sat05f, has been studied for its capacity of negatively regulating innate immunity induced by tlr7/tlr9 agonists in vitro and in mice. the result showed that sat05f could down-regulate tlr7/9-dependent ifn-alpha production in cultured human pbmc stimulated by inactivated flu virus pr8 or hsv-1 or cpg odn or imiquimod, protect d-galn-treated mice from lethal shock induced by tlr9 agonist, not by tlr3/4 agonis ...201020034855
toll-like receptor-mediated recognition of herpes simplex virus.herpes simplex virus type 1 and 2 (hsv-1 and hsv-2, respectively) are two important human pathogens that belong to the genus simplex within the subfamily alpha of the herpesvirinae. toll-like receptors (tlrs) constitute a family of conserved sensors that play a prominent role during the early anti-viral response, including that against herpesviruses. although substantial progress has been made, central questions remain to be solved to figure out how tlrs modulate viral pathogenesis. the aim of t ...201020036979
oblongolides from the endophytic fungus phomopsis sp. bcc 9789.six new oblongolides, w1, w2, x, y, and z (1-3, 6, 7) and 2-deoxy-4alpha-hydroxyoblongolide x (4), and the known compounds oblongolide (8), oblongolides t, c, and q (5, 9, 10), and (-)-5-methylmellein were isolated from the endophytic fungus phomopsis sp. bcc 9789. compound 7 showed anti-hsv-1 activity (ic50=14 microm) and cytotoxic activities against kb, bc, nci-h187, and nonmalignant (vero) cell lines with respective ic50 values of 37, 26, 32, and 60 microm. cytotoxic activity against the bc c ...201020038128
association of human t lymphotropic virus 1 amplification of periodontitis severity with altered cytokine expression in response to a standard periodontopathogen infection.periodontal diseases (pds) are infectious diseases in which periodontopathogens trigger chronic inflammatory and immune responses that lead to tissue destruction. recently, viruses have been implicated in the pathogenesis of pds. individuals infected with human t lymphotropic virus 1 (htlv-1) present with abnormal oral health and a marked increased prevalence of periodontal disease.201020038241
inhibition of protein deacetylation augments herpes simplex virus type 1-activated transcription of host fucosyltransferase genes associated with virus-induced slex expression.herpes simplex virus type 1 induces expression of the selectin ligand sialyl lewis x in infected cells by activating transcription of three normally silent host glycosyltransferase genes, fut3, fut5, and fut6, a process that is initiated by binding of viral rna to cellular protein kinase r. we investigated the involvement of protein deacetylation and promoter methylation in viral activation of host fut genes by analysing the effects of appropriate inhibitors on the transcription rates of the fut ...201020039087
simian trim5alpha proteins reduce replication of herpes simplex virus.old world monkey trim5alpha proteins are known to block the replication of human immunodeficiency virus and other retroviruses in a species-specific fashion. in this report, we show that specific forms of simian trim5alpha proteins can restrict herpes simplex virus (hsv) infection. to define the effect of trim5alpha on hsv replication, we examined hsv infection in hela cell lines that stably express simian and human orthologs of trim5alpha proteins. we demonstrated that several simian trim5alpha ...201020060996
critical issues related to porcine xenograft exposure to human viruses: lessons from allotransplantation.xenotransplantation of tissues from swine into humans poses the threat of bidirectional transfer of porcine or human microorganisms to the recipient or to the xenograft, respectively. this review focuses on recipient-derived infection. recent data are reviewed that assess the susceptibility of porcine cells to human viruses. on the basis of the experience in allotransplantation, potential consequences for the xenograft are discussed.201020061950
selective trapping and concentration of nanoparticles and viruses in dual-height nanofluidic channels.nanofluidic systems offer advantages for chemical analysis, including small sample volumes, size-selective particle trapping, sample concentration and the ability to separate and detect single molecules. such systems can be fabricated using planar nanochannels, which rely on standard photolithographic techniques. nanochannel fluid flow can be driven by capillary action, which benefits from simple injection and reasonably high flow rates. we demonstrate an analysis chip fabricated with planar nan ...201020066244
differential importance of highly conserved residues in ul24 for herpes simplex virus 1 replication in vivo and reactivation.the ul24 gene of herpes simplex virus 1 (hsv-1) is widely conserved among all subfamilies of the herpesviridae. it is one of only four hsv-1 genes for which mutations have been mapped that confer a syncytial plaque phenotype. in a mouse model of infection, ul24-deficient viruses exhibit reduced titres, particularly in neurons, and an apparent defect in reactivation from latency. there are several highly conserved residues in ul24; however, their importance in the role of ul24 in vivo is unknown. ...201020071482
travel-related cerebro-meningeal infections: the 8-year experience of a french infectious diseases unit.the etiological spectrum of cerebro-meningeal infections (cmi) in travelers has never been specifically analyzed.201020074095
a viral e3 ligase targets rnf8 and rnf168 to control histone ubiquitination and dna damage responses.the icp0 protein of herpes simplex virus type 1 is an e3 ubiquitin ligase and transactivator required for the efficient switch between latent and lytic infection. as dna damaging treatments are known to reactivate latent virus, we wished to explore whether icp0 modulates the cellular response to dna damage. we report that icp0 prevents accumulation of repair factors at cellular damage sites, acting between recruitment of the mediator proteins mdc1 and 53bp1. we identify rnf8 and rnf168, cellular ...201020075863
exacerbation of corneal scarring in hsv-1 gk-immunized mice correlates with elevation of cd8+cd25+ t cells in corneas of ocularly infected mice.we have shown previously that exacerbation of corneal scarring (cs) in hsv-1 glycoprotein k (gk) immunized mice was associated with cd8+ t cells. in this study, we investigated the type and the nature of the immune responses that are involved in the exacerbation of cs in gk-immunized animals. balb/c mice were vaccinated with baculovirus expressed gk, gd, or mock-immunized. twenty-one days after the third immunization, mice were ocularly infected with 2 x 10(5) pfu/eye of virulent hsv-1 strain mc ...201020079918
role of the ul45 protein in herpes simplex virus entry via low ph-dependent endocytosis and its relationship to the conformation and function of glycoprotein b.herpesviruses commandeer distinct cellular pathways to enter target cells. the mechanism by which herpes simplex virus (hsv) selects a ph-dependent, endocytic route or a ph-independent route remains to be elucidated. we investigated the role of the non-glycosylated viral envelope protein ul45 in hsv entry via endocytosis. ul45 plays a role in mediating cell-cell fusion and has been proposed to functionally interact with gb to regulate membrane fusion. thus, we also probed the impact of ul45 on t ...201020080138
myelin-associated glycoprotein mediates membrane fusion and entry of neurotropic herpesviruses.varicella-zoster virus (vzv) and herpes simplex virus (hsv) are prevalent neurotropic herpesviruses that cause various nervous system diseases. similar to other enveloped viruses, membrane fusion is an essential process for viral entry. therefore, identification of host molecules that mediate membrane fusion is important to understand the mechanism of viral infection. here, we demonstrate that myelin-associated glycoprotein (mag), mainly distributed in neural tissues, associates with vzv glycopr ...201020080767
effects of structural differences between radioiodine-labeled 1-(2'-fluoro-2'-deoxy-d-arabinofuranosyl)-5-iodouracil (fiau) and 1-(2'-fluoro-2'-deoxy-d-ribofuranosyl)-5-iodouracil (firu) on hsv1-tk reporter gene imaging.the goal of this investigation was to evaluate the effects of structural differences between fiau and firu on their ability to serve as a potential tracer for reporter gene imaging. to examine the characteristics of different configurations of fiau and firu, a series of evaluations were done on hsv1-tk gene-expressing cells and on mice with hsv1-tk gene-expressing tumor. the results showed that, as an imaging agent for hsv1-tk-expressing cells, radiolabeled fiau was more efficient for in vivo im ...201020083410
iron metabolism markers and haptoglobin phenotypes in susceptibility to hsv-1 or/and hsv-2 lesion relapses.different haptoglobin (hp) phenotypes play a role in several pathologic processes including infectious diseases. in order to evaluate the role of iron storage and metabolism in susceptibility to herpetic manifestations, we studied the frequency of the hp phenotypes and iron metabolism in patients affected by h. simplex virus 1 or 2 (hsv-1 or hsv-2), compared with controls. hp phenotype and iron metabolism were determined in 100 patients with recurrent hsv-1 or hsv-2 manifestations during the rel ...201020084673
role of membranotropic sequences from herpes simplex virus type i glycoproteins b and h in the fusion process.the entry of enveloped viruses involves attachment followed by close apposition of the viral and plasma membranes. then, either on the cell surface or in an endocytotic vesicle, the two membranes fuse by an energetically unfavourable process requiring the destabilisation of membrane microenvironment in order to release the viral nucleocapsid into the cytoplasm. the core fusion machinery, conserved throughout the herpesvirus family, involves glycoprotein b (gb) and the non-covalently associated c ...201020085747
intensive pharmacological immunosuppression allows for repetitive liver gene transfer with recombinant adenovirus in nonhuman primates.repeated administration of gene therapies is hampered by host immunity toward vectors and transgenes. attempts to circumvent antivector immunity include pharmacological immunosuppression or alternating different vectors and vector serotypes with the same transgene. our studies show that b-cell depletion with anti-cd20 monoclonal antibody and concomitant t-cell inhibition with clinically available drugs permits repeated liver gene transfer to a limited number of nonhuman primates with recombinant ...201020087317
glycoprotein d actively induces rapid internalization of two nectin-1 isoforms during herpes simplex virus entry.entry of herpes simplex virus (hsv) occurs either by fusion at the plasma membrane or by endocytosis and fusion with an endosome. binding of glycoprotein d (gd) to a receptor such as nectin-1 is essential in both cases. we show that virion gd triggered the rapid down-regulation of nectin-1 with kinetics similar to those of virus entry. in contrast, nectin-1 was not constitutively recycled from the surface of uninfected cells. both the nectin-1alpha and beta isoforms were internalized in response ...201020089288
stress-induced glucocorticoids at the earliest stages of herpes simplex virus-1 infection suppress subsequent antiviral immunity, implicating impaired dendritic cell function.the systemic elevation of psychological stress-induced glucocorticoids strongly suppresses cd8(+) t cell immune responses resulting in diminished antiviral immunity. however, the specific cellular targets of stress/glucocorticoids, the timing of exposure, the chronology of immunological events, and the underlying mechanisms of this impairment are incompletely understood. in this study, we address each of these questions in the context of a murine cutaneous hsv infection. we show that exposure to ...201020089700
nasolacrimal duct closure modulates ocular mucosal and systemic cd4(+) t-cell responses induced following topical ocular or intranasal immunization.both topical ocular and topical intranasal immunizations have been reported to stimulate the ocular mucosal immune system (omis) and the systemic immune system. nasolacrimal ducts (nlds) are the connecting bridges between the omis and nasal cavity-associated lymphoid tissue (nalt). these ducts drain topical ocularly administrated solutions into the inferior meatus of the nose to reach the nalt. inversely, nlds also drain intranasally administrated solutions to the mucosal surface of the eye and ...201020089796
phloroglucinol glycosides from the fresh fruits of eucalyptus maideni.five new phloroglucinol glycosides, eucalmainosides a-e (1-5), were isolated from the fresh fruits of eucalyptus maideni, along with 15 flavonoids (6-20), seven (+)-oleuropeic acid derivatives (15, 16, and 22-26), three hydrolyzable tannins (32-34), and six simple phenolic compounds (21, 27-31). their structures were determined on the basis of spectroscopic analyses, including hsqc, hmbc, and acidic hydrolysis. the in vitro anti-herpes simplex virus 1 (hsv-1) assay indicated that the flavonols, ...201020092288
involvement of stat4 in igg subtype switching and ocular hsv-1 replication in mice.to assess the relative impact of elevated t-helper 2 (t(h)2)- and reduced t-helper 1 (t(h)1)-dependent immune responses on ocular herpes simplex virus type 1 (hsv-1) infection.201020104254
type-specific herpes simplex virus-1 and herpes simplex virus-2 seroprevalence in romania: comparison of prevalence and risk factors in women and men.to determine herpes simplex virus (hsv)-2 and hsv-1 seroprevalence in women and men in romania.201020106695
etiology and clinico-epidemiological profile of acute viral encephalitis in children of western uttar pradesh, india.to study the etiology of viral encephalitis (ve) in the children of western uttar pradesh, india and to assess the clinico-epidemiological profile of these children in relation to ve.201020106698
depletion of corest does not improve the replication of icp0 null mutant herpes simplex virus type 1.it has been proposed that the cellular corepressor protein corest is involved in repressing herpes simplex virus type 1 (hsv-1) infection in the absence of the viral regulatory protein icp0. this proposal predicts that depletion of corest should improve the plaque-forming efficiency and replication of icp0 null mutant virus. to test this hypothesis, human heparg cells that were highly depleted of corest were isolated using rna interference technology. depletion of corest had no effect on the rep ...201020106915
analysis of a charge cluster mutation of herpes simplex virus type 1 ul34 and its extragenic suppressor suggests a novel interaction between pul34 and pul31 that is necessary for membrane curvature around capsids.interaction between pul34 and pul31 is essential for targeting both proteins to the inner nuclear membrane (inm). sequences mediating the targeting interaction have been mapped by others with both proteins. we have previously reported identification of charge cluster mutants of herpes simplex virus type 1 ul34 that localize properly to the inner nuclear membrane, indicating interaction with ul31, but fail to complement a ul34 deletion. we have characterized one mutation (cl04) that alters a char ...201020106917
comparison of the biological and biochemical activities of several members of the alphaherpesvirus icp0 family of proteins.immediate-early protein icp0 of herpes simplex virus type 1 (hsv-1) is an e3 ubiquitin ligase of the ring finger class that is required for efficient lytic infection and reactivation from latency. other alphaherpesviruses also express icp0-related ring finger proteins, but these have limited homology outside the core ring domain. existing evidence indicates that icp0 family members have similar properties, but there has been no systematic comparison of the biochemical activities and biological f ...201020106921
inhibition of herpes simplex virus type 1 replication by adeno-associated virus rep proteins depends on their combined dna-binding and atpase/helicase activities.adeno-associated virus (aav) has previously been shown to inhibit the replication of its helper virus herpes simplex virus type 1 (hsv-1), and the inhibitory activity has been attributed to the expression of the aav rep proteins. in the present study, we assessed the rep activities required for inhibition of hsv-1 replication using a panel of wild-type and mutant rep proteins lacking defined domains and activities. we found that the inhibition of hsv-1 replication required rep dna-binding and at ...201020106923
the disinfection efficacy of menicare soft multipurpose solution against acanthamoeba and viruses using stand-alone biocidal and regimen testing.to assess the disinfection efficacy of menicare soft contact lens multipurpose solution against acanthamoeba and viruses in suspension and when inoculated on to contact lenses and subjected to rub-and-rinse or no-rub-and-rinse care regimes.201020107417
development of chimeric gene regulators for cancer-specific gene therapy with both transcriptional and translational targeting.cancer gene therapy has been of great challenge in achieving maximal high levels of specificity and more rational efficiency in target cancer cell. we herein developed a novel approach for cancer-specific gene therapy using both transcriptional and translational targeting regulation. we integrated the tumor-specific gene promoter of htert, the 5'utr of bfgf-2, the enhancer of woodchuck hepatitis virus post-transcriptional regulatory element (wre), and/or the 3'utr of the human egfr into two majo ...201020108058
labeling and localization of the herpes simplex virus capsid protein ul25 and its interaction with the two triplexes closest to the penton.the herpes simplex virus type 1 ul25 protein is one of seven viral proteins that are required for dna cleavage and packaging. together with ul17, ul25 forms part of an elongated molecule referred to as the c-capsid-specific component (ccsc). five copies of the ccsc are located at each of the capsid vertices on dna-containing capsids. to study the conformation of ul25 as it is folded on the capsid surface, we identified the sequence recognized by a ul25-specific monoclonal antibody and localized ...201020109467
condyloma and other infections including human immunodeficiency virus.sexually transmitted diseases (stds) are a common public health problem and as such may be more common in a surgical practice than is believed. the recognition that a virus can be responsible for a cancer has profound significant public health implications. this article reviews the presentation and management of the more common perianal stds including human immunodeficiency virus, as well as the pathogenesis and management of anal intraepithelial neoplasia.201020109635
[chronic ulceration of the dorsal hand]. 201020110074
anti-hsv-1 activity and mechanism of action of some new synthesized substituted pyrimidine, thiopyrimidine and thiazolopyrimidine derivatives.a series of heterocyclic derivatives 2-16 conjugated with tetrahydronaphthalene moiety were synthesized as antiviral agents by using 1-(5,6,7,8-tetrahydronaphthalen-2-yl)ethanone as starting material. the antiviral screening showed that many of these obtained compounds have good antiviral activities comparable to acyclovir as reference control. two compounds 13 and 15 gave over 90% inhibition and considered to be highly promising and on confirming their activity and comparing them to antiviral a ...201020110135
herpes simplex virus type 1 and bell's palsy-a current assessment of the controversy.bell's palsy causes about two thirds of cases of acute peripheral facial weakness. although the majority of cases completely recover spontaneously, about 30% of cases do not and are at risk from persisting severe facial paralysis and pain. it has been suggested that herpes simplex virus type 1 (hsv-1) may be the etiological agent that causes bell's palsy. although corticosteroid therapy is now universally recognized as improving the outcome of bell's palsy, the question as to whether or not a co ...201020113184
regulation of herpes simplex virus type 1 thymidine kinase gene expression by thyroid hormone receptor in cultured neuronal cells.herpes simplex virus type 1 (hsv-1) undergoes acute infection in epithelial cells followed by establishment of latency in the neurons of trigeminal ganglia. the latent virus maintains a dormant state and can recurs spontaneously, suggesting transcriptional silencing and reactivation occur in neurons. computer data mining identified a nuclear hormone response element (nre), the binding site for the thyroid hormone receptor (tr) or other nuclear hormone receptor, in the promoter of hsv-1 thymidine ...201020113192
construction and properties of a herpes simplex virus 2 dl5-29 vaccine candidate strain encoding an hsv-1 virion host shutoff protein.the replication-defective herpes simplex virus 2 (hsv-2) dl5-29 mutant virus strain with deletions in the u(l)5 and u(l)29 genes has been shown to protect mice and guinea pigs against challenge with wild-type (wt) hsv-2 and to protect against ocular disease caused by hsv-1 infection. the dl5-29 strain is currently being prepared for clinical trials as a herpes vaccine candidate. as a possible approach to improve the efficacy of dl5-29 as a genital herpes vaccine, we replaced the u(l)41 gene enco ...201020117270
synthesis and antiviral activity of phthiobuzone analogues.a series of phthiobuzone analogs, prepared from potassium phthalimide or phthalandione, have been evaluated for their antiviral activities. among the candidates, compounds 5j and 5k, which contain the substituted 4-halogenated phenyl ring at n-4',4'' position, show more potent antiviral activity than phthiobuzone against herpes simplex virus 1 (ic(50)=8.56 and 2.85 microg/ml, respectively) and herpes simplex virus 2 (ic(50)=1.75 and 4.11 microg/ml, respectively). compounds 9c and 9d with a propy ...201020118580
viral seeding of a percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy tract from oral herpes. 201019716435
viral-encoded enzymes that target host chromatin functions.ever since their existence, there has been an everlasting arms race between viruses and their host cells. host cells have developed numerous strategies to silence viral gene expression whereas viruses always find their ways to overcome these obstacles. recent studies show that viruses have also evolved to take full advantage of existing cellular chromatin components to activate or repress its own genes when needed. while in most cases viruses encode certain proteins to recruit or inhibit cellula ...201019716451
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