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ticks and tick-borne viruses from livestock hosts in arid and semiarid regions of the eastern and northeastern parts of kenya.biodiversity and relative abundance of ticks and associated arboviruses in garissa (northeastern) and isiolo (eastern) provinces of kenya were evaluated. ticks were collected from livestock, identified to species, pooled, and processed for virus isolation. in garissa, rhipicephalus pulchellus gerstacker (57.8%) and hyalomma truncatum koch (27.8%) were the most abundant species sampled, whereas r. pulchellus (80.4%) and amblyomma gemma donitz (9.6%) were the most abundant in isiolo. forty-four vi ...201424605478
influence of the biotope on the tick infestation of cattle and on the tick-borne pathogen repertoire of cattle ticks in ethiopia.the majority of vector-borne infections occur in the tropics, including africa, but molecular eco-epidemiological studies are seldom reported from these regions. in particular, most previously published data on ticks in ethiopia focus on species distribution, and only a few molecular studies on the occurrence of tick-borne pathogens or on ecological factors influencing these. the present study was undertaken to evaluate, if ticks collected from cattle in different ethiopian biotopes harbour (had ...201425248165
calponin-like chd64 is partly disordered.20-hydroxyecdysone (20e) and juvenile hormone (jh) signaling pathways interact to regulate insect development. recently, two proteins, a calponin-like chd64 and immunophilin fkbp39 have been found to play a pivotal role in the cross-talk between 20e and jh, although the molecular basis of interaction remains unknown. the aim of this work was to identify the structural features that would provide understanding of the role of chd64 in multiple and dynamic complex that cross-links the signaling pat ...201424805353
current perspectives on mycobacterium farcinogenes and mycobacterium senegalense, the causal agents of bovine farcy.mycobacterium farcinogenes and m. senegalense are the causal agents of bovine farcy, a chronic, progressive disease of the skin and lymphatics of zebu cattle. the disease, which is prevalent mainly in sub-saharan africa, was in earlier times thought to be caused by nocardia farcinica and can be described as one of the neglected diseases in cattle. some aspects of the disease have been investigated during the last five decades but the major development had been in the bacteriological, chemotaxono ...201424876989
occurrence of tick-transmitted pathogens in dogs in jos, plateau state, nigeria.canine babesiosis caused by babesia rossi, transmitted by haemaphysalis elliptica in south africa, has also been reported from nigeria. although h. leachi (sensu lato) is widespread in sub-saharan africa, published literature on the occurrence of canine babesiosis is meagre. it has been postulated that the genotype of babesia rossi erythrocyte membrane antigen 1 (brema1) may be linked to virulence of the specific isolate. the primary objective of this study was to detect and characterise tick-bo ...201424661795
identification of rhipicephalus microplus genes that modulate the infection rate of the rickettsia anaplasma marginale.arthropod vectors transmit a diversity of animal and human pathogens, ranging from rna viruses to protozoal parasites. chemotherapeutic control of pathogens has classically focused either on insecticides that kill the vector itself or antimicrobials for infected patients. the limitation of the former is that it targets both infected and uninfected vectors and selects for resistant populations while the latter requires prompt and accurate diagnosis. an alternative strategy is to target vector mol ...201424608654
repellent activities of essential oils of some plants used traditionally to control the brown ear tick, rhipicephalus appendiculatus.essential oils of eight plants, selected after an ethnobotanical survey conducted in bukusu community in bungoma county, western kenya (tagetes minuta, tithonia diversifolia, juniperus procera, solanecio mannii, senna didymobotrya, lantana camara, securidaca longepedunculata, and hoslundia opposita), were initially screened (at two doses) for their repellence against brown ear tick, rhipicephalus appendiculatus, using a dual-choice climbing assay. the oils of t. minuta and t. diversifolia were t ...201424693417
first molecular detection of rickettsia africae in ticks from the union of the comoros.rickettsia africae is the agent of african tick bite fever, a disease transmitted by ticks in sub-saharan africa. in union of the comoros, a recent study reported the presence of a rickettsia africae vector but no information has been provided on the circulation of the pathogenic agent in this country.201425245895
efficacy of slow-release tags impregnated with aggregation-attachment pheromone and deltamethrin for control of amblyomma variegatum on st. kitts, west indies.amblyomma variegatum is an important cause of morbidity, mortality and economic losses in africa and the west indies. attempts to control and/or eradicate the tick from the caribbean have largely been unsuccessful because of difficulties relating to the biology of the three-host tick and problems with applying acaricides on a regular basis to free-ranging domestic ruminants. while plastic collars impregnated with insecticides are widely and effectively used in companion animals to control extern ...201424731252
survival and moulting of amblyomma variegatum nymphs under cold conditions of the malagasy highlands.although amblyomma variegatum is now regularly recorded up to 1600 m in altitude in the malagasy highlands, where it was previously reported not to persist without a constant supply of ticks introduced from lower infested regions, some parts of the highlands remain tick-free. studies were carried out to verify whether the cold climate prevailing in these areas in june-september could prevent the survival and moulting of nymphs, the tick life stage present in the environment at this period. cohor ...201424999236
molecular detection of piroplasms in ixodid ticks infesting cattle and sheep in western oromia, ethiopia.in ethiopia, ticks and tick-borne diseases are widely distributed and contribute to important economic losses. several studies investigated the prevalence and species composition of ticks infesting ruminants; however, data on tick-borne pathogens are still scarce. during the study period from october 2010 to april 2011, a total of 1,246 adult ticks and 264 nymphs were collected from 267 cattle and 45 sheep in bako district, western oromia, ethiopia. the study showed infestation of 228/267 (85.4  ...201423846769
identification of hard ticks (acari: ixodidae) and seroprevalence to theileria parva in cattle raised in north kivu province, democratic republic of congo.this study aimed to identify tick species and to determine their relationship with the theileria parva seroprevalence in cattle raised under an extensive farming system in north kivu province, democratic republic of congo in two agro-ecological zones namely medium (1,000-1,850 m) and high (>1,850 m) altitude. among the 3,215 ticks collected on 482 animals, from february to april 2009, rhipicephalus appendiculatus (64.26 %), the main vector of t. parva, was the most abundant species followed by r ...201323192530
new data regarding distribution of cattle ticks in the south-western indian ocean islands.recent studies have produced new insight into the origin and distribution of some cattle ticks in the south-western indian ocean islands. rhipicephalus appendiculatus, introduced from tanzania in 2002, is now well established on grande comore but has not yet reached the other islands of the archipelago (mohéli, anjouan and mayotte). only one of the two clades identified in africa has settled so far. amblyomma variegatum, which was not supposed to be able to persist in the antananarivo region (13 ...201324016261
relationship between the prevalence of ectoparasites and associated risk factors in free-range pigs in kenya.a cross-sectional study was undertaken to determine the prevalence of ectoparasites and possible risk factors in free-range pigs from 135 farms of busia district, kenya. three hundred and six pigs were examined for presence of external parasites using standard parasitological methods. data on management practices including housing and history of acaricide spraying were also collected. the ectoparasites found in the pigs were haematopinus suis (96.1%), sarcoptes scabiei (63.7%), and ticks (29.7%) ...201323984085
amblyomma cajennense (fabricius, 1787) (acari: ixodidae), the cayenne tick: phylogeography and evidence for allopatric speciation.amblyomma cajennense f. is one of the best known and studied ticks in the new world because of its very wide distribution, its economical importance as pest of domestic ungulates, and its association with a variety of animal and human pathogens. recent observations, however, have challenged the taxonomic status of this tick and indicated that intraspecific cryptic speciation might be occurring. in the present study, we investigate the evolutionary and demographic history of this tick and examine ...201324320199
parasite co-infections show synergistic and antagonistic interactions on growth performance of east african zebu cattle under one year.the co-occurrence of different pathogen species and their simultaneous infection of hosts are common, and may affect host health outcomes. co-infecting pathogens may interact synergistically (harming the host more) or antagonistically (harming the host less) compared with single infections. here we have tested associations of infections and their co-infections with variation in growth rate using a subset of 455 animals of the infectious diseases of east africa livestock (ideal) cohort study surv ...201324001119
the tick-derived anticoagulant madanin is processed by thrombin and factor xa.the cysteine-less peptidic anticoagulants madanin-1 and madanin-2 from the bush tick haemaphysalis longicornis are the founding members of the merops inhibitor family i53. it has been previously suggested that madanins exert their functional activity by competing with physiological substrates for binding to the positively charged exosite i (fibrinogen-binding exosite) of α-thrombin. we hereby demonstrate that competitive inhibition of α-thrombin by madanin-1 or madanin-2 involves binding to the ...201323951260
toxicity of millettia ferruginea darasana (family: fabaceae) against the larvae and adult ticks of amblyomma variegatum fabricius a three-host tick in cattle.the in vitro toxicity of millettia ferruginea darasana (family: fabaceae) was tested against the larvae adult male and female of a three-host tick, amblyomma variegatum fabricius (family: ixodidae or hard tick), known as 'tropical bont tick' parasitic mainly to cattle found in ethiopia and other equatorial africa. the 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 % concentrations of the seed oil extracted with petroleum ether were found to kill all (100 % mortality) larvae after 12, 9, 6, 3 and 1.5 h respectively. the ...201326064022
use of metarhizium anisopliae chitinase genes for genotyping and virulence characterization.virulence is the primary factor used for selection of entomopathogenic fungi (epf) for development as biopesticides. to understand the genetic mechanisms underlying differences in virulence of fungal isolates on various arthropod pests, we compared the chitinase genes, chi2 and chi4, of 8 isolates of metarhizium anisopliae. the clustering of the isolates showed various groups depending on their virulence. however, the analysis of their chitinase dna sequences chi2 and chi4 did not reveal major d ...201323936804
anaplasma phagocytophilum inhibits apoptosis and promotes cytoskeleton rearrangement for infection of tick cells.anaplasma phagocytophilum causes human granulocytic anaplasmosis. infection with this zoonotic pathogen affects gene expression in both the vertebrate host and the tick vector, ixodes scapularis. here, we identified new genes, including spectrin alpha chain or alpha-fodrin (cg8) and voltage-dependent anion-selective channel or mitochondrial porin (t2), that are involved in a. phagocytophilum infection/multiplication and the tick cell response to infection. the pathogen downregulated the expressi ...201323630955
ixodid ticks of traditionally managed cattle in central nigeria: where rhipicephalus (boophilus) microplus does not dare (yet?).ticks and tick-borne diseases (tbds) undermine cattle fitness and productivity in the whole of sub-saharan africa, including nigeria. the aim of this study was to document the composition of tick species, assessing the burden of infestation, in traditionally managed cattle in an area of central nigeria where acaricides have not been used historically.201323758913
simple method to differentiate among rickettsia species.in this work we present a new option to identify 11 rickettsial species that cause human rickettsioses, with some advantages over the previous methods described. using rickettsial isolates from 11 rickettsia species as a sample, we used the polymerase chain reaction to amplify a 990- to 1,000-bp dna fragment from the ompb gene, common for the 11 rickettsia species analyzed in this study, which were digested with alui restriction enzyme to obtain different digestion patterns. this restriction pat ...201323595041
dermatophagoides farinae allergens diversity identification by proteomics.the most important indoor allergens for humans are house dust mites (hdm). fourteen dermatophagoides farinae allergens (der f 1-3, 6, 7, 10, 11, 13-18, and 22) are reported although more than 30 allergens have been estimated in d. farinae. seventeen allergens belonging to 12 different groups were identified by a procedure of proteomics combined with two-dimensional immunoblotting from d. farina extracts. their sequences were determined by edman degradation, mass spectrometry analysis, and cdna c ...201323481662
coxiella burnetii in humans, domestic ruminants, and ticks in rural western kenya.we conducted serological surveys for coxiella burnetii in archived sera from patients that visited a rural clinic in western kenya from 2007 to 2008 and in cattle, sheep, and goats from the same area in 2009. we also conducted serological and polymerase chain reaction-based surveillance for the pathogen in 2009-2010, in human patients with acute lower respiratory illness, in ruminants following parturition, and in ticks collected from ruminants and domestic dogs. antibodies against c. burnetii w ...201323382156
kolente virus, a rhabdovirus species isolated from ticks and bats in the republic of guinea.kolente virus (kolev) is a rhabdovirus originally isolated from ticks and a bat in guinea, west africa, in 1985. although tests at the time of isolation suggested that kolev is a novel rhabdovirus, it has remained largely uncharacterized. we assembled the complete genome sequence of the prototype strain dakar k7292, which was found to encode the five canonical rhabdovirus structural proteins (n, p, m, g and l) with alternative orfs (>180 nt) in the p and l genes. serologically, kolev exhibited a ...201324062532
host blood meal-dependent growth ensures transovarial transmission and transstadial passage of rickettsia sp. phylotype g021 in the western black-legged tick (ixodes pacificus).in this study, we explored the growth dynamics of rickettsia sp. phylotype g021 during transovarial transmission and transstadial passage by ixodes pacificus using real-time quantitative pcr. four parental engorged i. pacificus females were allowed to complete their developmental stages until the f2-generation eggs yielded unfed larvae. all eggs, larvae, nymphs, and adults tested through 2 generations were found to be infected with phylotype g021. hence, we conclude that the efficiency of transo ...201323876278
identification and characterization of sialidase-like activity in the developmental stages of amblyomma variegatum.amblyomma variegatum f. are obligate hematophagous ectoparasites of livestock that serve as the vectors of ehrlichia ruminantium (formerly known as cowdria ruminantium), the causative agent of heartwater disease. in the light of the fact that they are blood-feeding, their salivary glands play prominent role in their acquisition of nutrients from the bloodmeal. sialic acids are a major component of glycoprotein in mammalian blood fluid and cells. sialome of hard ticks is still sparse. here, for t ...201323427656
prevalence of ehrlichia ruminantium in adult amblyomma variegatum collected from cattle in cameroon.ehrlichia ruminantium, the etiologic agent of the economically important disease heartwater, is an obligate intracellular bacterium transmitted by ticks of the genus amblyomma, particularly a. hebraeum and a. variegatum. although serologic and microscopic evidence of the presence of heartwater have been reported in ruminants in cameroon, knowledge of e. ruminantium infection in the tick vector, a. variegatum, is lacking. in order to determine the infectivity of a. variegatum ticks by e. ruminant ...201322833099
high prevalence of spotted fever group rickettsiae in amblyomma variegatum from uganda and their identification using sizes of intergenic spacers.the spotted fever group (sfg) rickettsiae are obligate intracellular bacteria transmitted by ticks that cause several tick-borne rickettsioses in humans worldwide. this study was intended to determine the prevalence of sfg rickettsiae in amblyomma variegatum from 7 districts across uganda. in addition to sequencing of glta and ompa genes, identification of rickettsia species based on the sizes of highly variable intergenic spacers, namely, dksa-xerc, mppa-purc, and rpme-trna(fmet) was carried ou ...201324331642
endogenous tick viruses and modulation of tick-borne pathogen growth.ticks transmit a wide range of viral, bacterial and protozoan pathogens, many of which can establish persistent infections of lifelong duration in the vector tick and in some cases are transmitted transovarially to the next generation. in addition many ixodid and argasid tick cell lines and, by inference the parent ticks from which they were derived, harbor endogenous viruses (etv) of which almost nothing is known. in general, low level persistent infections with viral pathogens (arboviruses) ar ...201323875176
deorphanization and target validation of cross-tick species conserved novel amblyomma americanum tick saliva protein.we previously identified a cross-tick species conserved tick feeding stimuli responsive amblyomma americanum (aam) av422 gene. this study demonstrates that aamav422 belongs to a novel group of arthropod proteins that is characterized by 14 cysteine amino acid residues: c(23)-x7/9-c(33)-x23/24-c(58)-x8-c(67)-x7-c(75)-x23-c(99)-x15-c(115)-x10-c(126)-x24/25/33-c(150)c(151)-x7-c(159)-x8-c(168)-x23/24-c(192)-x9/10-c(202) predicted to form seven disulfide bonds. we show that aamav422 protein is a ubiq ...201323428900
international union of basic and clinical pharmacology. [corrected]. lxxxix. update on the extended family of chemokine receptors and introducing a new nomenclature for atypical chemokine receptors.sixteen years ago, the nomenclature committee of the international union of pharmacology approved a system for naming human seven-transmembrane (7tm) g protein-coupled chemokine receptors, the large family of leukocyte chemoattractant receptors that regulates immune system development and function, in large part by mediating leukocyte trafficking. this was announced in pharmacological reviews in a major overview of the first decade of research in this field [murphy pm, baggiolini m, charo if, hé ...201324218476
fever versus fever: the role of host and vector susceptibility and interspecific competition in shaping the current and future distributions of the sylvatic cycles of dengue virus and yellow fever virus.two different species of flaviviruses, dengue virus (denv) and yellow fever virus (yfv), that originated in sylvatic cycles maintained in non-human primates and forest-dwelling mosquitoes have emerged repeatedly into sustained human-to-human transmission by aedes aegypti mosquitoes. sylvatic cycles of both viruses remain active, and where the two viruses overlap in west africa they utilize similar suites of monkeys and aedes mosquitoes. these extensive similarities render the differences in the ...201323523817
amblyomma americanum tick saliva serine protease inhibitor 6 is a cross-class inhibitor of serine proteases and papain-like cysteine proteases that delays plasma clotting and inhibits platelet aggregation.we previously demonstrated that amblyomma americanum tick serine protease inhibitor 6 (aams6) was secreted into the host during tick feeding and that both its mrna and protein were ubiquitously and highly expressed during the first 3 days of tick feeding. this study demonstrates that aams6 is a cross-class inhibitor of both serine- and papain-like cysteine proteases that has apparent antihaemostatic functions. consistent with the typical inhibitory serpin characteristics, enzyme kinetics analyse ...201323521000
hyalomma scupense (acari, ixodidae) in northeast tunisia: seasonal population dynamics of nymphs and adults on field cattle.hyalomma scupense is a two-host tick infesting mainly cattle representing in north africa the vector of tropical theileriosis (theileria annulata infection), a major tick-borne disease affecting cattle. any effective control programme of ticks requires a good knowledge of the biology of the target species. in the present study, three cattle farms in northeast tunisia were surveyed during the activity seasons for adult and nymphs of hyalomma scupense. several indicators were studied, including ch ...201323547915
coevolutionary analyses of the relationships between piroplasmids and their hard tick hosts.host-parasite coevolution is a key driver of biological diversity. to examine the evolutionary relationships between piroplasmids and their hard tick hosts, we calculated the molecular clock and conducted phylogenetic analyses of both groups. based on our results, we conclude that the divergence time of piroplasmids (∼56 mya) is later than divergence time of their hard tick hosts (∼86 mya). from analyses of the evolution of both piroplasmid and vector lineages and their association, we know that ...201324101988
ticks and tick-borne pathogens at the cutaneous interface: host defenses, tick countermeasures, and a suitable environment for pathogen establishment.ticks are unique among hematophagous arthropods by continuous attachment to host skin and blood feeding for days; complexity and diversity of biologically active molecules differentially expressed in saliva of tick species; their ability to modulate the host defenses of pain and itch, hemostasis, inflammation, innate and adaptive immunity, and wound healing; and, the diverse array of infectious agents they transmit. all of these interactions occur at the cutaneous interface in a complex sequence ...201324312085
the ovarian transcriptome of the cattle tick, rhipicephalus (boophilus) microplus, feeding upon a bovine host infected with babesia bovis.cattle babesiosis is a tick-borne disease of cattle with the most severe form of the disease caused by the apicomplexan, babesia bovis. babesiosis is transmitted to cattle through the bite of infected cattle ticks of the genus rhipicephalus. the most prevalent species is rhipicephalus (boophilus) microplus, which is distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical countries of the world. the transmission of b. bovis is transovarian and a previous study of the r. microplus ovarian proteome ide ...201324330595
design and descriptive epidemiology of the infectious diseases of east african livestock (ideal) project, a longitudinal calf cohort study in western kenya.there is a widely recognised lack of baseline epidemiological data on the dynamics and impacts of infectious cattle diseases in east africa. the infectious diseases of east african livestock (ideal) project is an epidemiological study of cattle health in western kenya with the aim of providing baseline epidemiological data, investigating the impact of different infections on key responses such as growth, mortality and morbidity, the additive and/or multiplicative effects of co-infections, and th ...201324000820
tick salivary compounds: their role in modulation of host defences and pathogen transmission.ticks require blood meal to complete development and reproduction. multifunctional tick salivary glands play a pivotal role in tick feeding and transmission of pathogens. tick salivary molecules injected into the host modulate host defence responses to the benefit of the feeding ticks. to colonize tick organs, tick-borne microorganisms must overcome several barriers, i.e., tick gut membrane, tick immunity, and moulting. tick-borne pathogens co-evolved with their vectors and hosts and developed m ...201323971008
matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry for rapid identification of tick vectors.a method for rapid species identification of ticks may help clinicians predict the disease outcomes of patients with tick bites and may inform the decision as to whether to administer postexposure prophylactic antibiotic treatment. we aimed to establish a matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (maldi-tof ms) spectrum database based on the analysis of the legs of six tick vectors: amblyomma variegatum, rhipicephalus sanguineus, hyalomma marginatum rufipes, ix ...201323224087
a novel approach, based on blsoms (batch learning self-organizing maps), to the microbiome analysis of ticks.ticks transmit a variety of viral, bacterial and protozoal pathogens, which are often zoonotic. the aim of this study was to identify diverse tick microbiomes, which may contain as-yet unidentified pathogens, using a metagenomic approach. dna prepared from bacteria/archaea-enriched fractions obtained from seven tick species, namely amblyomma testudinarium, amblyomma variegatum, haemaphysalis formosensis, haemaphysalis longicornis, ixodes ovatus, ixodes persulcatus and ixodes ricinus, was subject ...201323303373
bioinformatics and expression analyses of the ixodes scapularis tick cystatin family.the cystatins are inhibitors of papain- and legumain-like cysteine proteinases, classified in merops subfamilies i25a-i25c. this study shows that 84 % (42/50) of tick cystatins are putatively extracellular in subfamily i25b and the rest are putatively intracellular in subfamily i25a. on the neighbor joining phylogeny guide tree, subfamily i25a members cluster together, while subfamily i25b cystatins segregate among prostriata or metastriata ticks. two ixodes scapularis cystatins, aay66864 and is ...201223053911
analysis of babesia bovis infection-induced gene expression changes in larvae from the cattle tick, rhipicephalus (boophilus) microplus.cattle babesiosis is a tick-borne disease of cattle that has severe economic impact on cattle producers throughout the world's tropical and subtropical countries. the most severe form of the disease is caused by the apicomplexan, babesia bovis, and transmitted to cattle through the bite of infected cattle ticks of the genus rhipicephalus, with the most prevalent species being rhipicephalus (boophilus) microplus. we studied the reaction of the r. microplus larval transcriptome in response to infe ...201222871314
gene silencing in tick cell lines using small interfering or long double-stranded rna.gene silencing by rna interference (rnai) is an important research tool in many areas of biology. to effectively harness the power of this technique in order to explore tick functional genomics and tick-microorganism interactions, optimised parameters for rnai-mediated gene silencing in tick cells need to be established. ten cell lines from four economically important ixodid tick genera (amblyomma, hyalomma, ixodes and rhipicephalus including the sub-species boophilus) were used to examine key p ...201222773071
tick salivary secretion as a source of antihemostatics.ticks are mostly obligatory blood feeding ectoparasites that have an impact on human and animal health. in addition to direct damage due to feeding, some tick species serve as the vectors for the causative agents of several diseases, such as the spirochetes of the genus borrelia causing lyme disease, the virus of tick-borne encephalitis, various rickettsial pathogens or even protozoan parasites like babesia spp. hard ticks are unique among bloodfeeders because of their prolonged feeding period t ...201222564820
the role of cystatins in tick physiology and blood feeding.ticks, as obligate hematophagous ectoparasites, impact greatly on animal and human health because they transmit various pathogens worldwide. over the last decade, several cystatins from different hard and soft ticks were identified and biochemically analyzed for their role in the physiology and blood feeding lifestyle of ticks. all these cystatins are potent inhibitors of papain-like cysteine proteases, but not of legumain. tick cystatins were either detected in the salivary glands and/or the mi ...201222647711
pathogen prevalence in ticks collected from the vegetation and livestock in nigeria.ticks are important disease vectors that can cause considerable economic losses by affecting animal health and productivity, especially in tropical and subtropical regions. in this study, we investigated the prevalence and diversity of bacterial and protozoan tick-borne pathogens in ticks collected from the vegetation and cattle in nigeria by pcr. the infection rates of questing ticks were 3.1% for rickettsia species, 0.1% for coxiella burnetii and 0.4% for borrelia species. other pathogens, suc ...201222327584
ectoparasites of sheep in three agro-ecological zones in central oromia, ethiopia.a cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the prevalence and risk factors for ectoparasites infestation in sheep in three agro-ecological zones in central oromia, ethiopia, from october 2009 to april 2010. the study revealed that 637 (48.1%) of the 1325 sheep examined were infested with one or more ectoparasites. the ectoparasites identified were bovicola ovis (27.2%), melophagus ovinus (16.4%), ctenocephalides sp. (2.3%), linognathus africanus (1.2%), linognathus ovillus (0.3%), sarcop ...201223327319
epidemiological perspectives of ticks and tick-borne diseases in south sudan: cross-sectional survey results.a cross-sectional study was conducted between september and october 2010 in five states of south sudan that were selected on the basis of the perceived risk of tick-borne diseases. the purpose was to investigate epidemiological parameters of tick-borne diseases in south sudan and their uses in future control strategies. a total of 805 calves were assessed by clinical, microscopic and serological examination and tick counts. the indirect enzyme-linked immuno-sorbent assay (elisa) was used to dete ...201223327317
the sialotranscriptome of antricola delacruzi female ticks is compatible with non-hematophagous behavior and an alternative source of food.the hosts for antricola delacruzi ticks are insectivorous, cave-dwelling bats on which only larvae are found. the mouthparts of nymphal and adult a. delacruzi are compatible with scavenging feeding because the hypostome is small and toothless. how a single blood meal of a larva provides energy for several molts as well as for oviposition by females is not known. adults of a. delacruzi possibly feed upon an unknown food source in bat guano, a substrate on which nymphal and adult stages are always ...201222306723
dugbe virus ovarian tumour domain interferes with ubiquitin/isg15-regulated innate immune cell signalling.the ovarian tumour (otu) domain of the nairovirus l protein has been shown to remove ubiquitin and interferon-stimulated gene 15 protein (isg15) from host cell proteins, which is expected to have multiple effects on cell signalling pathways. we have confirmed that the otu domain from the l protein of the apathogenic nairovirus dugbe virus has deubiquitinating and deisgylating activity and shown that, when expressed in cells, it is highly effective at blocking the tnf-α/nf-κb and interferon/jak/s ...201223136361
molecular evolution of lineage 2 west nile virus.since the 1990s west nile virus (wnv) has become an increasingly important public health problem and the cause of outbreaks of neurological disease. genetic analyses have identified multiple lineages with many studies focusing on lineage 1 due to its emergence in new york in 1999 and its neuroinvasive phenotype. until recently, viruses in lineage 2 were not thought to be of public health importance due to few outbreaks of disease being associated with viruses in this lineage. however, recent epi ...201223136360
detection and identification of putative bacterial endosymbionts and endogenous viruses in tick cell lines.as well as being vectors of many viral, bacterial, and protozoan pathogens of medical and veterinary importance, ticks harbour a variety of microorganisms which are not known to be pathogenic for vertebrate hosts. continuous cell lines established from ixodid and argasid ticks could be infected with such endosymbiotic bacteria and endogenous viruses, but to date very few cell lines have been examined for their presence. dna and rna extracted from over 50 tick cell lines deposited in the roslin w ...201222743047
tick-borne rickettsiae in guinea and liberia.while the high seroprevalence for the rickettsiae that cause spotted fevers and the multiple pathogenic rickettsiae is known, the data on the distribution of rickettsial diseases in africa are often incomplete. we collected ticks from domestic or wild animals (generally a source of bushmeat) that were in contact with humans in 2 neighboring countries of tropical west africa, guinea and liberia. in total, 382 ticks representing 6 species were collected in liberia and 655 ticks representing 7 spec ...201222309858
molecular identification of tick-borne pathogens in nigerian ticks.a molecular epidemiology investigation was undertaken in two nigerian states (plateau and nassarawa) to determine the prevalence of pathogens of veterinary and public health importance associated with ticks collected from cattle and dogs using pcr, cloning and sequencing or reverse line blot techniques. a total of 218 tick samples, amblyomma variegatum (n=153), rhipicephalus (boophilus) decoloratus (n=45), and rhipicephalus sanguineus (n=20) were sampled. pathogens identified in ticks included p ...201222326937
looking for tropheryma whipplei source and reservoir in rural senegal.tropheryma whipplei, the bacterium linked to whipple's disease, is involved in acute infections and asymptomatic carriage. in rural senegal, the prevalence of t. whipplei is generally high but is not homogeneous throughout households in the same village. we studied environmental samples collected in two senegalese villages and conducted the survey to investigate the difference between households. overall, the comparison between five households with very high t. whipplei prevalence and three hous ...201223249690
tick infestations in extensively grazed cattle and efficacy trial of high-cis cypermethrin pour-on preparation for control of ticks in mvomero district in tanzania.this study aimed at determining the extent of tick infestations in extensively grazed cattle and assess the efficacy of ecotix® acaricide (2.5% high cis cypermethrin) in mvomero district in tanzania. a total of 1200 tanzanian short horn zebu (tshz) from two farms in two villages were qualitatively assessed for tick infestations and 40 animals (grouped in 10s from each farm) were separated in their herds and quantitatively examined to establish the tick load. the animals were grouped in treatment ...201223164198
detection of parasites and parasitic infections of free-ranging wildlife on a game ranch in zambia: a challenge for disease control.ex-situ conservancies are expanding alternatives to livestock production in zambia albeit the lack of information on circulating infectious parasites from wildlife. therefore, 12 wildlife species were examined on a game ranch were all species were found to be infected by rhipecephalus spp. haemoparasite infections were estimated at 7.37% (n = 95) with babesia spp. detected in bushbuck (tragelaphus scriptus); anaplasma marginale in impala (aepyceros melampus) and puku (kobus vardonii) for the fir ...201222701163
comparison of real-time quantitative pcr and culture for the diagnosis of emerging rickettsioses.isolation of rickettsia species from skin biopsies may be replaced by pcr. we evaluated culture sensitivity compared to pcr based on sampling delay and previous antibiotic treatment.201222413026
molecular cloning and sequence analysis of the cdnas encoding toxin-like peptides from the venom glands of tarantula grammostola rosea.tarantula venom glands produce a large variety of bioactive peptides. here we present the identification of venom components obtained by sequencing clones isolated from a cdna library prepared from the venom glands of the chilean common tarantula, grammostola rosea. the cdna sequences of about 1500 clones out of 4000 clones were analyzed after selection using several criteria. forty-eight novel toxin-like peptides (gtx1 to gtx7, and gtx-tctp and gtx-crisp) were predicted from the nucleotide sequ ...201222500178
phylogeography and demographic history of amblyomma variegatum (fabricius) (acari: ixodidae), the tropical bont tick.the genetic diversity of amblyomma variegatum (fabricius) from four caribbean islands and five african countries was compared by analyzing the sequences of three gene fragments, two mitochondrial (12srdna and d-loop-dl), and one nuclear (intergenic transcribed spacer 2 [its2]). genetic variability of the its2 dna fragment consisted of only uninformative single nucleotide mutations, and therefore this gene was excluded from further analyses. mitochondrial gene divergences among african population ...201222448720
candidatus rickettsia hoogstraalii in ethiopian argas persicus ticks.ethiopian soft ticks argas persicus, hard ticks including both amblyomma variegatum and rhipicephalus (boophilus) spp., and fleas were collected from livestock, traditional human dwellings, and cracks and crevices of trees. they were assessed in pools for the presence of rickettsia using pcr-based methods. the extracted tick dna was subjected to molecular screening for rickettsia, which revealed 50.5% of the pooled samples to be positive for rickettsia spp. these were then subjected to multi-gen ...201223140898
biocontrol of pigeon tick argas reflexus (acari: argasidae) by entomopathogenic fungus metarhizium anisopliae (ascomycota: hypocreales).the pigeon tick argas reflexus is a pathogen-transmitting soft tick that typically feeds on pigeons, but can also attack humans causing local and systemic reactions. chemical control is made difficult due to environmental contamination and resistance development. as a result, there is much interest in increasing the role of other strategies like biological control. in this study, the efficacy of three strains (v245, 685 and 715c) of entomopathogenic fungus metarhizium anisopliae for biological c ...201124031777
ticks infesting cattle in central equatoria region of south sudan.ticks infesting cattle represent a serious problem for improvement of cattle productivity in south sudan. there has been limited information on ticks and tick-borne diseases in southern sudan. this study was initiated to update the current distribution of ticks infesting cattle in the central equatoria region of south sudan. the surveys for the present study were conducted at various cattle camps in juba, mangalla and terekeka between december 2004 and june 2005. a total of 2322 ticks were colle ...201123327220
neural control of salivary glands in ixodid ticks.studies of tick salivary glands (sgs) and their components have produced a number of interesting discoveries over the last four decades. however, the precise neural and physiological mechanisms controlling sg secretion remain enigmatic. major studies of sg control have identified and characterized many pharmacological and biological compounds that activate salivary secretion, including dopamine (da), octopamine, γ-aminobutyric acid (gaba), ergot alkaloids, pilocarpine (pc), and their pharmacolog ...201122119563
response of nkedi zebu and ankole cattle to tick infestation and natural tick-borne, helminth and trypanosome infections in uganda.a cross-sectional study was conducted in soroti district of uganda to establish important traits of nkedi zebu and ankole cattle regarding their production performance responses to natural infections of trypanosomes, gastrointestinal nematodes, theileria parva, babesia bigemina, anaplasma marginale and tick infestations. over four visits between october 2006 to august 2007, tick counts were performed and blood, faecal samples and sera were collected from the nkedi zebu (295) and ankole (165) cat ...201121350849
a further insight into the sialome of the tropical bont tick, amblyomma variegatum.ticks--vectors of medical and veterinary importance--are themselves also significant pests. tick salivary proteins are the result of adaptation to blood feeding and contain inhibitors of blood clotting, platelet aggregation, and angiogenesis, as well as vasodilators and immunomodulators. a previous analysis of the sialotranscriptome (from the greek sialo, saliva) of amblyomma variegatum is revisited in light of recent advances in tick sialomes and provides a database to perform a proteomic study ...201121362191
colonization of grande comore island by a lineage of rhipicephalus appendiculatus ticks.union of the comoros suffered a severe east coast fever epidemic in 2004. rhipicephalus appendiculatus was probably involved in pathogen transmission as this competent tick species, although previously absent from comoros, was sampled on 4 animals on one geographical site during the epidemic. we carried out an entomological survey on all three islands of union of the comoros to establish cattle tick species distribution with a special emphasis on r. appendiculatus. we investigated r. appendicula ...201121414194
risk factors for african tick-bite fever in rural central africa.african tick-bite fever is an emerging infectious disease caused by the spotted fever group rickettsia, rickettsia africae, and is transmitted by ticks of the genus amblyomma. to determine the seroprevalence of exposure to r. africae and risk factors associated with infection, we conducted a cross-sectional study of persons in seven rural villages in distinct ecological habitats of cameroon. we examined 903 plasma samples by using an indirect immunofluorescence assay for antibodies to r. africae ...201121460018
ehrlichia ruminantium in amblyomma variegatum and domestic ruminants in the caribbean.the highly sensitive nested pcs20 polymerase chain reaction assay for ehrlichia ruminantium was negative on 506 amblyomma variegatum from caribbean islands where clinical heartwater has not been reported, mainly the united states virgin islands (18), dominica (170), montserrat (5), nevis (34), st. kitts (262), and st. lucia (17). positive results were obtained with positive controls (crystal springs strain) and a. variegatum from countries in africa where infections are endemic, mainly tanzania ...201121485394
effect of water flooding on the oviposition capacity of engorged adult females and hatchability of eggs of dog ticks: rhipicephalus sanguineus and haemaphysalis leachi leachi.effects of water flooding on the oviposition capacity of engorged adult females and hatchability of eggs of rhipicephalus sanguineus and haemaphysalis leachi leachi under laboratory conditions were investigated. the durations of time of water flooding were 1, 2, 4, 6, 12, 24, 48, 72, 96, and 120 hours. engorged females of r. sanguineus and h. leachi leachi did not oviposit after being flooded for more than 48 and 6 hours, respectively. the preoviposition periods of both species were longer than ...201121584237
prevalence and species composition of ixodid ticks infesting horses in three agroecologies in central oromia, ethiopia.a cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the species composition and prevalence of ixodid ticks infesting horses in three agroecological zones in central ethiopia. for this purpose, a total of 1,168 horses were examined for tick infestation. an overall prevalence of 39.04% of tick infestation on horses was recorded. a total of 917 adult ticks were collected from infested horses. amblyomma, boophilus, rhipicephalus, and hyalomma genera with the respective prevalence of 3.2%, 1.8%, 29.2% ...201121656133
crimean-congo hemorrhagic fever virus in hyalommid ticks, northeastern kenya.as part of ongoing arbovirus surveillance, we screened ticks obtained from livestock in northeastern kenya in 2008 to assess the risk for human exposure to tick-borne viruses. of 1,144 pools of 8,600 hyalomma spp. ticks screened for congo-crimean hemorrhagic fever virus by reverse transcription pcr, 23 pools were infected, demonstrating a potential for human exposure.201121801635
multi-locus sequence typing of ehrlichia ruminantium strains from geographically diverse origins and collected in amblyomma variegatum from uganda.abstract: background: the rickettsial bacterium ehrlichia ruminantium is the causative agent of heartwater in ruminants. a better understanding of the population genetics of its different strains is, however, needed for the development of novel diagnostic tools, therapeutics and prevention strategies. specifically, the development of effective vaccination policies relies on the proper genotyping and characterisation of field isolates. although multi-locus sequence typing (mlst) has been recently ...201121762509
restricted application of insecticides: a promising tsetse control technique, but what do the farmers think of it?restricted application of insecticides to cattle is a cheap and safe farmer-based method to control tsetse. in western africa, it is applied using a footbath, mainly to control nagana and the tick amblyomma variegatum. in eastern and southern africa, it might help controlling the human disease, i.e., rhodesian sleeping sickness as well. the efficiency of this new control method against ticks, tsetse and trypanosomoses has been demonstrated earlier. the invention, co-built by researchers and farm ...201121858241
Development of multiple-locus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis for rapid genotyping of Ehrlichia ruminantium and its application to infected Amblyomma variegatum collected in heartwater endemic areas in Uganda.SUMMARYThe rickettsial bacterium Ehrlichia ruminantium is the causative agent of heartwater, a serious tick-borne disease in ruminants. The genetic diversity of organisms in the field will have implications for cross-protective capacities of any vaccine developed, and for an effective vaccine design strategy proper genotyping and understanding of existing genetic diversity in the field is necessary. We searched for variable-number tandem-repeat (VNTR) loci for use in a multi-locus VNTR analysis ...201122008706
An insight into the sialotranscriptome and proteome of the coarse bontlegged tick, Hyalomma marginatum rufipes.Ticks are mites specialized in acquiring blood from vertebrates as their sole source of food and are important disease vectors to humans and animals. Among the specializations required for this peculiar diet, ticks evolved a sophisticated salivary potion that can disarm their host's hemostasis, inflammation, and immune reactions. Previous transcriptome analysis of tick salivary proteins has revealed many new protein families indicative of fast evolution, possibly due to host immune pressure. The ...201121851864
crystal structure of thrombin in complex with s-variegin: insights of a novel mechanism of inhibition and design of tunable thrombin inhibitors.the inhibition of thrombin is one of the important treatments of pathological blood clot formation. variegin, isolated from the tropical bont tick, is a novel molecule exhibiting a unique 'two-modes' inhibitory property on thrombin active site (competitive before cleavage, noncompetitive after cleavage). for the better understanding of its function, we have determined the crystal structure of the human α-thrombin:synthetic-variegin complex at 2.4 å resolution. the structure reveals a new mechani ...201122053189
tick cell lines for study of crimean-congo hemorrhagic fever virus and other arboviruses.abstract continuous cell lines derived from many of the vectors of tick-borne arboviruses of medical and veterinary importance are now available. their role as tools in arbovirus research to date is reviewed and their potential application in studies of tick cell responses to virus infection is explored, by comparison with recent progress in understanding mosquito immunity to arbovirus infection. a preliminary study of propagation of the human pathogen crimean-congo hemorrhagic fever virus (cc ...201121955214
acaricidal effect of an isolate from hoslundia opposita vahl against amblyomma variegatum (acari: ixodidae).hoslundia opposita vahl. (lamiaceae), a common local shrub in ghana, is traditionally known not only for its pharmacological benefits but also for its insecticidal properties. its acaricidal property, however, has not been investigated.201122022167
a deep insight into the sialotranscriptome of the gulf coast tick, amblyomma maculatum.saliva of blood sucking arthropods contains compounds that antagonize their hosts' hemostasis, which include platelet aggregation, vasoconstriction and blood clotting; saliva of these organisms also has anti-inflammatory and immunomodullatory properties. perhaps because hosts mount an active immune response against these compounds, the diversity of these compounds is large even among related blood sucking species. because of these properties, saliva helps blood feeding as well as help the establ ...201122216098
acaricidal activity of cymbopogon citratus and azadirachta indica against house dust mites.to examine the acaricidal effects of the essential oil of cymbopogon citratus leaf extract (lemongrass) and ethanolic azadirachta indica leaf extract (neem) against house dust mites dermatophagoides farinae (d. farinae) and dermatophagoides pteronyssinus (d. pteronyssinus).201123569794
analysis of amblyomma surveillance data in the caribbean: lessons for future control programmes.amblyomma variegatum, the tropical bont tick (tbt), is the principal vector of heartwater and is associated with dermatophilosis, major causes of losses in animal production and mortality in caribbean livestock. from 1995 to 2007, the caribbean amblyomma programme (cap) supported treatment and surveillance activities in 11 islands of the eastern caribbean with an initial objective of eradicating tbt. in addition to control activities, surveillance data were collected between 1997 and 2006 in a u ...201019833441
anti-chemokine activities of ixodid ticks depend on tick species, developmental stage, and duration of feeding.ixodid ticks require comparatively large bloodmeals for their development and survival. blood-feeding elicits signaling events in the host leading to wound healing responses (hemostasis, inflammation, and tissue repair) and immunity. bioactive molecules present in tick saliva sabotage these host responses at several levels. one of them is neutralization of cellular communication by binding of specific saliva molecules to cytokines that have important roles in innate and adaptive immunity. chemok ...201019836889
exploiting the heterogeneous drop-off rhythm of amblyomma variegatum nymphs to reduce pasture infestation by adult ticks.tick distribution depends on the drop-off rhythm of the previous stage and on the suitability for tick survival of the environment where they are disseminated. studies were implemented in burkina faso to assess detachment pattern of engorged amblyomma variegatum nymphs. experiments were carried out with naturally infested cattle kept in a paddock or monitored when grazing community pasture. in the pasture, 80% of the nymphs detached between 14.00 h and 17.00 h while less than 25% did so in the p ...201020441678
evasin-3-like anti-chemokine activity in salivary gland extracts of ixodid ticks during blood-feeding: a new target for tick control.ticks exploit many evasion mechanisms to circumvent the immune control of their hosts including subversion of the communication language between cells of the immune system provided by chemokines and other cytokines. one subversive molecule secreted in the saliva of rhipicephalus sanguineus is evasin-3, a structurally unique 7 kda protein that selectively binds the neutrophil chemoattractants, cxcl8 and (with lower affinity) cxcl1. we compared anti-human cxcl8 and anti-mouse cxcl1/kc activities i ...201020500677
rhipicephalus (boophilus) microplus: clotting time in tick-infested skin varies according to local inflammation and gene expression patterns in tick salivary glands.ticks deposit saliva at the site of their attachment to a host in order to inhibit haemostasis, inflammation and innate and adaptive immune responses. the anti-haemostatic properties of tick saliva have been described by many studies, but few show that tick infestations or its anti-haemostatic components exert systemic effects in vivo. in the present study, we extended these observations and show that, compared with normal skin, bovine hosts that are genetically susceptible to tick infestations ...201020045690
performance of a metarhizium anisopliae-treated semiochemical-baited trap in reducing amblyomma variegatum populations in the field.experiments were carried out to evaluate the efficacy of metarhizium anisopliae (metsch.) sorok. (ascomycota: hypocreales)-treated semiochemical-baited traps for control of amblyomma variegatum fabriscius (acari: ixodidae) under field conditions. unfed a. variegatum adults (118) were seeded in each 100-m plot and allowed to acclimatise for 3 days. on the fourth day (day 4), an emulsifiable formulation of m. anisopliae (consisting of 49.5% sterile distilled water, fungal conidia, 49.5% corn oil a ...201020153931
biogeography of tick-borne bhanja virus (bunyaviridae) in europe.bhanja virus (bhav) is pathogenic for young domestic ruminants and also for humans, causing fever and affections of the central nervous system. this generally neglected arbovirus of the family bunyaviridae is transmitted by metastriate ticks of the genera haemaphysalis, dermacentor, hyalomma, rhipicephalus, boophilus, and amblyomma. geographic distribution of bhav covers southern and central asia, africa, and southern (partially also central) europe. comparative biogeographic study of eight know ...201020182535
ectoparasites are the major causes of various types of skin lesions in small ruminants in ethiopia.ectoparasites are the major causes of skin lesions in animals. clinical, skin scraping examination, and histopathological studies were conducted to identify and characterize skin lesions in small ruminants caused by ectoparasites. mange mites, lice, sheep keds, and ticks were collected from the skin of affected animals for species identification. skin biopsies were collected from affected part of the skin and fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin for histopathology. of 1,000 sheep and 600 goats ...201020195754
rickettsia africae, western africa. 201020202453
coxiella burnetii in humans and ticks in rural senegal.q fever is a worldwide zoonotic disease caused by coxiella burnetii. epidemiologically, animals are considered reservoirs and humans incidental hosts.201020386603
human ehrlichiosis and anaplasmosis.human ehrlichiosis and anaplasmosis are acute febrile tick-borne diseases caused by various members of the genera ehrlichia and anaplasma (anaplasmataceae). human monocytotropic ehrlichiosis has become one of the most prevalent life-threatening tick-borne disease in the united states. ehrlichiosis and anaplasmosis are becoming more frequently diagnosed as the cause of human infections, as animal reservoirs and tick vectors have increased in number and humans have inhabited areas where reservoir ...201020513551
survey of ixodid ticks in domestic ruminants in bedelle district, southwestern ethiopia.a survey aimed at determining the status of ticks in cattle, sheep and goats in bedelle district (southwestern ethiopia) was carried out from november 2007 to april 2008. out of the total 330 animals examined, 314 (95.2%) were found to be infested (harbouring of at least a single tick). high rates of infestations were recorded across all three host species. factors like month of collection, age and sex of host species did not show significant association with infestation rates. a total of 5,507 ...201020563884
moulting and survival of amblyomma variegatum (acari: ixodidae) nymphs in quasi-natural conditions in burkina faso; tick predators as an important limiting factor.the survival rate of amblyomma variegatum engorged nymphs was studied in 9 cohorts released during the first part of the dry season (i.e. the nymph infestation period in the region) and placed on a natural savannah, either in plastic containers or in cages driven into the soil and open at the bottom. all nymphs put in the containers placed in the sun died rapidly, while a high moulting rate (94%) was observed in containers placed in the shade. this rate reached 63% for the ticks released in the ...201020593224
spread of parasites transported with their hosts: case study of two species of cattle tick.like all parasites, ticks can be spread easily along with their hosts. ticks are obligate parasites of vertebrates, to which they attach themselves for varying periods of time, and are well-adapted to this mode of transport. once the transport stage is complete and they have detached at destination, they are also able to wait several months for the arrival of a new host on which they will continue their life cycle. this leads to the establishment of a secondary tick population. two tropical catt ...201020617654
comparative microarray analysis of rhipicephalus (boophilus) microplus expression profiles of larvae pre-attachment and feeding adult female stages on bos indicus and bos taurus cattle.rhipicephalus (boophilus) microplus is an obligate blood feeder which is host specific to cattle. existing knowledge pertaining to the host or host breed effects on tick transcript expression profiles during the tick - host interaction is poor.201020637126
bm86 homologues and novel ataq proteins with multiple epidermal growth factor (egf)-like domains from hard and soft ticks.tick control on livestock relies principally on the use of acaricides but the development of acaricide resistance and concerns for environmental pollution underscore the need for alternative control methods, for instance through the use of anti-tick vaccines. two commercial vaccines based on the recombinant bm86 protein from rhipicephalus (boophilus) microplus ticks were developed. partial protection of the bm86 vaccine against other rhipicephalus (boophilus) and hyalomma tick species suggests t ...201020647015
an insight into the sialotranscriptome of the brown dog tick, rhipicephalus sanguineus.rhipicephalus sanguineus, known as the brown dog tick, is a common ectoparasite of domestic dogs and can be found worldwide. r.sanguineus is recognized as the primary vector of the etiological agent of canine monocytic ehrlichiosis and canine babesiosis. here we present the first description of a r. sanguineus salivary gland transcriptome by the production and analysis of 2,034 expressed sequence tags (est) from two cdna libraries, one consctructed using mrna from dissected salivary glands from ...201020650005
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