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molecular characterization of human-pathogenic microsporidia and cyclospora cayetanensis isolated from various water sources in spain: a year-long longitudinal study.recent studies suggest the involvement of water in the epidemiology of cyclospora cayetanensis and some microsporidia. a total of 223 samples from four drinking water treatment plants (dwtps), seven wastewater treatment plants (wwtps), and six locations of influence (li) on four river basins from madrid, spain, were analyzed from spring 2008 to winter 2009. microsporidia were detected in 49% of samples (109/223), cyclospora spp. were detected in 9% (20/223), and both parasites were found in 5.4% ...201323124243
insertion mutations in helicobacter pylori flha reveal strain differences in rpon-dependent gene expression.flagellar biogenesis in the gastric pathogen helicobacter pylori involves a transcriptional hierarchy that utilizes all three sigma factors found in this bacterium (rpod, rpon and flia). transcription of the rpon-dependent genes requires the sensor kinase flgs and response regulator flgr. it is thought that flgs senses some cellular cue to regulate transcription of the rpon-dependent flagellar genes, but this signal has yet to be identified. previous studies showed that transcription of the rpon ...201323154969
the intestinal microbiota dysbiosis and clostridium difficile infection: is there a relationship with inflammatory bowel disease?gut microbiota is a compilation of microorganisms dwelling in the entire mammalian gastrointestinal tract. they display a symbiotic relationship with the host contributing to its intestinal health and disease. even a slight fluctuation in this equipoise may be deleterious to the host, leading to many pathological conditions like clostridium difficile infection or inflammatory bowel disease (ibd). in this review, we focus on the role of microbial dysbiosis in initiation of c. difficile infection ...201323320050
solution structure of escherichia coli feoa and its potential role in bacterial ferrous iron transport.iron is an indispensable nutrient for most organisms. ferric iron (fe(3+)) predominates under aerobic conditions, while during oxygen limitation ferrous (fe(2+)) iron is usually present. the feo system is a bacterial ferrous iron transport system first discovered in escherichia coli k-12. it consists of three genes, feoa, feob, and feoc (yhgg). feob is thought to be the main transmembrane transporter while feoc is considered to be a transcriptional regulator. using multidimensional nuclear magne ...201323104801
identification of burkholderia cenocepacia strain h111 virulence factors using nonmammalian infection hosts.burkholderia cenocepacia h111, a strain isolated from a cystic fibrosis patient, has been shown to effectively kill the nematode caenorhabditis elegans. we used the c. elegans model of infection to screen a mini-tn5 mutant library of b. cenocepacia h111 for attenuated virulence. of the approximately 5,500 b. cenocepacia h111 random mini-tn5 insertion mutants that were screened, 22 showed attenuated virulence in c. elegans. except for the quorum-sensing regulator cepr, none of the mutated genes c ...201323090963
colonization of campylobacter spp. in broiler chickens and laying hens reared in tropical climates with low-biosecurity housing.the onset and prevalence of campylobacter colonization in broilers and layers at commercial farms with low biosecurity in tropical climates were tested. despite the presence of positive animals at the same farms, the broiler flocks tested negative until, on average, 21 days. prelaying flocks showed a higher prevalence than laying flocks.201323087035
characterization of the polymyxin b resistome of pseudomonas aeruginosa.multidrug resistance in pseudomonas aeruginosa is increasingly becoming a threat for human health. indeed, some strains are resistant to almost all currently available antibiotics, leaving very limited choices for antimicrobial therapy. in many such cases, polymyxins are the only available option, although as their utilization increases so does the isolation of resistant strains. in this study, we screened a comprehensive pa14 mutant library to identify genes involved in changes of susceptibilit ...201323070157
novel aminoglycoside 2''-phosphotransferase identified in a gram-negative pathogen.aminoglycoside 2″-phosphotransferases are the major aminoglycoside-modifying enzymes in clinical isolates of enterococci and staphylococci. we describe a novel aminoglycoside 2″-phosphotransferase from the gram-negative pathogen campylobacter jejuni, which shares 78% amino acid sequence identity with the aph(2″)-ia domain of the bifunctional aminoglycoside-modifying enzyme aminoglycoside (6') acetyltransferase-ie/aminoglycoside 2″-phosphotransferase-ia or aac(6')-ie/aph(2″)-ia from gram-positive ...201323129050
impact of crispr immunity on the emergence and virulence of bacterial pathogens.crispr-cas systems protect prokaryotes from viruses and plasmids and function primarily as an adaptive immune system in these organisms. recent discoveries, however, revealed unexpected roles for crispr loci as barriers to horizontal gene transfer and as modulators of gene expression. we review how both of these functions of crispr-cas systems can affect the emergence and virulence of human bacterial pathogens.201324581697
impact of crispr immunity on the emergence and virulence of bacterial pathogens.crispr-cas systems protect prokaryotes from viruses and plasmids and function primarily as an adaptive immune system in these organisms. recent discoveries, however, revealed unexpected roles for crispr loci as barriers to horizontal gene transfer and as modulators of gene expression. we review how both of these functions of crispr-cas systems can affect the emergence and virulence of human bacterial pathogens.201324581697
protein selection and export via outer membrane vesicles.outer membrane vesicles (omvs) are constitutively produced by all gram-negative bacteria. omvs form when buds from the outer membrane (om) of cells encapsulate periplasmic material and pinch off from the om to form spheroid particles approximately 10 to 300nm in diameter. omvs accomplish a diversity of functional roles yet the omv's utility is ultimately determined by its unique composition. inclusion into omvs may impart a variety of benefits to the protein cargo, including: protection from pro ...201324370777
protein selection and export via outer membrane vesicles.outer membrane vesicles (omvs) are constitutively produced by all gram-negative bacteria. omvs form when buds from the outer membrane (om) of cells encapsulate periplasmic material and pinch off from the om to form spheroid particles approximately 10 to 300nm in diameter. omvs accomplish a diversity of functional roles yet the omv's utility is ultimately determined by its unique composition. inclusion into omvs may impart a variety of benefits to the protein cargo, including: protection from pro ...201324370777
feon-feoff: the helicobacter pylori fur regulator commutates iron-responsive transcription by discriminative readout of opposed dna grooves.most transcriptional regulators bind nucleotide motifs in the major groove, although some are able to recognize molecular determinants conferred by the minor groove of dna. here we report a transcriptional commutator switch that exploits the alternative readout of grooves to mediate opposite output regulation for the same input signal. this mechanism accounts for the ability of the helicobacter pylori fur regulator to repress the expression of both iron-inducible and iron-repressible genes. when ...201324322295
feon-feoff: the helicobacter pylori fur regulator commutates iron-responsive transcription by discriminative readout of opposed dna grooves.most transcriptional regulators bind nucleotide motifs in the major groove, although some are able to recognize molecular determinants conferred by the minor groove of dna. here we report a transcriptional commutator switch that exploits the alternative readout of grooves to mediate opposite output regulation for the same input signal. this mechanism accounts for the ability of the helicobacter pylori fur regulator to repress the expression of both iron-inducible and iron-repressible genes. when ...201324322295
communication between bacteria and their hosts.it is clear that a dialogue is occurring between microbes and their hosts and that chemical signals are the language of this interkingdom communication. microbial endocrinology shows that, through their long coexistence with animals and plants, microorganisms have evolved sensors for detecting eukaryotic hormones, which the microbe uses to determine that they are within proximity of a suitable host and to optimally time the expression of genes needed for host colonisation. it has also been shown ...201324381789
the microbiome and cancer.microbiota and host form a complex 'super-organism' in which symbiotic relationships confer benefits to the host in many key aspects of life. however, defects in the regulatory circuits of the host that control bacterial sensing and homeostasis, or alterations of the microbiome, through environmental changes (infection, diet or lifestyle), may disturb this symbiotic relationship and promote disease. increasing evidence indicates a key role for the bacterial microbiota in carcinogenesis. in this ...201324132111
role and regulation of heme iron acquisition in gram-negative pathogens.bacteria that reside in animal tissues and/or cells must acquire iron from their host. however, almost all of the host iron is sequestered in iron-containing compounds and proteins, the majority of which is found within heme molecules. thus, likely iron sources for bacterial pathogens (and non-pathogenic symbionts) are free heme and heme-containing proteins. furthermore, the cellular location of the bacterial within the host (intra or extracellular) influences the amount and nature of the iron c ...201324116354
luxs in bacteria isolated from 25- to 40-million-year-old amber.interspecies bacterial communication is mediated by autoinducer-2, whose synthesis depends on luxs. due to the apparent universality of luxs (present in more than 40 bacterial species), it may have an ancient origin; however, no direct evidence is currently available. we amplified luxs in bacteria isolated from 25- to 40-million-year-old amber. the phylogenies and molecular clocks of luxs and the 16s rrna gene from ancient and extant bacteria were determined as well. luminescence assays using vi ...201324102660
luxs in bacteria isolated from 25- to 40-million-year-old amber.interspecies bacterial communication is mediated by autoinducer-2, whose synthesis depends on luxs. due to the apparent universality of luxs (present in more than 40 bacterial species), it may have an ancient origin; however, no direct evidence is currently available. we amplified luxs in bacteria isolated from 25- to 40-million-year-old amber. the phylogenies and molecular clocks of luxs and the 16s rrna gene from ancient and extant bacteria were determined as well. luminescence assays using vi ...201324102660
adaptive strategies and pathogenesis of clostridium difficile from in vivo transcriptomics.clostridium difficile is currently the major cause of nosocomial intestinal diseases associated with antibiotic therapy in adults. in order to improve our knowledge of c. difficile-host interactions, we analyzed the genome-wide temporal expression of c. difficile 630 genes during the first 38 h of mouse colonization to identify genes whose expression is modulated in vivo, suggesting that they may play a role in facilitating the colonization process. in the ceca of the c. difficile-monoassociated ...201323897605
multilocus sequence typing of borrelia burgdorferi suggests existence of lineages with differential pathogenic properties in humans.the clinical manifestations of lyme disease, caused by borrelia burgdorferi, vary considerably in different patients, possibly due to infection by strains with varying pathogenicity. both rrna intergenic spacer and ospc typing methods have proven to be useful tools for categorizing b. burgdorferi strains that vary in their tendency to disseminate in humans. neither method, however, is suitable for inferring intraspecific relationships among strains that are important for understanding the evolut ...201324069170
topoisomerase iv is required for partitioning of circular chromosomes but not linear chromosomes in streptomyces.filamentous bacteria of the genus streptomyces possess linear chromosomes and linear plasmids. theoretically, linear replicons may not need a decatenase for post-replicational separation of daughter molecules. yet, streptomyces contain parc and pare that encode the subunits for the decatenase topoisomerase iv. the linear replicons of streptomyces adopt a circular configuration in vivo through telomere-telomere interaction, which would require decatenation, if the circular configuration persists ...201323999094
borrelia burgdorferi oxidative stress regulator bosr directly represses lipoproteins primarily expressed in the tick during mammalian infection.differential gene expression is a key strategy adopted by the lyme disease spirochaete, borrelia burgdorferi, for adaptation and survival in the mammalian host and the tick vector. many b. burgdorferi surface lipoproteins fall into two distinct groups according to their expression patterns: one group primarily expressed in the tick and the other group primarily expressed in the mammal. here, we show that the fur homologue in this bacterium, also known as borrelia oxidative stress regulator (bosr ...201323869590
cell extract-containing medium for culture of intracellular fastidious bacteria.the culture of fastidious microorganisms is a critical step in infectious disease studies. as a proof-of-concept experiment, we evaluated an empirical medium containing eukaryotic cell extracts for its ability to support the growth of coxiella burnetii. here, we demonstrate the exponential growth of several bacterial strains, including the c. burnetii nine mile phase i and phase ii strains, and c. burnetii isolates from humans and animals. low-oxygen-tension conditions and the presence of small ...201323740722
identification of the likely translational start of mycobacterium tuberculosis gyrb.bacterial dna gyrase is a validated target for antibacterial chemotherapy. it consists of two subunits, gyra and gyrb, which form an a₂b₂ complex in the active enzyme. sequence alignment of mycobacterium tuberculosis gyrb with other bacterial gyrbs predicts the presence of 40 potential additional amino acids at the gyrb n-terminus. there are discrepancies between the m. tuberculosis gyrb sequences retrieved from different databases, including sequences annotated with or without the additional 40 ...201323856181
iron in infection and immunity.iron is an essential nutrient for both humans and pathogenic microbes. because of its ability to exist in one of two oxidation states, iron is an ideal redox catalyst for diverse cellular processes including respiration and dna replication. however, the redox potential of iron also contributes to its toxicity; thus, iron concentration and distribution must be carefully controlled. given the absolute requirement for iron by virtually all human pathogens, an important facet of the innate immune sy ...201323684303
life without trnaarg-adenosine deaminase tada: evolutionary consequences of decoding the four cgn codons as arginine in mycoplasmas and other mollicutes.in most bacteria, two trnas decode the four arginine cgn codons. one trna harboring a wobble inosine (trna(arg)icg) reads the cgu, cgc and cga codons, whereas a second trna harboring a wobble cytidine (trna(arg)ccg) reads the remaining cgg codon. the reduced genomes of mycoplasmas and other mollicutes lack the gene encoding trna(arg)ccg. this raises the question of how these organisms decode cgg codons. examination of 36 mollicute genomes for genes encoding trna(arg) and the tada enzyme, respons ...201323658230
viral latency locus augments b-cell response in vivo to induce chronic marginal zone enlargement, plasma cell hyperplasia, and lymphoma.kaposi sarcoma (ks) is associated with ks-associated herpesvirus (kshv). this virus also causes b-cell lymphoma and b-cell hyperplasia. there exists no in vivo model for kshv-associated b-cell malignancies or premalignant persistence in b cells. we generated a transgenic mouse that expresses multiple viral latent genes, including lana, vflip, vcyc, all viral micro rnas, and kaposin under the transcriptional control of their natural regulatory region. this promoter is b-cell specific, though it i ...201323365457
the htra protease of borrelia burgdorferi degrades outer membrane protein bmpd and chemotaxis phosphatase chex.borrelia burgdorferi, the spirochaetal agent of lyme disease, codes for a single htra protein, htrabb (bb0104) that is homologous to degp of escherichia coli (41% amino acid identity). htrabb shows physical and biochemical similarities to degp in that it has the trimer as its fundamental unit and can degrade casein via its catalytic serine. recombinant htrabb exhibits proteolytic activity in vitro, while a mutant (htrabbs198a) does not. however, htrabb and degp have some important differences as ...201323565798
helicobacter pylori infection, chronic inflammation, and genomic transformations in gastric malt lymphoma.nowadays, it is believed that the main role in the development of gastric mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (malt) lymphoma plays helicobacter pylori infection. this world-wide distributed bacteria is in charge of most cases of not only upper gastrointestinal tract disorders but also some of extragastric problems. constant stimulation of the immune system causes a b-lymphocytes proliferation, which is considered to be responsible for the neoplastic transformation. on the other hand, there are 10 ...201323606792
anti-gm2 ganglioside antibodies are a biomarker for acute canine polyradiculoneuritis.acute canine polyradiculoneuritis (acp) is considered to be the canine equivalent of the human peripheral nerve disorder guillain-barré syndrome (gbs); an aetiological relationship, however, remains to be demonstrated. in gbs, anti-glycolipid antibodies (abs) are considered as important disease mediators. to address the possibility of common ab biomarkers, the sera of 25 acp dogs, 19 non-neurological, and 15 epileptic control dogs were screened for igg abs to 10 glycolipids and their 1 : 1 heter ...201323521648
antimicrobial efflux pumps and mycobacterium tuberculosis drug tolerance: evolutionary considerations.the need for lengthy treatment to cure tuberculosis stems from phenotypic drug resistance, also known as drug tolerance, which has been previously attributed to slowed bacterial growth in vivo. we discuss recent findings that challenge this model and instead implicate macrophage-induced mycobacterial efflux pumps in antimicrobial tolerance. although mycobacterial efflux pumps may have originally served to protect against environmental toxins, in the pathogenic mycobacteria, they appear to have b ...201323242857
evaluation of the immunogenicity of campylobacter jejuni cjaa protein delivered by salmonella enterica sv. typhimurium strain with regulated delayed attenuation in chickens.campylobacter spp. are regarded as the most common bacterial cause of gastroenteritis worldwide, and consumption of chicken meat contaminated by campylobacter is considered to be one of the most frequent sources of human infection in developed countries. here we evaluated the immunogenicity and protective efficacy of salmonella typhimurium χ9718 producing the campylobacter jejuni cjaa protein as a chicken anti-campylobacter vaccine. in this study chickens were orally immunized with a new generat ...201323913025
evaluation of the immunogenicity of campylobacter jejuni cjaa protein delivered by salmonella enterica sv. typhimurium strain with regulated delayed attenuation in chickens.campylobacter spp. are regarded as the most common bacterial cause of gastroenteritis worldwide, and consumption of chicken meat contaminated by campylobacter is considered to be one of the most frequent sources of human infection in developed countries. here we evaluated the immunogenicity and protective efficacy of salmonella typhimurium χ9718 producing the campylobacter jejuni cjaa protein as a chicken anti-campylobacter vaccine. in this study chickens were orally immunized with a new generat ...201323913025
heat stress adaptation induces cross-protection against lethal acid stress conditions in arcobacter butzleri but not in campylobacter jejuni.the ability of many bacteria to adapt to stressful conditions may later protect them against the same type of stress (specific adaptive response) or different types of stresses (multiple adaptive response, also termed cross-protection). arcobacter butzleri and campylobacter jejuni are close phylogenetic relatives that occur in many foods of animal origin and have been linked with human illness (mainly diarrhoea). in the present study, sublethal stress adaptation temperatures (48 °c and 10 °c) an ...201323541213
occurrence and characteristics of fastidious campylobacteraceae species in porcine samples.this study investigated the prevalence and characteristics of campylobacteraceae including a range of fastidious species in porcine samples. over a thirteen month period caecal contents (n=402) and pork carcass swabs (n=401) were collected from three pork abattoirs and pork products (n=399) were purchased at point of sale in the republic of ireland. campylobacteraceae isolates were recovered by enrichment, membrane filtration and incubation in antibiotic free media under a modified atmosphere (3 ...201323474652
presence of campylobacter and arcobacter species in in-line milk filters of farms authorized to produce and sell raw milk and of a water buffalo dairy farm in italy.the objectives of this study were to investigate the presence of campylobacter spp. and arcobacter spp. in dairy herds authorized for the production and sale of raw milk and in a water buffalo dairy farm, and to test the antimicrobial susceptibility of the isolates. a total of 196 in-line milk filters were collected from 14 dairy farms (13 bovine and 1 water buffalo) for detection of campylobacter spp. and arcobacter spp. by microbiological culture. for each farm investigated, 1 isolate for each ...201323453517
assessment of the prevalence and diversity of emergent campylobacteria in human stool samples using a combination of traditional and molecular methods.this study aims to assess the diversity of campylobacteria (campylobacter and arcobacter) in human fecal samples from patients with diarrhea (n = 140) and asymptomatic controls (n = 116) in chile, using a combination of traditional culture and molecular methods. the culture methods detected campylobacteria in 10.7% of the patients with diarrhea and in 1.7% of the controls. in contrast, the molecular methods detected campylobacteria more often than the traditional culture, with a prevalence of 25 ...201323375869
[enteropathogens responsible for gastrointestinal disorders in hiv patients].gastrointestinal disorders or gid are debilitating conditions common in individuals infected by the human immunodeficiency virus (hiv), capable of leading to death. numerous etiological agents and pathophysiological mechanisms have been involved in this status. although the use of highly active antiretroviral therapy (haart) in many countries has greatly reduced the prevalence of gastrointestinal infections, enteric pathogens such as bacteria, parasites, fungi and viruses may still act as opport ...201323781716
potential applications for annona squamosa leaf extract in the treatment and prevention of foodborne bacterial disease.foodborne disease is a major public health problem. the present study examined annona squamosa leaves, which are traditionally used to treat diarrhea and other infections, for their potential to be used in modern food safety or medicine. active constituents were partially purified by ethanol extraction and column chromatography. mics of the extract were 62.5 to 125 microg/ml against bacillus cereus, listeria monocytogenes and staphylococcus aureus, and 250 microg/ml against campylobacter jejuni. ...201323678817
rapid detection and respirometric profiling of aerobic bacteria on panels of selective media.to evaluate high-throughput optical oxygen microrespirometry for selective detection and predictive identification of aerobic bacteria.201323107004
targeting motility properties of bacteria in the development of probiotic cultures against campylobacter jejuni in broiler chickens.campylobacter is the leading cause of gastroenteritis worldwide. campylobacter is commonly present in the intestinal tract of poultry, and one strategy to reduce enteric colonization is the use of probiotic cultures. this strategy has successfully reduced enteric colonization of salmonella, but has had limited success against campylobacter. in an effort to improve the efficacy of probiotic cultures, we developed a novel in vitro screening technique for selecting bacterial isolates with enhanced ...201323531121
[traveller's diarrhea: epidemiology, clinical practice guideline for the prevention and treatment].bacterial causes are predominant: enterotoxigenic (etec) ou enteroadherent escherichia coli, salmonella sp., shigella sp., campylobacter jejuni, acrobacter sp., enterotoxigenic bacteroïdes fragilis. prevention relies on the hand and food hygiene standards (heat-cooked meals). watery diarrhea (toxigenic enterocolitis) is the most frequent clinical presentation associated with a risk of dehydration; the body temperature is normal except in cases of severe dehydration. less frequent are invasive en ...201323246203
occurrence of pathogens in wild rodents caught on swedish pig and chicken farms.a total of 207 wild rodents were caught on nine pig farms, five chicken farms and five non-farm locations in sweden and surveyed for a selection of bacteria, parasites and viruses. lawsonia intracellularia and pathogenic yersinia enterocolitica were only detected in rodents on pig farms (9% and 8% prevalence, respectively) which indicate that these agents are more likely to be transmitted to rodents from pigs or the environment on infected farms. brachyspira hyodysenteriae (1%), brachyspira inte ...201323174339
impact of 6 different intestinal bacteria on broiler breeder sperm motility in vitro.male fertility is often evaluated by measuring sperm parameters, including concentration, viability, and motility. this is important because after copulation occurs, sperm must overcome many barriers in the female reproductive tract to fertilize the ovum. in mammalian species, sperm have been shown to have reduced motility when bacteria are present. in male broiler breeders, bacteria have been associated with spermatozoa, but their effect on motility has not been investigated. the sperm quality ...201323873566
cell-free preparations of lactobacillus acidophilus strain la-5 and bifidobacterium longum strain ncc2705 affect virulence gene expression in campylobacter jejuni.campylobacter spp. are among the most commonly reported bacterial causes of acute diarrheal disease in humans worldwide. potential virulence factors include motility, chemotaxis, colonization ability, adhesion to intestinal cells, invasion and epithelial translocation, intracellular survival, and formation of toxins. probiotic lactobacillus and bifidobacterium strains are known to have an inhibitory effect against the growth of various foodborne pathogens. the objective of this study was to inve ...201324112574
application of protective cultures against listeria monocytogenes and campylobacter jejuni in chicken products packaged under modified atmosphere.to control the growth, or reduce the numbers, of food pathogens such as listeria monocytogenes and campylobacter jejuni in chicken products packaged under modified atmosphere (map), the effectiveness of protective cultures was evaluated in this study. leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides pck18 reduced the counts of l. monocytogenes by 1.22 log cfu/g in chicken burgers under map after 24 d. furthermore, a reduction of 1.16 log cfu/g in c. jejuni together with a delay in the growth of lactic acid bacte ...201323472035
evaluation of the culture method nihsj-02 alternative to iso 10272-1:2006 for the detection of campylobacter jejuni and campylobacter coli in chicken: collaborative study.for the surveillance of the prevalence of campylobacter jejuni and campylobacter coli in raw chicken products in japan, a qualitative method, national institute of health sciences japan (nihsj)-02, was developed as an alternative to international organization for standardization (iso) 10272-1:2006. in the nihsj-02 culture method, the enrichment step is carried out in a reduced volume of preston broth at 42 +/- 1 degrees c to reduce cost and space, and to prevent the overgrowth of background bact ...201324282937
multilocus sequence typing of campylobacter jejuni and campylobacter coli strains isolated from environmental waters in the mediterranean area.campylobacter jejuni and campylobacter coli are important animal-related waterborne pathogens that are distributed worldwide. to further understand campylobacter populations in water from the mediterranean area, the genetic diversity of environmental strains was analyzed using multilocus sequence typing (mlst). mlst was also used to determine the potential geographical differences between these bacterial strains and other campylobacters isolated worldwide. the typing study was conducted using 58 ...201324216328
sensitive and rapid detection of campylobacter jejuni and campylobacter coli using loop-mediated isothermal amplification.loop-mediated isothermal amplification (lamp) is an established nucleic acid amplification method offering rapid, accurate, and cost-effective diagnosis of infectious diseases. from the beginning of dna extraction to final detection of campylobacter jejuni and campylobacter coli, the assay requires less than 50 and 90 min from a colony on selective media, and human feces, respectively. for chicken meat samples, the assay requires approximately 24-48 h from the beginning of the enrichment culture ...201323104296
comparison of adhesion, invasion, motility, and toxin production of campylobacter strains and their resistant mutants.the objectives of this study were to compare the in vitro adhesion and invasion of human epithelial cells, motility, and toxin production characteristics of campylobacter-susceptible strains and their fluoroquinolone- or macrolide-resistant mutants. susceptible strains and resistant mutants demonstrated similar adhesion capacities to epithelial cells. for campylobacter coli, fluoroquinolone-resistant mutants with thr86ile or asp90asn substitutions showed a higher rate of invasion of caco-2 cells ...201323095083
campylobacter spp. recovered from the upper oconee river watershed, georgia in a 4-year study.waterways should be considered in the migration routes of campylobacter, and the genus has been isolated from several water sources. inferences on migration routes can be made from tracking genetic types in populations found in specific habitats and testing how they are linked to other types. water samples were taken over a 4-year period from waterways in the upper oconee river watershed, georgia, to recover isolates of thermophilic campylobacter. the isolates were typed by multilocus sequence t ...201322945232
occurrence of ε-proteobacterial species in rabbits (oryctolagus cuniculus) reared in intensive and rural farms.in order to investigate the occurrence of campylobacter, helicobacter and arcobacter species in caecal contents of rabbits reared in intensive and rural farms, a total of 87 samples from animals belonging to 29 farms were analysed by both cultural and pcr analyses. pcr analysis directly from faecal samples detected 100% positive samples for campylobacter genus, 3.4% for helicobacter genus and none for arcobacter genus. 83 out of 87 animals (95.4%) and all the 29 farms were positive for campyloba ...201322944072
antimicrobial activity of essential oils and five terpenoid compounds against campylobacter jejuni in pure and mixed culture experiments.the aim of this study was to examine the antimicrobial potential of three essential oils (eos: tea tree oil, lemon myrtle oil and leptospermum oil), five terpenoid compounds (α-bisabolol, α-terpinene, cineole, nerolidol and terpinen-4-ol) and polyphenol against two strains of campylobacter jejuni (acm 3393 and the poultry isolate c338), campylobacter coli and other gram negative and gram positive bacteria. different formulations of neem oil (azadirachta indica) with these compounds were also tes ...201324041998
preventing campylobacter at the source: why is it so difficult?campylobacteriosis in humans, caused by campylobacter jejuni and campylobacter coli, is the most common recognized bacterial zoonosis in the european union and the united states. the acute phase is characterized by gastrointestinal symptoms. the long-term sequelae (guillain-barré syndrome, reactive arthritis, and postinfectious irritable bowel syndrome) contribute considerably to the disease burden. attribution studies identified poultry as the reservoir responsible for up to 80% of the human ca ...201324014733
prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of campylobacter spp. isolated from poultry carcasses in poland.the purpose of the present study was to determine the prevalence of campylobacter in poultry carcasses at slaughter in poland. for the isolated strains, resistance to selected antibiotics and the associated genetic determinants were identified. a total of 498 campylobacter isolates were obtained from 802 poultry samples during the 2-year study period. strains were identified to species with the pcr method; 53.6% of the strains were campylobacter jejuni and 46.4% were campylobacter coli. a high p ...201323905805
review of current methodologies to isolate and identify campylobacter spp. from foods.this article summarizes the most effective protocols to isolate campylobacter spp. (mainly campylobacter jejuni and campylobacter coli) from food, primarily poultry products, and includes a summary of the current methods recommended by the food and drug administration and the u.s. department of agriculture in the usa, and iso in europe. the recommended temperature for incubation of the samples throughout the isolation procedure is 42°c. the enrichment of the samples for 48h, which can be perform ...201323899774
potential of a commercially available water acidification product for reducing campylobacter in broilers prior to slaughter.1. this study investigated the potential of a commercially available acidified water treatment (pwt) for reducing the number of campylobacter in vitro and other bacteria in the gut of live broilers. 2. in vitro tests indicated that pwt was highly effective for reducing campylobacter jejuni and campylobacter coli at the recommended concentration in water, reducing populations by greater than 7 log10 cfu/ml after 24 h exposure. the decrease in the number of salmonella serovar enteritidis and esche ...201323796116
prevalence of campylobacter spp. relative to other enteric pathogens in grow-finish pigs with diarrhea.salmonella spp., lawsonia intracellularis, and brachyspira spp. are pathogens commonly associated with diarrhea in growing and finishing pigs. brachyspira spp. infection has recently reemerged as a significant concern due to an increase in the incidence of swine dysentery; however, the mechanisms underlying this increase in dysentery remain largely unknown. pigs are also well-recognized as potential carriers of campylobacter spp., particularly campylobacter coli, yet enteric disease in swine ass ...201323792232
absence of class 1 and class 2 integrons among campylobacter jejuni and campylobacter coli isolated from poultry in italy. 201323788478
pathogenic microbiological baseline survey of pork carcasses in taiwan.from 2004 to 2010, pork carcass swabs from state-inspected slaughter plants in taiwan were intermittently analyzed to determine the prevalence of selected pathogenic microorganisms associated with foodborne illness. the prevalences of staphylococcus aureus each year from 2006 to 2010 were 6.6, 10.8, 5.1, 6.4, and 7.4%, respectively, while those of listeria monocytogenes were 1.2% in 2004, 1.3% in 2005, and 3.5% in 2008. the prevalences of clostridium perfringens were 0.9% in 2004, 3.2% in 2005, ...201323726203
demographic and clinical characteristics of campylobacter bacteremia in children with and without predisposing factors.campylobacter, a common cause of childhood gastroenteritis, rarely causes bacteremia, which is reported mainly in immune-compromised children. our aim was to compare demographic and clinical characteristics of childhood campylobacter bacteremia (cb) between children with and without risk factors for cb.201323694835
prevalence of campylobacter jejuni and campylobacter coli species in cats and dogs from bydgoszcz (poland) region.the aim of this study was to investigate the role of cats and dogs as a potential reservoir of campylobacter spp. rectal swabs from 83 dogs and 71 cats were examined. samples were obtained from the animals aged between 2 weeks and 24 months living in shelters, private households, farms and from veterinary clinics located in bydgoszcz region during routine check-up. campylobacter spp. were isolated from 4.81% dogs and 9.86% cats, respectively. c. jejuni was predominant in this study. all strains ...201323691584
occurrence of campylobacter and salmonella in ducks and duck eggs in selangor, malaysia.the importance of campylobacter and salmonella as foodborne pathogens is well recognised globally. a recent work in penang found ducks in commercial farms were infected with these organisms. the aim of the study was to detect the presence of campylobacter and salmonella in ducks and salmonella in duck eggs in farms in a small part of selangor. cloacal swabs were obtained from 75 ducks and 30 duck eggs from three farms. the isolation and identification of campylobacter and salmonella were done us ...201323665722
characterization of the campylobacter jejuni cryptic plasmid ptiw94 recovered from wild birds in the southeastern united states.the complete nucleotide sequence was determined for a cryptic plasmid, ptiw94, recovered from several campylobacter jejuni isolates from wild birds in the southeastern united states. ptiw94 is a circular molecule of 3860 nucleotides, with a g+c content (31.0%) similar to that of many campylobacter spp. genomes. a typical origin of replication, with iteron sequences, was identified upstream of dna sequences that demonstrated similarity to replication initiation proteins. a total of five open read ...201323639726
using campylobacter spp. and escherichia coli data and bayesian microbial risk assessment to examine public health risks in agricultural watersheds under tile drainage management.human campylobacteriosis is the leading bacterial gastrointestinal illness in canada; environmental transmission has been implicated in addition to transmission via consumption of contaminated food. information about campylobacter spp. occurrence at the watershed scale will enhance our understanding of the associated public health risks and the efficacy of source water protection strategies. the overriding purpose of this study is to provide a quantitative framework to assess and compare the rel ...201323623467
aerobic growth of campylobacter in media supplemented with c3-monocarboxylates and c4-dicarboxylates.experiments were conducted to examine aerobic growth of campylobacter spp. in basal media supplemented with c4-dicarboxylates (fumarate, succinate, or malate) and c3-monocarboxylates (pyruvate or lactate). basal medium was supplemented with 30 mm fumarate, succinate, or malate and 0 to 100 mm lactate or pyruvate; inoculated with 10(6) cfu/ml of campylobacter coli, campylobacter fetus, or campylobacter jejuni; then incubated aerobically at 37 °c for 72 h. optical density (od) of cultures was meas ...201323575134
improvement of karmali agar by addition of polymyxin b for the detection of campylobacter jejuni and c. coli in whole-chicken carcass rinse.the karmali agar was modified by supplementation with a high concentration of polymyxin b. the goal of the study was to evaluate the effect of a high concentration of polymyxin b on the ability and selectivity of the modified karmali agar to isolate campylobacter jejuni and campylobacter coli from whole chicken carcass rinse. a total of 80 whole chickens were rinsed with 400 ml of buffer peptone water. the rinsed samples were incubated with 2× blood-free modified bolton enrichment broth for 48 h ...201323550907
improved protocol for isolation of campylobacter spp. from retail broiler meat and use of pulsed field gel electrophoresis for the typing of isolates.to improve the detection of campylobacter spp. in retail broiler meat, a reference method (r subsamples) based on the enrichment of 25 g of meat in bolton broth at 42°c under microaerobiosis was compared with an alternative method (a subsamples) consisting in the rinsing of meat samples for 30s in buffered peptone water with antimicrobials with incubation at 42°c under aerobiosis. one piece of meat (breasts, tenderloins and thighs) was rinse in experiment 1 (a1) and two pieces in experiment 2 (a ...201323545445
salmonella, campylobacter, and chlamydophila in bald ibis (geronticus eremita) feces in turkey.the aim of this study was to investigate the presence of campylobacter spp., salmonella spp., and chlamydophila psittaci in fecal samples of bald ibises (geronticus eremita) housed in a conservation facility in turkey. a total of 82 fecal samples were collected from cages and evaluated by bacteriologic methods and a polymerase chain reaction (pcr) technique for campylobacter spp. and salmonella spp. and by pcr for c. psittaci. campylobacter spp. were isolated from 24 of 82 fecal samples (29.2%). ...201323505699
development of a selective enrichment broth supplemented with bacteriological charcoal and a high concentration of polymyxin b for the detection of campylobacter jejuni and campylobacter coli in chicken carcass rinses.a new campylobacter-selective enrichment broth supplemented with bacteriological charcoal and a high concentration of polymyxin b was developed (charcoal-cefoperazone-polymyxin b-deoxycholate broth; ccpd broth). we compared the ability of ccpd broth to detect campylobacter jejuni and campylobacter coli in chicken carcass rinses to that of modified bolton (mbolton) broth. eighty whole chickens were purchased from retailers and rinsed with 400 ml buffered peptone water. the rinsed samples were enr ...201323474610
evaluation of fecal calprotectin in campylobacter concisus and campylobacter jejuni/coli gastroenteritis.calprotectin (cp) is a calcium-binding cytosolic neutrophil protein and the concentration in feces reflects the migration of neutrophils into the gut lumen. testing for fecal cp (f-cp) in patients with negative cultures for enteric pathogens is widely accepted as a useful screening tool for identifying patients who are most likely to benefit from endoscopy for suspected inflammatory bowel disease (ibd) with the assumption that a negative f-cp is compatible with a functional disorder. campylobact ...201323448294
importance of the producer on retail broiler meat product contamination with campylobacter spp.campylobacter spp. are a leading cause of human bacterial gastroenteritis worldwide, with poultry meat being considered the most important source of the infection. to obtain data on broiler meat contamination with campylobacter spp. in lithuania, the occurrence, counts and genotypes of these pathogens on raw broiler meat products from different producers were examined.201323400735
antimicrobial susceptibilities of campylobacter jejuni and campylobacter coli strains isolated from two early stages of poultry production.our aim was to monitor the resistance of campylobacter isolates from two initial stages of broiler production in 5 grandparent breeder broiler farms (gpbfs) and 12 parent breeder broiler farms (pbfs) in which no antimicrobials were used during the study. susceptibility tests were carried out for 805 strains (697 campylobacter jejuni and 108 campylobacter coli) against nalidixic acid, ciprofloxacin, erythromycin, amoxicillin, amoxicillin plus clavulanic acid, tetracycline, gentamicin, and chloram ...201323391315
non-stochastic sampling error in quantal analyses for campylobacter species on poultry products.using primers and fluorescent probes specific for the most common food-borne campylobacter species (campylobacter jejuni and campylobacter coli), we developed a multiplex, most probable number (mpn) assay using quantitative pcr (qpcr) as the determinant for binomial detection: i.e., number of p positive pathogen growth responses out of n = 6 observations each of 4 ml (v) per dilution. working with media washes of thrice frozen-thawed chicken pieces which had been spiked with known levels of c. j ...201323380949
prevalence, quantitative load, and antimicrobial resistance of campylobacter spp. from broiler ceca and broiler skin samples in thailand.this study was conducted to determine the prevalence of campylobacter spp. in broiler flocks by testing cecal contents at slaughter and to detect and quantify campylobacter on broiler carcass skin samples of the corresponding slaughter batches, to determine antimicrobial resistance patterns of the campylobacter isolates, and to genotype selected campylobacter jejuni isolates using multilocus sequence typing analysis. ninety-eight broiler flocks were included in the study. intact ceca were random ...201323300314
resistance to bile salts and sodium deoxycholate in macrolide- and fluoroquinolone-susceptible and resistant campylobacter jejuni and campylobacter coli strains.campylobacter are the most commonly reported bacterial causes of human gastroenteritis, and they are becoming increasingly resistant to antibiotics, including macrolides and fluoroquinolones, those most frequently used for the treatment of campylobacteriosis. active efflux mechanisms are involved in resistance of campylobacter to a broad spectrum of antimicrobials, and are also essential for campylobacter colonization in the animal intestine, through mediation of bile resistance. acquisition of ...201323289436
clinical manifestations of campylobacter concisus infection in children.there is only sparse information about the clinical impact of campylobacter concisus infections in children.201323743545
comparison of polycarbonate and cellulose acetate membrane filters for isolation of campylobacter concisus from stool samples.one thousand seven hundred ninety-one diarrheic stool samples were cultivated for campylobacter spp. we found a high prevalence of campylobacter concisus with use of a polycarbonate filter (n = 114) compared to a cellulose acetate filter (n = 79) (p < .0001). the polycarbonate filter is superior to the commonly used cellulose acetate filter for detection of c. concisus.201323743174
the role of epsilonproteobacteria in children with gastroenteritis.a polymerase chain reaction-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis method was used to examine 50 stool samples from children in belgium with gastroenteritis for an extensive range of epsilonproteobacteria species. during the 3-month study period, campylobacter concisus was the most common species. our observations suggest that c. concisus displays similar microbiologic and clinical features as campylobacter jejuni.201323624432
a culture-independent sequence-based metagenomics approach to the investigation of an outbreak of shiga-toxigenic escherichia coli o104:h4.identification of the bacterium responsible for an outbreak can aid in disease management. however, traditional culture-based diagnosis can be difficult, particularly if no specific diagnostic test is available for an outbreak strain.201323571589
high incidence of campylobacter concisus in gastroenteritis in north jutland, denmark: a population-based study.the incidence of non-thermophilic campylobacter species was assessed in an unselected population-based study in a mixed urban and rural community in north jutland, denmark. in a 2-year study period, 11,314 faecal samples from 8302 patients with gastroenteritis were cultured with supplement of the filter method. we recovered a high incidence of campylobacter concisus (annual incidence 35/100,000 inhabitants), almost as high as the common campylobacter jejuni/coli. in contrast, there was a very lo ...201322512739
campylobacter spp. - prevalence on pig livers and antimicrobial susceptibility.the objective of the study was to determine the prevalence of campylobacter spp. on surfaces of slaughtered pig livers. multilocus sequence typing (mlst) was performed to determine the sequence types (sts) of selected campylobacter coli isolates. additionally, c. coli and campylobacter jejuni isolates were tested for antimicrobial susceptibility by the broth dilution method. the minimal inhibitory concentrations were determined for erythromycin, gentamicin, ampicillin, ampicillin/sulbactam, nali ...201323040119
effects of feeding finisher pigs with chicory or lupine feed for one week or two weeks before slaughter with respect to levels of bifidobacteria and campylobacter.this study aimed to assess whether inclusion of chicory or lupine (prebiotics) in the diet of pre-slaughter pigs for just 1 or 2 weeks could change the composition of their intestinal microbiota, stimulate the growth of bifidobacteria and help to lower the amount of thermoplilic campylobacter spp. (mainly campylobacter jejuni and campylobacter coli), which are a major cause of food-borne infections in humans. a total of 48 pigs that had an initial live weight of 90 kg were fed with either a lupi ...201323031645
detection and genotyping of campylobacter jejuni and campylobacter coli by use of dna oligonucleotide arrays.campylobacter have emerged as the most common bacterial food-borne illness in the developed world. the ability to reduce campylobacter infections in humans is linked to the full comprehension of the principal key aspects of its infection cycle. a microbial diagnostic microarray detecting campylobacter housekeeping, structural, and virulence associated genes was designed and validated using genomic dna from reference and field strains of campylobacter jejuni and coli isolated from human, chicken, ...201322354794
unique features of the motility and structures in the flagellate polar region of campylobacter jejuni and other species: an electron microscopic study.similarly to helicobacter pylori but unlike vibrio cholerae o1/o139, campylobacter jejuni is non-motile at 20°c but highly motile at ≥37°c. the bacterium c. jejuni has one of the highest swimming speeds reported (>100 μm/s), especially at 42°c. straight and spiral bacterial shapes share the same motility. c. jejuni has a unique structure in the flagellate polar region, which is characterized by a cup-like structure (beneath the inner membrane), a funnel shape (opening onto the polar surface) and ...201323252968
effects of efflux-pump inducers and genetic variation of the multidrug transporter cmeb in biocide resistance of campylobacter jejuni and campylobacter coli.multidrug efflux pumps, such as cmeabc and cmedef, are involved in the resistance of campylobacter to a broad spectrum of antimicrobials. the aim of this study was to analyse the effects of two putative efflux-pump inducers, bile salts and sodium deoxycholate, on the resistance of campylobacter to biocides (triclosan, benzalkonium chloride, chlorhexidine diacetate, cetylpyridinium chloride and trisodium phosphate), sds and erythromycin. the involvement of the cmeabc and cmedef efflux pumps in th ...201323161768
tetrazolium reduction allows assessment of biofilm formation by campylobacter jejuni in a food matrix model.to develop a staining method for specific detection of metabolically active (viable) cells in biofilms of the foodborne pathogen campylobacter jejuni.201323910098
development of a magnetic nanoparticles microarray for simultaneous and simple detection of foodborne pathogens.foodborne diseases are a widespread and growing public health problem affecting both developed and developing countries, microbiologically contaminated food and water are the major causes of diarrhoeal diseases. methods based on polymerase chain reaction (pcr) and microarrays are rapid and sensitive enough to detect very small quantities of microorganisms, however, the requirement for expensive equipments limits their application. in the present paper, we describe a method based on multiplex pcr ...201323909141
dihydrodipicolinate synthase from campylobacter jejuni: kinetic mechanism of cooperative allosteric inhibition and inhibitor-induced substrate cooperativity.dihydrodipicolinate synthase (dhdps), an enzyme of the meso-diaminopimelate pathway of lysine biosynthesis, is essential for bacterial growth and is considered a target for novel antibiotics. we have studied dhdps from campylobacter jejuni for the first time, determining the kinetic mechanism of catalysis and inhibition with its natural allosteric feedback inhibitor (s)-lysine. the tetrameric enzyme is known to have two allosteric sites, each of which binds two molecules of lysine. the results s ...201323902434
quantum dot-based immunochromatography test strip for rapid detection of campylobacter jejuni.campylobacter jejuni is a recognized human foodborne pathogen which is one of the leading causes of human gastrointestinal enteritis worldwide. in stress conditions, c. jejuni is able to enter into a viable but non-culturable state that is difficult to diagnose. hence a rapid, sensitive, and specific method is required to monitor food and water for natural or intentional contamination by this pathogen. we report a quantum dot (qd)-based immunochromatography test strip (qdits) for rapid detection ...201323901473
infectious and noninfectious triggers in guillain-barré syndrome.guillain-barré syndrome (gbs) is the commonest cause of acquired flaccid paralysis in the world and regarded by many as the prototype for postinfectious autoimmunity. here the authors consider both infectious and noninfectious triggers of gbs and determine where possible what immunological mechanisms may account for this association. in approximately two-thirds of cases, an infectious trigger is reported in the weeks that lead up to disease onset, indicating that the host's response to infection ...201323899233
phage receptor binding protein-based magnetic enrichment method as an aid for real time pcr detection of foodborne bacteria.we present a novel phage receptor binding protein-based magnetic separation and pre-enrichment method as an alternative to the immunomagnetic separation methods by replacing antibodies with bacteriophage receptor binding proteins (rbps). we couple the proposed rbp-based magnetic separation with real time pcr for rapid, sensitive and specific detection of campylobacter jejuni cells in artificially contaminated skim milk, milk with 2% fat and chicken broth. recovery rates, assessed by real time pc ...201323897488
engineered genetic selection links in vivo protein folding and stability with asparagine-linked glycosylation.predicting the structural consequences of site-specific glycosylation remains a major challenge due in part to the lack of convenient experimental tools for rapidly determining how glycosylation influences protein folding. to address this shortcoming, we developed a genetic selection that directly links the in vivo folding of asparagine-linked (n-linked) glycoproteins with antibiotic resistance. using this assay, we identified three known or putative glycoproteins from campylobacter jejuni (peb3 ...201323894044
evaluation of nanoparticle-encapsulated outer membrane proteins for the control of campylobacter jejuni colonization in chickens.numerous vaccination strategies have been evaluated to develop effective vaccines against campylobacter jejuni colonization in poultry but with limited success. the following experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of biodegradable and biocompatible poly (lactide-co-glycolide) nanoparticle (np) encapsulated outer membrane proteins (omp) of c. jejuni. chickens were vaccinated with different routes [subcutaneous (s/c) or oral] and doses (25, 125, or 250 µg) of candidate nanoparticle v ...201323873570
molecular methods to investigate adhesion, transmigration, invasion and intracellular survival of the foodborne pathogen campylobacter jejuni.campylobacter jejuni is a spiral-shaped gram-negative pathogen and major agent of gastrointestinal foodborne illness in humans worldwide. this pathogen encodes numerous described pathogenicity-associated factors involved in important processes including bacterial adhesion to, transmigration across, invasion into and intracellular survival within intestinal epithelial cells. this review article highlights various molecular techniques applied in the studies of each of these individual steps of c. ...201323872466
is clostridium difficile associated with relapse of inflammatory bowel disease? results from a retrospective and prospective cohort study in the netherlands.although clostridium difficile may be associated with exacerbations in inflammatory bowel diseases (ibd), prospective studies identifying the role of c. difficile in disease activity are currently lacking. we examined the prevalence of c. difficile in feces of (1) symptomatic ibd patients retrospectively and (2) consecutive outpatients in relation to disease activity prospectively.201323867869
anti-ganglioside antibodies in patients with guillain barré syndrome and other neurological disorders.a study was performed on 59 guillain-barré syndrome (gbs) cases, 58 neurological controls (nc) and 60 non-neurological controls (nnc) to investigate the association of anti-ganglioside antibodies in gbs and other neurological disorders. campylobacter jejuni was isolated from 5.7% of gbs patients. anti-ganglioside immunoglobulin g was present in 82% and immunoglobulin m in 46% in acute inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy patients, 70% and 44% respectively in acute motor axonal neuropathy su ...201323867676
the xer/dif site-specific recombination system of campylobacter jejuni.chromosome dimers, which form during the bacterial life cycle, represent a problem that must be solved by the bacterial cell machinery so that chromosome segregation can occur effectively. the xer/dif site-specific recombination system, utilized by most bacteria, resolves chromosome dimers into monomers using two tyrosine recombinases, xerc and xerd, to perform the recombination reaction at the dif site which consists of 28-30 bp. however, single xer recombinase systems have been recently discov ...201323861023
a novel immunoproteomics method for identifying in vivo-induced campylobacter jejuni antigens using pre-adsorbed sera from infected patients.campylobacter jejuni is an important food-borne and zoonotic pathogen with a worldwide distribution. humans and chickens are hosts of this pathogen. at present, there is no ideal vaccine for controlling human campylobacteriosis or the carriage of c. jejuni by chickens. bacterial in vivo-induced antigens are useful as potential vaccine candidates and biomarkers of virulence.201323850640
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