Publications

31p-nmr study on intracellular energy transport in muscle.		2009	2798486
31p-nmr study on intracellular energy transport in muscle.		2009	2798486
[a case of immediate fertility restoration following childbirth].	we report an unwanted pregnancy following immediately after fulltime childbirth. we could not find previous reports of this nature in international literature. women who give bottle-feeding are even more liable to early return of ovulatory cycles than women who give breastfeeding. if a puerpera has vaginal bleeding (not lochia), there is an increased risk of ovulation as well as of endometritis. it is no longer acceptable to take impossibility to conceive immediately after delivery for granted: ...	2009	2654662
[characteristics of dysentery-causing strains isolated from patients and carriers in republic of south ossetia during period of humanitarian disaster].		2009	20095424
antibacterial and antifungal activities of some mexican medicinal plants.	in mexico about 4,000 plant species have some medicinal use. the aim of this work was to evaluate the antimicrobial activity of six mexican medicinal plants against fungi and gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. methanolic extracts were prepared from the mexican medicinal plants amphypteringium adstrigens, castella tortuosa, coutarea latiflora, ibervillea sonorae, jatropha cuneata, and selaginella lepidophylla. the antibacterial and antifungal activities of the plants were determined by the ...	2009	20041800
multilocus variable-number tandem repeat analysis for molecular typing and phylogenetic analysis of shigella flexneri.	shigella flexneri is one of the causative agents of shigellosis, a major cause of childhood mortality in developing countries. multilocus variable-number tandem repeat (vntr) analysis (mlva) is a prominent subtyping method to resolve closely related bacterial isolates for investigation of disease outbreaks and provide information for establishing phylogenetic patterns among isolates. the present study aimed to develop an mlva method for s. flexneri and the vntr loci identified were tested on 242 ...	2009	20042119
the immunogenic siga enterotoxin of shigella flexneri 2a binds to hep-2 cells and induces fodrin redistribution in intoxicated epithelial cells.	we have previously shown that the enterotoxin siga which resides on the she pathogenicity island (pai) of s. flexneri 2a is an autonomously secreted serine protease capable of degrading casein. we have also demonstrated that siga is cytopathic for hep-2 cells and plays a role in the intestinal fluid accumulation associated with s. flexneri infections.	2009	20011051
helicobacter pylori induces mapk phosphorylation and ap-1 activation via a nod1-dependent mechanism.	helicobacter pylori rapidly activates mapks and transcription factors, nf-kappab and ap-1, in gastric epithelial cells following host attachment. activation of these signal transducers is largely dependent on the cag pathogenicity island (cagpai)-encoded type iv secretion system. h. pylori was shown to translocate peptidoglycan through the type iv secretion system, which is recognized by the pathogen recognition molecule, nod1, thus resulting in nf-kappab activation. the mechanisms of h. pylori- ...	2009	20007577
inactivated and subunit vaccines to prevent shigellosis.	shigellosis remains a formidable disease globally, with children of the developing world bearing the greatest number of infections. the need for an affordable, safe and efficacious vaccine has persisted for decades. vaccines to prevent shigellosis can be divided into living and nonliving approaches. several nonliving shigella vaccines are currently at different stages of development and show substantial promise. outlined here is an overview of multiple nonliving vaccine technologies, highlightin ...	2009	19943764
a changing picture of shigellosis in southern vietnam: shifting species dominance, antimicrobial susceptibility and clinical presentation.	shigellosis remains considerable public health problem in some developing countries. the nature of shigellae suggests that they are highly adaptable when placed under selective pressure in a human population. this is demonstrated by variation and fluctuations in serotypes and antimicrobial resistance profile of organisms circulating in differing setting in endemic locations. antimicrobial resistance in the genus shigella is a constant threat, with reports of organisms in asia being resistant to ...	2009	20003464
studies on the antidiarrhoeal activity of aegle marmelos unripe fruit: validating its traditional usage.	aegle marmelos (l.) correa has been widely used in indigenous systems of indian medicine due to its various medicinal properties. however, despite its traditional usage as an anti-diarrhoeal there is limited information regarding its mode of action in infectious forms of diarrhoea. hence, we evaluated the hot aqueous extract (decoction) of dried unripe fruit pulp of a. marmelos for its antimicrobial activity and effect on various aspects of pathogenicity of infectious diarrhoea.	2009	19930633
a unified approach to molecular epidemiology investigations: tools and patterns in california as a case study for endemic shigellosis.	shigellosis causes diarrheal disease in humans from both developed and developing countries, and multi-drug resistance is an emerging problem. the objective of this study is to present a unified approach that can be used to characterize endemic and outbreak patterns of shigellosis using use a suite of epidemiologic and molecular techniques. the approach is applied to a california case study example of endemic shigellosis at the population level.	2009	19930709
enteroinvasive escherichia coli vs. shigella flexneri: how different patterns of gene expression affect virulence.	important features of the enteroinvasive escherichia coli (eiec) phenotype and gene expression likely to confer eiec with a lower ability to cause disease than shigella flexneri were described here for the first time. to confirm the lower pathogenicity of eiec, we have analyzed the keratoconjunctivitis developed in guinea-pigs with eiec or s. flexneri. shigella flexneri induced a more pronounced proinflammatory response, whereas eiec induced a mild form of the disease. eiec showed a significantl ...	2009	19889166
peptide sequences identified by phage display are immunodominant functional motifs of pet and pic serine proteases secreted by escherichia coli and shigella flexneri.	plasmid-encoded toxin (pet) and protein involved in colonization (pic), are serine protease autotransporters of enterobacteriaceae (spates) secreted by enteroaggregative escherichia coli (eaec), which display the gdsgsg sequence or the serine motif. our research was directed to localize functional sites in both proteins using the phage display method. from a 12mer linear and a 7mer cysteine-constrained (c7c) libraries displayed on the m13 phage piii protein we selected different mimotopes using ...	2009	19772881
metabolic control through ornithine and uracil of epithelial cell invasion by shigella flexneri.	this paper shows that compounds in defined growth media strongly influence the expression of the effectors of virulence in the human invasive pathogen shigella flexneri. ornithine in conjunction with uracil reduces the haemolytic ability of wild-type cultures more than 20-fold and the expression of the type iii secretion system more than 8-fold, as monitored by an mxic : : lacz transcriptional reporter. mxic gene expression is further decreased by the presence of methionine or branched-chain ami ...	2009	19460819
design, synthesis, and immunochemical characterization of a chimeric glycopeptide corresponding to the shigella flexneri y o-polysaccharide and its peptide mimic mdwnmhaa.	two glycopeptide chimeras corresponding to the shigella flexneri y o-polysaccharide and its peptide mimic were designed in an attempt to improve the binding affinity by increasing the entropy of binding relative to the original octapeptide mimic of the o-polysaccharide. the design was based on the x-ray crystal structures of a monoclonal antibody sya/j6 in complex with its cognate ligands, a pentasaccharide corresponding to the s. flexneri y o-polysaccharide and the octapeptide mimic, mdwnmhaa. ...	2009	19467535
ipab-ipgc interaction defines binding motif for type iii secretion translocator.	the delivery of virulence factors into host cells through type iii secretion systems is essential for enterobacterial pathogenesis. molecular chaperones bind specifically to virulence factors in the bacterial cytosol before secretion. invasion plasmid gene c (ipgc) is a chaperone that binds 2 essential virulence factors of shigella: invasion plasmid antigens (ipa) b and c. here, we report the crystal structure of ipgc alone and in complex with the chaperone binding domain (cbd) of ipab. the chap ...	2009	19478065
protein interaction platforms: visualization of interacting proteins in yeast.	here we describe the protein interaction platform assay, a method for identifying interacting proteins in saccharomyces cerevisiae. this assay relies on the reovirus scaffolding protein microns, which forms large focal inclusions in living cells. when a query protein is fused to microns and potential interaction partners are fused to a fluorescent reporter, interactors can be identified by screening for yeast that display fluorescent foci.	2009	19483691
lack of antimicrobial activity by the antiretroviral drug nevirapine against common bacterial pathogens.		2009	19487448
bacteria hijack integrin-linked kinase to stabilize focal adhesions and block cell detachment.	the rapid turnover and exfoliation of mucosal epithelial cells provides an innate defence system against bacterial infection. nevertheless, many pathogenic bacteria, including shigella, are able to surmount exfoliation and colonize the epithelium efficiently. here we show that the shigella flexneri effector ospe (consisting of ospe1 and ospe2 proteins), which is highly conserved among enteropathogenic escherichia coli, enterohaemorrhagic e. coli, citrobacter rodentium and salmonella strains, rei ...	2009	19489119
computational study of the conformational structures of saccharides in solution based on j couplings and the "fast sugar structure prediction software".	this article reports on the implementation of j coupling calculations in our recently developed fast sugar structure prediction software (fsps). the fsps combines a smart and exhaustive algorithm to search through conformational space with the calculation of different experimental nuclear magnetic resonance observables to establish the conformation of saccharides in solution. using our algorithm in combination with nmr data, we investigate the solution structure of three simple disaccharides (me ...	2009	19795837
uropathogenic escherichia coli suppresses the host inflammatory response via pathogenicity island genes sisa and sisb.	extraintestinal pathogenic escherichia coli can successfully colonize the urinary tract of the immunocompetent host. in part, this is accomplished by dampening the host immune response. indeed, the sisa and sisb genes (shia-like inflammation suppressor genes a and b) of uropathogenic e. coli strain cft073, homologs of the shigella flexneri shi-2 pathogenicity island gene shia, suppress the host inflammatory response. a double deletion mutant (deltasisa deltasisb) resulted in a hyperinflammatory ...	2009	19797063
effects of enteropathogenic bacteria & lactobacilli on chemokine secretion & toll like receptor gene expression in two human colonic epithelial cell lines.	the intestinal epithelium is part of the innate immune system responding to contact with pathogenic or commensal bacteria. the objective of this study was to compare innate responses of intestinal epithelial cell lines to pathogenic bacteria and to lactobacilli.	2009	19797815
proteome analysis of an attenuated francisella tularensis dsba mutant: identification of potential dsba substrate proteins.	francisella tularensis (f. tularensis) is highly infectious for humans via aerosol route and untreated infections with the highly virulent subsp. tularensis can be fatal. our knowledge regarding key virulence determinants has increased recently but is still somewhat limited. surface proteins are potential virulence factors and therapeutic targets, and in this study, we decided to target three genes encoding putative membrane lipoproteins in f. tularensis lvs. one of the genes encoded a protein w ...	2009	19799467
autophagy in immunity against intracellular bacteria.	autophagy is an innate immune defense mechanism against various intracellular bacterial pathogens, such as salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium (s. typhimurium), listeria monocytogenes and shigella flexneri. s. typhimurium uses type three secretion systems (t3sss) to invade mammalian cells and replicate in salmonella-containing vacuoles (scvs). a small population of intracellular s. typhimurium is targeted by autophagy shortly after infection. evidence suggests that these bacteria are present ...	2009	19802566
spa15 of shigella flexneri is secreted through the type iii secretion system and prevents staurosporine-induced apoptosis.	shigella flexneri is a gram-negative, facultative intracellular pathogen that invades the colonic epithelium and causes bacillary dysentery. we previously demonstrated that s. flexneri inhibits staurosporine-induced apoptosis in infected epithelial cells and that a deltamxie mutant is unable to inhibit apoptosis. therefore, we hypothesized that an mxie-regulated gene was responsible for protection of epithelial cells from apoptosis. analysis of all mxie-regulated genes yielded no mutants that la ...	2009	19805534
secretory iga-mediated neutralization of shigella flexneri prevents intestinal tissue destruction by down-regulating inflammatory circuits.	shigella, a gram-negative invasive enteropathogenic bacterium responsible for bacillary dysentery, causes the rupture, invasion, and inflammatory destruction of the human colonic mucosa. we explored the mechanisms of protection mediated by shigella lps-specific secretory iga (siga), the major mucosal ab induced upon natural infection. bacteria, siga, or siga-s. flexneri immune complexes were administered into rabbit ligated intestinal loops containing a peyer's patch. after 8 h, localizations of ...	2009	19828639
effect of x-ray treatments on inoculated escherichia coli o157: h7, salmonella enterica, shigella flexneri and vibrio parahaemolyticus in ready-to-eat shrimp.	this study was conducted to evaluate the inactivation effect of x-ray treatments on escherichia coli o157: h7, salmonella enteric (s. enterica), shigella flexneri (s. flexneri) and vibrio parahaemolyticus (v. parahaemolyticus) artificially inoculated in ready-to-eat (rte) shrimp. a mixed culture of three strains of each tested pathogen was used to inoculate rte shrimp. the shrimp samples were inoculated individually with selected pathogenic bacteria then aseptically placed in sterile plastic cup ...	2009	19835772
the mannitol operon repressor mtlr belongs to a new class of transcription regulators in bacteria.	many bacteria express phosphoenolpyruvate-dependent phosphotransferase systems (pts). the mannitol-specific pts catalyze the uptake and phosphorylation of d-mannitol. the uptake system comprises several genes encoded in the single operon. the expression of the mannitol operon is regulated by a proposed transcriptional factor, mannitol operon repressor (mtlr) that was first studied in escherichia coli. here we report the first crystal structures of mtlr from vibrio parahemeolyticus (vp-mtlr) and ...	2009	19840941
purification and characterization of an immunogenic outer membrane protein of shigella flexneri 2a.	in the present study we purified 34 kda major outer membrane protein (momp) of shigella flexneri 2a for the first time, which was cross-reactive and antigenically conserved among shigella spp. and the epitope was surface exposed on the intact bacterium. the purified antigen was found to be glycosylated, which aids in binding to macrophages and up-regulated the production of nitric oxide, granulocyte-colony stimulating factor and il-12p70, indicating that the momp is immunogenic and has the abili ...	2009	19660587
screening, purification, and identification of the enzyme producing n-(l-alpha-l-aspartyl)-l-phenylalanine methyl ester from l-isoasparagine and l-phenylalanine methyl ester.	screening was carried out for microorganisms able to produce n-(l-alpha-l-aspartyl)-l-phenylalanine methyl ester [apm] from l-isoasparagine and l-phenylalanine methyl ester hydrochloride. of the 422 strains examined, 44 strains belonging to the family enterobacteriaceae were found to produce apm. the enzyme catalyzing apm production was purified and identified as dipeptidase e.	2009	19664550
bacterial jailbreak sounds cellular alarm: phagosome membrane remnants trigger signaling.	shigella flexneri and other invasive bacteria rupture the phagosome membrane and escape to the host cytoplasm. now, dupont et al. address the fate and signaling functions of pathogen vacuole remnants and show that these membrane fragments trigger host-cell-signaling responses, including polyubiquitination, autophagy, and pyroptosis.	2009	19683675
shigella phagocytic vacuolar membrane remnants participate in the cellular response to pathogen invasion and are regulated by autophagy.	intracellular pathogens like shigella flexneri enter host cells by phagocytosis. once inside, the pathogen breaks the vacuolar membrane for cytosolic access. the fate and function of the vacuolar membrane remnants are not clear. examining shigella-infected nonmyeloid cells, we observed that proteins associated with vacuolar membrane remnants are polyubiquinated, recruit the autophagy marker lc3 and adaptor p62, and are targeted to autophagic degradation. further, inflammasome components and casp ...	2009	19683680
a genome-scale proteomic screen identifies a role for dnak in chaperoning of polar autotransporters in shigella.	autotransporters are outer membrane proteins that are widely distributed among gram-negative bacteria. like other autotransporters, the shigella autotransporter icsa, which is required for actin assembly during infection, is secreted at the bacterial pole. in the bacterial cytoplasm, icsa localizes to poles and potential cell division sites independent of the cell division protein ftsz. to identify bacterial proteins involved in the targeting of icsa to the pole in the bacterial cytoplasm, we sc ...	2009	19684128
protective role of mouse mbl-c on intestinal mucosa during shigella flexneri invasion.	mannan-binding lectin (mbl) is a c-type serum lectin, which is believed to play an important role in the innate immunity against a variety of pathogens. mbl can bind to sugar determinants of a wide variety of microorganisms, neutralize them and inhibit infection by complement activation through the lectin pathway and opsonization by collectin receptors. given that small intestine is a predominant site of extrahepatic expression of mbl, here we addressed the question whether mbl is involved in mu ...	2009	19684159
a novel glucosyltransferase involved in o-antigen modification of shigella flexneri serotype 1c.	the o antigen of serotype 1c differs from the unmodified o antigen of serotype y by the addition of a disaccharide (two glucosyl groups) to the tetrasaccharide repeating unit. it was shown here that addition of the first glucosyl group is mediated by the previously characterized gtri cluster, which is found within a cryptic prophage at the proa locus in the bacterial chromosome. transposon mutagenesis was performed to disrupt the gene responsible for addition of the second glucosyl group, causin ...	2009	19717593
high-affinity inhibitors of trna-guanine transglycosylase replacing the function of a structural water cluster.	the trna-modifying enzyme trna-guanine transglycosylase (tgt) is essential for the pathogenic mechanism of shigella flexneri, the causing agent of the bacterial diarrheal disease shigellosis. herein, the synthesis of a new class of rationally designed 6-amino-imidazo[4,5-g]quinazolin-8(7h)-one- (lin-benzoguanine) based inhibitors of tgt are reported. in order to accommodate a small hydrophobic crevice opening near the binding site of ribose-34, 2-aminoethyl substituents were introduced in positi ...	2009	19746363
comparative study of pathogenicity tests for shigella spp. and enteroinvasive escherichia coli strains.	the purpose of this study was to optimize an in vitro pathogenicity model, as an alternative to sereny test (on guinea pigs). the study was performed on 13 shigella spp. and 3 enteroinvasive escherichia coli (eiec) strains isolated in romania between 2005 and 2007. the investigation implied the comparative evaluation between the sereny test and cravioto's adapted method for the assessment of the adherence and invasion capacity of the studied bacterial strains on hela cells, as well as the pcr de ...	2009	19507627
bacterial type iii effectors inhibit cell lifting by targeting integrin-linked kinase.	many pathogenic bacteria are able to surmount exfoliation and colonize the host epithelium efficiently. in a recent article in nature, kim et al. (2009) show that shigella flexneri ospe, a conserved type iii effector, reinforces host cell adherence and prevents detachment of the infected cells by interacting with integrin-linked kinase.	2009	19527878
evaluation of antibacterial activity, phenol and flavonoid contents of thespesia populnea flower extracts.	flavonoids which were reported as having many pharmacological activities, antimicrobial, antioxidant, cytotoxic, chemoprevention activities and they possess strong antiproliferative effects related to inhibition of cell cycle progression and apoptosis induction. on the basis of this thespesia populnea (l.) sol. ex correa (family-malvaceae) was selected and it is having the major composition of flavonoids and the antibacterial activity of methanolic extract of thespesia populnea flowers was inves ...	2009	19553175
the cellular level of o-antigen polymerase wzy determines chain length regulation by wzzb and wzzphs-2 in shigella flexneri 2a.	the lipopolysaccharide o antigen of shigella flexneri 2a has two preferred chain lengths, a short (s-oag) composed of an average of 17 repeated units and a very long (vl-oag) of about 90 repeated units. these chain length distributions are controlled by the chromosomally encoded wzzb and the plasmid-encoded wzz(phs-2) proteins, respectively. in this study, genes wzzb, wzz(phs-2) and wzy (encoding the o-antigen polymerase) were cloned under the control of arabinose- and rhamnose-inducible promote ...	2009	19556292
rational design and immunogenicity of liposome-based diepitope constructs: application to synthetic oligosaccharides mimicking the shigella flexneri 2a o-antigen.	we have designed chemically defined diepitope constructs consisting of liposomes displaying at their surface synthetic oligosaccharides mimicking the o-antigen of the shigella flexneri 2a lipopolysaccharide (b-cell epitope) and influenza hemagglutinin peptide ha 307-319 (th epitope). using well controlled and high-yielding covalent bioconjugation reactions, the two structurally independent epitopes were coupled to the lipopeptide pam(3)cag, i.e. a tlr2 ligand known for its adjuvant properties, a ...	2009	19559116
a randomized controlled trial to evaluate the efficacy of lactobacillus gg in infantile diarrhea.	in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, 229 infants hospitalized for acute diarrhea in rural india were given a 10-day course of lactobacillus rhammosus gg (minimum dose, 10 degrees bacteria) or placebo. there was no difference in groups in the duration of diarrhea or numbers of stool on days 3, 6, or 10 of treatment.	2009	19559297
listeria monocytogenes membrane trafficking and lifestyle: the exception or the rule?	listeria monocytogenes is an intracellular bacterial pathogen that promotes its internalization within nonprofessional phagocytes by interacting with specific host cell receptors. l. monocytogenes resides transiently in a membrane-bound compartment before escaping into the host cell cytosol where bacterial proliferation takes place. actin-based motility then promotes cell-to-cell pathogen spread. extensive studies on cytoskeleton rearrangements, membrane trafficking, and other events have establ ...	2009	19575658
ptdins5p protects akt from dephosphorylation through pp2a inhibition.	phosphatidylinositol 5-phosphate (ptdins5p), the most recently discovered phosphoinositide, has been proposed to play a role as a lipid mediator of intracellular signaling. we have previously shown that ptdins5p generated by ipgd, an effector of the causative agent of dysentery shigella flexneri, activates the pi 3-kinase/akt pathway. here, we demonstrate that ptdins5p is able to protect akt from dephosphorylation. this effect is not due to inhibition of the phosphoinositide phosphatase regulati ...	2009	19576174
improvement of an acid phosphatase/dhap-dependent aldolase cascade reaction by using directed evolution.	to enhance the phosphorylating activity of the bacterial nonspecific acid phosphatase from salmonella enterica ser. typhimurium lt2 towards dihydroxyacetone (dha), a mutant library was generated from the native enzyme. three different variants that showed enhanced activity were identified after one round of eppcr. the single mutant v78l was the most active and showed an increase in the maximal dhap concentration to 25 % higher than that of the wild-type enzyme at ph 6.0. this variant is 17 times ...	2009	19623595
[isolation and study of perspective probiotic strain of spore-forming bacteria from bacillus genus].	to study physiologic, biochemical as well as antagonistic characteristics of isolated strain of bacillus pumilus in comparison with known spore-forming bacteria from b. subtilis species.	2009	19623717
nlrc4/ipaf: a card carrying member of the nlr family.	the nod-like receptor (nlr) family of proteins is involved in the regulation of innate immune responses and cell death pathways. recent findings show that the nlr family member nlrc4 (also known as ipaf) has important roles in innate immune responses to gram-negative bacteria. macrophages infected with legionella pneumophila, salmonella typhimurium, shigella flexneri, or pseudomonas aeruginosa activate caspase-1 in an nlrc4-dependent manner leading to macrophage cell death and the release of pro ...	2009	18819842
metal based isatin-derived sulfonamides: their synthesis, characterization, coordination behavior and biological activity.	some isatin derived sulfonamides and their transition metal [co(ii), cu(ii), ni(ii), zn(ii)] complexes have been synthesized and characterized. the structure of synthesized compounds and their nature of bonding have been inferred on the basis of their physical (magnetic susceptibility and conductivity measurements), analytical (elemental analyses) and spectral (ir, (1)h nmr and (13)c nmr) properties. an octahedral geometry has been suggested for co(ii), ni(ii) and zn(ii) and square-planar for cu ...	2009	18825557
reduction in infection risk through treatment of microbially contaminated surfaces with a novel, portable, saturated steam vapor disinfection system.	surface-mediated infectious disease transmission is a major concern in various settings, including schools, hospitals, and food-processing facilities. chemical disinfectants are frequently used to reduce contamination, but many pose significant risks to humans, surfaces, and the environment, and all must be properly applied in strict accordance with label instructions to be effective. this study set out to determine the capability of a novel chemical-free, saturated steam vapor disinfection syst ...	2009	18834748
tlr4 and myd88 control protection and pulmonary granulocytic recruitment in a murine intranasal rsv immunization and challenge model.	an intranasal vaccine composed of toll-like receptor 2 (tlr2) ligand neisseria meningitidis outer membrane proteins and toll-like receptor 4 (tlr4) ligand shigella flexneri lipopolysaccharide (lps) (protollin) and enriched respiratory syncytial virus (rsv) proteins (ersv) has been demonstrated to promote balanced th1/th2 responses without eosinophil recruitment and to protect against challenge in mouse models. we used tlr2, tlr4 and myeloid differentiation factor 88 (myd88) knock-out (-/-) mice ...	2009	19013492
mxic is secreted by and controls the substrate specificity of the shigella flexneri type iii secretion apparatus.	many gram-negative pathogenic bacteria use a type iii secretion (t3s) system to interact with cells of their hosts. mechanisms controlling the hierarchical addressing of needle subunits, translocators and effectors to the t3s apparatus (t3sa) are still poorly understood. we investigated the function of mxic, the member of the yopn/inve/sepl family in the shigella flexneri t3s system. inactivation of mxic led specifically to a deregulated secretion of effectors (including ipaa, ipgd, icsb, ipgb2, ...	2009	19017268
shigella flexneri type iii secretion system effectors ospb and ospf target the nucleus to downregulate the host inflammatory response via interactions with retinoblastoma protein.	ospf, ospg and ipah(9.8) are type iii secretion system (t3ss) effectors of shigella flexneri that downregulate the host innate immune response. ospf modifies mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways and polymorphonuclear leucocyte transepithelial migration associated with shigella invasion. ospf also localizes in the nucleus to mediate chromatin remodelling, resulting in reduced transcription of inflammatory cytokines. we now report that ospb can be added to the set of s. flexneri t3ss effector ...	2009	19017275
antigen-specific b memory cell responses to lipopolysaccharide (lps) and invasion plasmid antigen (ipa) b elicited in volunteers vaccinated with live-attenuated shigella flexneri 2a vaccine candidates.	we evaluated b memory responses in healthy adult volunteers who received one oral dose of live-attenuated shigella flexneri 2a vaccine. lps-specific b(m) cells increased from a median of 0 at baseline to 20 spot forming cells (sfc)/10(6) expanded cells following vaccination (p=0.008). a strong correlation was found between post-vaccination anti-lps b(m) cell counts and peak serum anti-lps igg titers (rs=0.95, p=0.0003). increases in b(m) specific for ipab approaching significance were also obser ...	2009	19022324
interaction of enteric bacterial pathogens with murine embryonic stem cells.	embryonic stem (es) cells are susceptible to genetic manipulation and retain the potential to differentiate into diverse cell types, which are factors that make them potentially attractive cells for studying host-pathogen interactions. murine es cells were found to be susceptible to invasion by salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium and shigella flexneri and to the formation of attaching and effacing lesions by enteropathogenic escherichia coli. s. enterica serovar typhimurium and s. flexneri c ...	2009	19029302
small-molecule type iii secretion system inhibitors block assembly of the shigella type iii secreton.	type iii secretion systems (t3sss) are essential virulence devices for many gram-negative bacteria that are pathogenic for plants, animals, and humans. they serve to translocate virulence effector proteins directly into eukaryotic host cells. t3sss are composed of a large cytoplasmic bulb and a transmembrane region into which a needle is embedded, protruding above the bacterial surface. the emerging antibiotic resistance of bacterial pathogens urges the development of novel strategies to fight b ...	2009	18996990
contribution of the periplasmic chaperone skp to efficient presentation of the autotransporter icsa on the surface of shigella flexneri.	icsa is an outer membrane protein in the autotransporter family that is required for shigella flexneri pathogenesis. following its secretion through the sec translocon, icsa is incorporated into the outer membrane in a process that depends on yaet, a component of an outer membrane beta-barrel insertion machinery. we investigated the role of the periplasmic chaperone skp in icsa maturation. skp is required for the presentation of the mature amino terminus (alpha-domain) of icsa on the bacterial s ...	2009	19047350
tight junctions as targets of infectious agents.	the epithelial barrier is a critical border that segregates luminal material from entering tissues. essential components of this epithelial fence are physical intercellular structures termed tight junctions. these junctions use a variety of transmembrane proteins coupled with cytoplasmic adaptors, and the actin cytoskeleton, to attach adjacent cells together thereby forming intercellular seals. breaching of this barrier has profound effects on human health and disease, as barrier deficiencies ha ...	2009	19059200
prevalence of sulfonamide resistance genes in bacterial isolates from manured agricultural soils and pig slurry in the united kingdom.	the prevalences of three sulfonamide resistance genes, sul1, sul2, and sul3 and sulfachloropyridazine (scp) resistance were determined in bacteria isolated from manured agricultural clay soils and slurry samples in the united kingdom over a 2-year period. slurry from tylosin-fed pigs amended with scp and oxytetracycline was used for manuring. isolates positive for sul genes were further screened for the presence of class 1 and 2 integrons. phenotypic resistance to scp was significantly higher in ...	2009	19064898
molecular detection of all 34 distinct o-antigen forms of shigella.	shigella is the cause of shigellosis or bacillary dysentery, the occurrence of which is estimated to be 165 million cases per year worldwide, resulting in 1.1 million deaths. rapid and reliable assays for detecting and identifying shigella in food, environmental and clinical samples are therefore necessary. shigella species are traditionally identified by their o antigens. this study developed a dna microarray targeting o-serotype-specific genes to detect all 34 distinct o-antigen forms of shige ...	2009	19074655
fungal and bacterial killing by neutrophils.	neutrophils are professional phagocytes of the innate immune system that are essential to control bacterial and fungal infections. these cells engulf and kill invading microbes. additionally, activated neutrophils are able to release neutrophil extracellular traps (nets). these fibers consist of chromatin decorated with antimicrobial proteins to trap and kill microbes. appropriate quantitative methods are required to understand the nature of interactions of neutrophils with pathogens. here we pr ...	2009	19089391
extensive antibody cross-reactivity among infectious gram-negative bacteria revealed by proteome microarray analysis.	antibodies provide a sensitive indicator of proteins displayed by bacteria during sepsis. because signals produced by infection are naturally amplified during the antibody response, host immunity can be used to identify biomarkers for proteins that are present at levels currently below detectable limits. we developed a microarray comprising approximately 70% of the 4066 proteins contained within the yersinia pestis proteome to identify antibody biomarkers distinguishing plague from infections ca ...	2009	19112181
diagnosis and prevalence of enteropathogenic bacteria in children less than 5 years of age with acute diarrhea in tehran children's hospitals.	acute diarrhea disease is the second cause of death among all infectious diseases in children younger than 5 years of age worldwide. the aim of this study was to employ a combination of biochemical, microbiological and molecular diagnostic techniques to investigate the stools of iranian children with acute diarrhea for bacterial enteropathogens.	2009	19117609
genetics and environmental regulation of shigella iron transport systems.	shigella spp. have transport systems for both ferric and ferrous iron. the iron can be taken up as free iron or complexed to a variety of carriers. all shigella species have both the feo and sit systems for acquisition of ferrous iron, and all have at least one siderophore-mediated system for transport of ferric iron. several of the transport systems, including sit, iuc/iuta (aerobactin synthesis and transport), fec (ferric di-citrate uptake), and shu (heme transport) are encoded within pathogen ...	2009	19130265
frequency of isolation of various subtypes and antimicrobial resistance of shigella from urban slums of karachi, pakistan.	shigellosis remains a major public health problem in developing countries. antimicrobial resistance has complicated the empirical treatment. knowledge of serotypes is crucial in vaccine development, as cross-protection between various serotypes is limited. therefore we conducted a prospective study to determine the frequency of isolation of shigella serotypes and antimicrobial resistance.	2009	19135399
overexpression, purification, characterization and preliminary crystallographic study of phosphoglycolate phosphatase from shigella flexneri 2a strain 301.	phosphoglycolate phosphatase has a salvage function in the metabolism of the 2-phosphoglycolate formed during bacterial dna repair. in order to better understand its dimerization behaviour, the influence of metal ions on its activity and its catalytic mechanism at the molecular level, recombinant phosphoglycolate phosphatase from shigella flexneri was overexpressed, purified, characterized and crystallized by the hanging-drop vapour-diffusion method at 291 k using polyethylene glycol 3500 as a p ...	2009	19153451
simultaneous detection of multifood-borne pathogenic bacteria based on functionalized quantum dots coupled with immunomagnetic separation in food samples.	this paper reports a method that simultaneously detects three food-borne pathogenic bacteria, salmonella typhimurium, shigella flexneri, and escherichia coli o157:h7, via an approach that combines magnetic microparticles for the enrichment and antibody-conjugated semiconductor quantum dots (qds) as fluorescence markers. using the water-in-oil reverse microemulsions method, the gamma-fe(2)o(3) magnetic nanoparticles were coated with silica to empower the particles with high dispersibility and bro ...	2009	19154162
the ipac carboxyterminal effector domain mediates src-dependent actin polymerization during shigella invasion of epithelial cells.	shigella, the causative agent of bacillary dysentery, invades epithelial cells by locally reorganizing the actin cytoskeleton. shigella invasion requires actin polymerization dependent on the src tyrosine kinase and a functional bacterial type iii secretion (t3s) apparatus. using dynamic as well as immunofluorescence microscopy, we show that the t3s translocon component ipac allows the recruitment of the src kinase required for actin polymerization at bacterial entry sites during the initial sta ...	2009	19165331
short report: high prevalence of serine protease autotransporter cytotoxins among strains of enteroaggregative escherichia coli.	enteroaggregative escherichia coli (eaec) pathogenesis is thought to comprise intestinal colonization followed by the release of enterotoxins and cytotoxins. here, we use a polymerase chain reaction (pcr) to determine the prevalence of 10 genes encoding serine protease autotransporter toxins (spates) in a collection of clinical eaec isolates. eighty-six percent of eaec strains harbored genes encoding one or more class i cytotoxic spate proteins (pet, sat, espp, or siga). two class ii, non-cytoto ...	2009	19190229
crystal structure analysis and in silico pka calculations suggest strong pka shifts of ligands as driving force for high-affinity binding to tgt.	a novel ligand series is presented to inhibit trna-guanine transglycosylase (tgt), a protein with a significant role in the pathogenicity mechanism of shigella flexneri, the causative agent of shigellosis. the enzyme exchanges guanine in the wobble position of trna(asn,asp,his,tyr) against a modified base. to prevent the base-exchange reaction, several series of inhibitors have already been designed, synthesized, and tested. one aim of previous studies was to address a hydrophobic pocket with di ...	2009	19199329
streptococcus-, shigella-, and listeria-induced autophagy.	autophagy has recently been described as an intrinsic host defense system for recognizing and eliminating intracellular-invading bacterial pathogens. some cytoplasmic-invading bacteria are trapped through the process of autophagy and are ultimately degraded within autolysosomal compartments. however, others exhibit highly evolved maneuvers for circumventing autophagic recognition and are capable of surviving and replicating within the cytoplasm. in this chapter, we describe bacterial infectious ...	2009	19200893
a synthetic carbohydrate-protein conjugate vaccine candidate against shigella flexneri 2a infection.	the protective ag of shigella, the gram-negative enteroinvasive bacterium causing bacillary dysentery, or shigellosis, is its o-specific polysaccharide (o-sp) domain of the lps, the major bacterial surface component. as an alternative to the development of detoxified lps-based conjugate vaccines, recent effort was put into the investigation of neoglycoproteins encompassing synthetic oligosaccharides mimicking the protective ags of the o-sp. we previously reported that when coupled to tetanus tox ...	2009	19201878
pathogen trafficking pathways and host phosphoinositide metabolism.	phosphoinositide (pi) glycerolipids are key regulators of eukaryotic signal transduction, cytoskeleton architecture and membrane dynamics. the host cell pi metabolism is targeted by intracellular bacterial pathogens, which evolved intricate strategies to modulate uptake processes and vesicle trafficking pathways. upon entering eukaryotic host cells, pathogenic bacteria replicate in distinct vacuoles or in the host cytoplasm. vacuolar pathogens manipulate pi levels to mimic or modify membranes of ...	2009	19208094
the expression of lipopolysaccharide by strains of shigella dysenteriae, shigella flexneri and shigella boydii and their cross-reacting strains of escherichia coli.	strains of shigella dysenteriae, shigella flexneri and shigella boydii express lipopolysaccharides, that enable the serotyping of strains based on their antigenic structures. certain strains of s. dysenteriae, s. flexneri and s. boydii are known to share epitopes with strains of escherichia coli; however, the lipopolysaccharide profiles of the cross-reacting organisms have not been compared by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (sds-page) lipopolysaccharides profiling. in ...	2009	19222579
a similarity in the o-acetylation pattern of the o-antigens of shigellaflexneri types 1a, 1b, and 2a.	shigella flexneri type 2a is the first, and type 1b is the second, most prevalent isolates from patients with shigellosis in russia. the o-specific polysaccharides (opss, o-antigens) of s. flexneri types 1-5 possess a common -->2)-alpha-l-rhapiii-(1-->2)-alpha-l-rhapii-(1-->3)-alpha-l-rhapi-(1-->3)-beta-d-glcpnac-(1--> backbone and differ from each other in its glucosylation or/and o-acetylation at various positions, the modifications being responsible for various o-factors. it was suggested tha ...	2009	19246033
the mere protein encoded by transposon tn21 is a broad mercury transporter in escherichia coli.	in order to clarify the physiological role of the mere gene of transposon tn21, a pe4 plasmid that contained the merr gene of plasmid pmr26 from pseudomonas strain k-62, and the mere gene of tn21 from the shigella flexneri plasmid nr1 (r100) was constructed. bacteria with plasmid pe4 (merr-o/p-mere) were more hypersensitive to ch(3)hg(i) and hg(ii), and took up significantly more ch(3)hg(i) and hg(ii), than the isogenic strain. the mere protein encoded by pe4 was localized in the membrane cell f ...	2009	19265693
piscidin 4, a novel member of the piscidin family of antimicrobial peptides.	piscidins are linear, amphipathic, antimicrobial peptides (amps) with broad, potent, activity spectrum. piscidins and other members of the piscidin family appear to comprise the most common group of amps in teleost fish. all piscidins and related members of the piscidin family described to date are 18-26 amino acids long.we report here the isolation of a novel 5329.25 da, 44-residue (ffrhlfrgakaifrgarqgxrahkvvsryrnrdvpetdnnqeep) antimicrobial peptide from hybrid striped bass (morone chrysops fem ...	2009	19266617
high-let ion radiolysis of water: oxygen production in tracks.	it is known that molecular oxygen is a product of the radiolysis of water with high-linear energy transfer (let) radiation, a result that is of particular significance in radiobiology and of practical relevance in radiotherapy. in fact, it has been suggested that the radiolytic formation of an oxygenated microenvironment around the tracks of high-let heavy ions is an important factor in their enhanced biological efficiency in the sense that this may be due to an "oxygen effect" by o(2) produced ...	2009	19267566
the effects of the bacterial interaction with visible-light responsive titania photocatalyst on the bactericidal performance.	bactericidal activity of traditional titanium dioxide (tio2) photocatalyst is effective only upon irradiation by ultraviolet light, which restricts the potential applications of tio2 for use in our living environments. recently carbon-containing tio2 was found to be photoactive at visible-light illumination that affords the potential to overcome this problem; although, the bactericidal activity of these photocatalysts is relatively lower than conventional disinfectants. evidenced from scanning e ...	2009	19272171
characterisation of early mucosal and neuronal lesions following shigella flexneri infection in human colon.	shigella, an enteroinvasive bacteria induces a major inflammatory response responsible for acute rectocolitis in humans. however, early effect of shigella flexneri (s. flexneri) infection upon the human mucosa and its microenvironement, in particular the enteric nervous system, remains currently unknown. therefore, in this study, we sought to characterize ex vivo the early events of shigellosis in a model of human colonic explants. in particular, we aimed at identifying factors produced by s. fl ...	2009	19274103
efficient synthesis of six tri- to hexasaccharide fragments of shigella flexneri serotypes 3a and/or x o-antigen, including a study on acceptors containing n-trichloroacetylglucosamine versus n-acetylglucosamine.	six tri- to hexasaccharide fragments of the {2)-[alpha-d-glcp-(1-->3)]-alpha-l-rhap-(1-->2)-alpha-l-rhap-(1-->3)-[ac-->2]-alpha-l-rhap-(1-->3)-beta-d-glcpnac-(1-->}(n) polymer ([(e)ab(ac)cd](n)) were synthesized as their propyl glycosides. all targets share the (e)ab sequence. following a thorough investigation on the use of n-trichloroacetylglucosamine- versus n-acetylglucosamine-containing tri- and tetrasaccharide acceptors, the successful strategy was based on an efficient combination of the ...	2009	19278208
foodborne outbreaks, austria 2007.	in 2007 austria reported a total of 438 foodborne outbreaks affecting 1715 people, including 286 hospitalized patients and one death. salmonella spp. and campylobacter spp. accounted for 95% of all reported outbreaks. forty-eight (11%) of the 438 austrian outbreaks were acquired abroad. of the 390 domestically acquired foodborne outbreaks, bacterial infection caused 376, viruses (norovirus and 1-time hepatitis a virus) caused 11, and intoxications (staphylococcus aureus enterotoxins, alkaloid to ...	2009	19280130
genetics and virulence association of the shigella flexneri sit iron transport system.	the sit-encoded iron transport system is present within pathogenicity islands in all shigella spp. and some pathogenic escherichia coli strains. the islands contain numerous insertion elements and sequences with homology to bacteriophage genes. the shigella flexneri sit genes can be lost as a result of deletion within the island. the formation of deletions was dependent upon reca and occurred at relatively high frequency. this suggests that the sit region is inherently unstable, yet sit genes ar ...	2009	19289511
acute non-outbreak shigellosis: ten years experience in southern taiwan.	we conducted a retrospective study of both the clinical and laboratory characteristics of shigellosis in southern taiwan.	2009	19292940
characterization of fluoroquinolone-resistant shigella flexneri in hangzhou area of china.	the aim of this study was to characterize fluoroquinolone-resistant shigella and determine whether the qnr and aac(6')-ib-cr genes could contribute to sporadic shigellosis at the clinic in the hangzhou area of china.	2009	19297378
serodiversity and antimicrobial resistance pattern of shigella isolates at gondar university teaching hospital, northwest ethiopia.	the aims of this study were to determine the distribution of serogroups and serotypes as well as the antimicrobial resistance pattern of shigella isolates from gondar patients with acute diarrhea. a cross-sectional study was conducted from august 2006 to february 2008. stool specimens were received from study subjects and cultured. isolates were confirmed by biochemical and serological tests. the isolates were tested for antimicrobial susceptibility by the disc diffusion method. of the 1,200 sto ...	2009	19305047
structural mimicry of o-antigen by a peptide revealed in a complex with an antibody raised against shigella flexneri serotype 2a.	the use of carbohydrate-mimicking peptides to induce immune responses against surface polysaccharides of pathogenic bacteria offers a novel approach to vaccine development. factors governing antigenic and immunogenic mimicry, however, are complex and poorly understood. we have addressed this question using the anti-lipopolysaccharide monoclonal antibody f22-4, which was raised against shigella flexneri serotype 2a and shown to protect against homologous infection in a mouse model. in a previous ...	2009	19328810
antimicrobial susceptibility and mechanisms of resistance in shigella and salmonella isolates from children under five years of age with diarrhea in rural mozambique.	the antimicrobial susceptibility and mechanisms of resistance of 109 shigella and 40 salmonella isolates from children with diarrhea in southern mozambique were assessed. the susceptibility to seven antimicrobial agents was tested by disk diffusion, and mechanisms of resistance were searched by pcr or colorimetric method. a high proportion of shigella isolates were resistant to chloramphenicol (chl) (52%), ampicillin (amp) (56%), tetracycline (tet) (66%), and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (sxt) ...	2009	19332670
solar disinfection (sodis) and subsequent dark storage of salmonella typhimurium and shigella flexneri monitored by flow cytometry.	pathogenic enteric bacteria are a major cause of drinking water related morbidity and mortality in developing countries. solar disinfection (sodis) is an effective means to fight this problem. in the present study, sodis of two important enteric pathogens, shigella flexneri and salmonella typhimurium, was investigated with a variety of viability indicators including cellular atp levels, efflux pump activity, glucose uptake ability, and polarization and integrity of the cytoplasmic membrane. the ...	2009	19332832
the pic protease of enteroaggregative escherichia coli promotes intestinal colonization and growth in the presence of mucin.	enteroaggregative escherichia coli (eaec) is increasingly being recognized as a cause of diarrheal disease in diverse populations. no small animal model is currently available to study this pathogen. we report here that conventional mice orally inoculated with prototype eaec strain 042 generally became colonized, though the abundance of organisms cultured from their stool varied substantially among individual animals. in contrast, mice whose water contained 5 g/liter streptomycin consistently be ...	2009	19349428
virb alleviates h-ns repression of the icsp promoter in shigella flexneri from sites more than one kilobase upstream of the transcription start site.	the icsp promoter of shigella spp. is repressed by h-ns and derepressed by virb. here, we show that an inverted repeat located between positions -1144 and -1130 relative to the icsp transcription start site is necessary for virb-dependent derepression. the atypical location of this cis-acting site is discussed.	2009	19363111
life on the inside: the intracellular lifestyle of cytosolic bacteria.	bacterial pathogens exploit a huge range of niches within their hosts. many pathogens can invade non-phagocytic cells and survive within a membrane-bound compartment. however, only a small number of bacteria, including listeria monocytogenes, shigella flexneri, burkholderia pseudomallei, francisella tularensis and rickettsia spp., can gain access to and proliferate within the host cell cytosol. here, we discuss the mechanisms by which these cytosolic pathogens escape into the cytosol, obtain nut ...	2009	19369949
mechanism of unusual formation of 3-(5-phenyl-3h-[1,2,4]dithiazol-3-yl)chromen-4-ones and 4-oxo-4h-chromene-3-carbothioic acid n-phenylamides and their antimicrobial evaluation.	6/6,7-substituted 3-formylchromones (9a-e) react with 2 equivalents of 2-phenyl-4-dimethylamino-1-thia-3-azabuta-1,3-diene (10) or thiobenzamide (11) in refluxing toluene to furnish novel substituted 3-(5-phenyl-3h-[1,2,4]dithiazol-3-yl)chromen-4-ones (12a-e). however, reactions of substituted 2-anilino-3-formylchromones (15a-d) with thiobenzamide (11, 2 equivalents) in refluxing xylene furnish 4-oxo-4h-chromene-3-carbothioic acid n-phenylamide (17a-d) in high yields. a mechanistic rationalizati ...	2009	19375826
a new ethanolamine phosphate-containing variant of the o-antigen of shigella flexneri type 4a.	the o-specific polysaccharide (o-antigen) structure of a shigella flexneri type 4a strain from the dysentery reference laboratory (london, uk) was elucidated in 1978 and its characteristic feature was found to be alpha-d-glucosylation of glcnac at position 6, which defines o-factor iv. our nmr spectroscopic studies of the o-specific polysaccharides of two other strains belonging to s. flexneri type 4a (g1668 from adelaide, australia, and 1359 from moscow, russia) confirmed the carbohydrate backb ...	2009	19376498
activating mutations of n-wasp alter shigella pathogenesis.	the pathogenesis of shigella requires binding to the host protein n-wasp. to examine the roles of structural conformation and phospho-regulation of n-wasp during shigella pathogenesis, mutant n-wasp constructs predicted to result in a constitutively open conformation (l229p and l232p) or either a phospho-mimicking (y253e) or phospho-disruptive (y253f) structure were constructed. pyrene actin assays demonstrated that the n-wasp l229p and l232p constructs are constitutively active. despite the inc ...	2009	19379711
three-dimensional reconstruction of the shigella t3ss transmembrane regions reveals 12-fold symmetry and novel features throughout.	type iii secretion systems (t3sss) mediate bacterial protein translocation into eukaryotic cells, a process essential for virulence of many gram-negative pathogens. they are composed of a cytoplasmic secretion machinery and a base that bridges both bacterial membranes, into which a hollow, external needle is embedded. when isolated, the latter two parts are termed the 'needle complex'. an incomplete understanding of the structure of the needle complex has hampered studies of t3ss function. to es ...	2009	19396171
going round in circles: the structural biology of type iii secretion systems.		2009	19421157
design of alpha-transglucosidases of controlled specificity for programmed chemoenzymatic synthesis of antigenic oligosaccharides.	combined with chemical synthesis, the use of biocatalysts holds great potential to open the way to novel molecular diversity. we report in vitro chemoenzymatic pathways that, for the first time, take advantage of enzyme engineering to produce complex microbial cell-surface oligosaccharides and circumvent the chemical boundaries of glycochemistry. glycoenzymes were designed to act on nonnatural conveniently protected substrates to produce intermediates compatible with a programmed chemical elonga ...	2009	19432472
liposomes recruit ipac to the shigella flexneri type iii secretion apparatus needle as a final step in secretion induction.	shigella flexneri contact with enterocytes induces a burst of protein secretion via its type iii secretion apparatus (ttsa) as an initial step in cellular invasion. we have previously reported that ipad is positioned at the ttsa needle tip (m. espina et al., infect. immuno. 74:4391-4400, 2006). from this position, ipad senses small molecules in the environment to control the presentation of ipab to the needle tip. this step occurs without type iii secretion induction or ipac recruitment to the s ...	2009	19433542
the rho gtpase inactivation domain in vibrio cholerae martx toxin has a circularly permuted papain-like thiol protease fold.	a rho gtpase inactivation domain (rid) has been discovered in the multifunctional, autoprocessing rtx toxin rtxa from vibrio cholerae. the rid domain causes actin depolymerization and rounding of host cells through inactivation of the small rho gtpases rho, rac, and cdc42. with only a few toxin proteins containing rid domains in the current sequence database, the structure and molecular mechanisms of this domain are unknown. using comparative sequence and structural analyses, we report homology ...	2009	19434753