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biochemical diversity in the trypanosoma congolense trans-sialidase family.trans-sialidases are key enzymes in the life cycle of african trypanosomes in both, mammalian host and insect vector and have been associated with the disease trypanosomiasis, namely sleeping sickness and nagana. besides the previously reported tconts1, we have identified three additional active trans-sialidases, tconts2, tconts3 and tconts4, and three trans-sialidase like genes in trypanosoma congolense. at least tconts1, tconts2 and tconts4 are found in the bloodstream of infected animals. we ...201324340108
adenosine-uridine-rich element is one of the required cis-elements for epimastigote form stage-specific gene expression of the congolense epimastigote specific protein.it is known that gene expression in kinetoplastida is regulated post-transcriptionally. several previous studies have shown that stage-specific gene expression in trypanosomes is regulated by cis-elements located in the 3' untranslated region (utr) of each mrna and also by rna binding proteins. our previous study revealed that gene expression of congolense epimastigote specific protein (cesp) was regulated by cis-elements located in the 3'utr. in the present study, we identified the adenosine an ...201324041588
identification and genetic characterization of trypanosoma congolense in domestic animals of fontem in the south-west region of cameroon.to understand the circulation and the spread of trypanosoma congolense genotypes in animals of fontem in the southwest region of cameroon, t. congolense forest and t. congolense savannah were investigated in 397 domestic animals in eight villages. out of the 397 domestic animals, 86 (21.7%) were found infected by trypanosomes, using the capillary tube centrifugation test. the pcr with specific primers identified 163 (41.1%) and 81 (20.4%) animals infected by t. congolense forest and t. congolens ...201323624186
molecular regulation of trypanosoma congolense-induced nitric oxide production in macrophages.balb/c mice are highly susceptible while c57bl/6 mice are relatively resistant to experimental trypanosoma congolense infection. several reports show that an early interferon-gamma (ifn-γ) response in infected mice is critically important for resistance via the activation of macrophages and production of nitric oxide (no). no is a pivotal effector molecule and possesses both cytostatic and cytolytic properties for the parasite. however, the molecular mechanisms leading to t. congolense (tc)-indu ...201323536884
chemoprophylaxis and treatment of african canine trypanosomosis in french military working dogs: a retrospective study.african trypanosomosis is a major threat to livestock production in sub-saharan africa. although the disease mainly concerns cattle, dogs can also be infected by trypanosoma spp. transmitted by tsetse flies. between 1997 and 2003, the parasite trypanosoma congolense was identified in french military dogs sent to africa. on infected dogs, the diagnosis was made during the mission or just after the return to france, depending on when the symptoms appeared. the high incidence and mortality rate amo ...201323452503
baseline survey of animal trypanosomosis in the region of the boucle du mouhoun, burkina faso.in view of gathering baseline information about the prevalence of animal trypanosomosis, the pan african tsetse and trypanosomiasis eradication campaign (pattec) funded a cross sectional survey in the region of the boucle du mouhoun which constitutes the northern limit of the tsetse distribution in burkina. this cross sectional study was carried out in 53 villages located in the six provinces of the region. a total of 2002 cattle, 1466 small ruminants and 481 donkeys were sampled. this survey sh ...201323337746
shifting from wild to domestic hosts: the effect on the transmission of trypanosoma congolense to tsetse flies.the epidemiology and impact of animal african trypanosomosis are influenced by the transmissibility and the pathogenicity of the circulating trypanosome strains in a particular biotope. the transmissibility of 22 trypanosoma congolense strains isolated from domestic and wild animals was evaluated in a total of 1213 flies. multivariate mixed models were used to compare infection and maturation rates in function of trypanosome origin (domestic or sylvatic) and pathogenicity. both trypanosome patho ...201323000543
atypical hyperpachymorph trypanosoma (nannomonas) congolense forest-type in a dog returning from senegal.trypanosoma congolense forest-type was identified by pcr in france, in a dog returning from senegal. this paper describes the morphological features of the parasite on giemsa-stained smears. slender forms and "latent bodies" represent 30.4% and 20.4%, respectively. some rosettes have been observed (0.8%). the predominant form (48.4%) is stumpy, close to "montgomeryi-form", but it is unusually broad, with a width/length ratio (wlr) of 0.40-0.55, while that of "montgomeryi-forms" is close to 0.3. ...201222910666
regulatory t cells enhance susceptibility to experimental trypanosoma congolense infection independent of mouse genetic background.balb/c mice are highly susceptible while c57bl/6 are relatively resistant to experimental trypanosoma congolense infection. although regulatory t cells (tregs) have been shown to regulate the pathogenesis of experimental t. congolense infection, their exact role remains controversial. we wished to determine whether tregs contribute to distinct phenotypic outcomes in balb/c and c57bl/6 mice and if so how they operate with respect to control of parasitemia and production of disease-exacerbating pr ...201222860150
detection of multiple drug-resistant trypanosoma congolense populations in village cattle of south-east mali.tsetse fly-transmitted african animal trypanosomosis causes annual losses that run into billions of dollars. the disease is assumed to cause hunger and poverty in most sub-saharan countries since it represents a serious impediment to sustainable livestock production. both a cross-sectional and a longitudinal study were carried out from november to december 2007 to evaluate trypanosomosis risk and susceptibility of trypanosomes to trypanocidal drug treatment in village cattle populations in south ...201222852796
effect of adjuvants on the humoral immune response to congopain in mice and cattle.we investigated several adjuvants for their effects on the humoral immune response in both mice and cattle using the central domain of congopain (c2), the major cysteine protease of trypanosoma congolense, as a model for developing a vaccine against animal trypanosomosis. the magnitude and sustainability of the immune response against c2 and the occurrence of a booster effect of infection, an indirect measure of the presence of memory cells, were determined by elisa, while spectrofluorometry was ...201222621378
ghibe river basin in ethiopia: present situation of trypanocidal drug resistance in trypanosoma congolense using tests in mice and pcr-rflp.a cross-sectional study was carried out in the ghibe valley from august to october 2010. 411 head of cattle were sampled in eight villages for buffy coat examination (bce) and blood spots were collected from each animal for trypanosomose diagnosis by 18s-pcr-rflp and diminazene aceturate (da) resistance by ade2-pcr-rflp. three villages were selected in a zone where trypanosomosis control operations are currently on-going whereas the other 5 villages were located outside these control operations. ...201222579499
diminazene aceturate (berenil) modulates the host cellular and inflammatory responses to trypanosoma congolense infection.trypanosoma congolense are extracellular and intravascular blood parasites that cause debilitating acute or chronic disease in cattle and other domestic animals. diminazene aceturate (berenil) has been widely used as a chemotherapeutic agent for trypanosomiasis in livestock since 1955. as in livestock, treatment of infected highly susceptible balb/c mice with berenil leads to rapid control of parasitemia and survival from an otherwise lethal infection. the molecular and biochemical mechanisms of ...201223144931
the epimastigote stage-specific gene expression of cesp is tightly regulated by its 3' utr.it is known that gene expression in kinetoplastids is regulated post-transcriptionally. although previous studies have shown that stage-specific gene expression in trypanosomes is regulated by cis-elements located in the 3' untranslated region (utr) of mrna and also by rna binding proteins that use bloodstream and procyclic forms, no studies have been performed in the epimastigote form (emf) of african trypanosomes. this study shows that the cis-elements of the congolense epimastigote-specific p ...201223058928
identification of different trypanosome species in the mid-guts of tsetse flies of the malanga (kimpese) sleeping sickness focus of the democratic republic of congo.the malanga sleeping sickness focus of the democratic republic of congo has shown an epidemic evolution of disease during the last century. however, following case detection and treatment, the prevalence of the disease decreased considerably. no active survey has been undertaken in this focus for a couple of years. to understand the current epidemiological status of sleeping sickness as well as the animal african trypanosomiasis in the malanga focus, we undertook the identification of tsetse blo ...201222992486
comparative serum biochemical changes induced by experimental infection of t. brucei and t. congolense in pigs.a comparative evaluation of the serum biochemical parameters was carried out in groups of young pigs aged 3-5 months experimentally infected with single infection of trypanosoma brucei, trypanosoma congolense, and a mixed infection of the two species. all the parameters studied (alanine amino transferase, aspartate amino transferase, albumin, globulin, cholesterol and creatinine) with the exception of total protein and urea varied significantly (p<0.05) between the infected groups and uninfected ...201222858639
comparative serum biochemical changes in mongrel dogs following single and mixed infections of trypanosoma congolense and trypanosoma brucei brucei.the serum activities of alkaline phosphatase (ap), alanine aminotransferase (alt), aspartate aminotransferase (ast) and the serum levels of conjugated bilirubin (cb), blood urea nitrogen (bun) and creatinine were studied following single and mixed infections of mongrel dogs with trypanosoma congolense and trypanosoma brucei brucei. twenty mongrel dogs of both sexes aged between 3 and 6 months, and weighing between 2.5 and 5.9 kg were used for the study. the dogs were kept in clean metal cages in ...201222694831
biological and structural characterization of trypanosoma cruzi phosphodiesterase c and implications for design of parasite selective inhibitors.trypanosoma cruzi phosphodiesterase c (tcrpdec) is a potential new drug target for the treatment of chagas disease but has not been well studied. this study reports the enzymatic properties of various kinetoplastid pdecs and the crystal structures of the unliganded tcrpdec1 catalytic domain and its complex with an inhibitor. mutations of pdec during the course of evolution led to inactivation of pdec in trypanosoma brucei/trypanosoma evansi/trypanosoma congolense, whereas the enzyme is active in ...201222356915
antigenic diversity is generated by distinct evolutionary mechanisms in african trypanosome species.antigenic variation enables pathogens to avoid the host immune response by continual switching of surface proteins. the protozoan blood parasite trypanosoma brucei causes human african trypanosomiasis ("sleeping sickness") across sub-saharan africa and is a model system for antigenic variation, surviving by periodically replacing a monolayer of variant surface glycoproteins (vsg) that covers its cell surface. we compared the genome of trypanosoma brucei with two closely related parasites trypano ...201222331916
purification, crystallization and x-ray diffraction analysis of trypanosoma congolense insect-stage surface antigen (tccissa).trypanosoma congolense is a major contributor to the vast socioeconomic devastation in sub-saharan africa caused by animal african trypanosomiasis. these protozoan parasites are transmitted between mammalian hosts by tsetse-fly vectors. a lack of understanding of the molecular basis of tsetse-trypanosome interactions stands as a barrier to the development of improved control strategies. recently, a stage-specific t. congolense protein, t. congolense insect-stage surface antigen (tccissa), was id ...201223192033
cristaxenicin a, an antiprotozoal xenicane diterpenoid from the deep sea gorgonian acanthoprimnoa cristata.a new xenicane diterpenoid, cristaxenicin a (1), has been isolated from the deep sea gorgonian acanthoprimnoa cristata. the structure of 1 was elucidated on the basis of spectral analysis including nmr and ms. the absolute configuration of 1 was determined on the basis of quantum chemical calculation of cd spectra. cristaxenicin a (1) showed antiprotozoal activities against leishmania amazonensis and trypanosoma congolense with ic(50) values of 0.088 and 0.25 μm, respectively.201223057655
the cd20 homolog ms4a8a integrates pro- and anti-inflammatory signals in novel m2-like macrophages and is expressed in parasite infection.recently, we identified the cd20 homolog ms4a8a as a novel molecule expressed by tumor-associated macrophages that directly enhances tumor growth. here, we analyzed ms4a8a(+) macrophages in m2-associated infectious pathologies. in late-stage trypanosoma congolense and taenia crassiceps infections, ms4a8a expression was detected in hepatic and peritoneal macrophages respectively. innate immunity in these infections is modulated by toll-like receptor (tlr) signaling and tlr2/4/7 agonists strongly ...201222806454
prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis and its vectors in two districts of east wollega zone, ethiopia.trypanosomosis is a parasitic disease that causes serious economic losses in livestock, especially in sub-saharan countries. this study was conducted from october 2010 to march 2011 in the diga and sasiga districts of the east wollega zone in western ethiopia to determine the prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis and its vectors. a total of 386 blood samples were collected from randomly selected animals. packed cell volume (pcv) was determined and samples were examined for the presence of trypanos ...201223327311
vector competence of glossina austeni and glossina brevipalpis for trypanosoma congolense in kwazulu-natal, south africa.tsetse-transmitted trypanosomosis (nagana) has been the cause of stock losses in the recent past and still presents a major problem to livestock owners in certain areas of kwazulu- natal, south africa. over 10 000 cattle mortalities were reported in the 1990 nagana outbreak. although information on the distribution and abundance of the tsetse flies glossina brevipalpis and glossina austeni in kwazulu-natal exists, data on their vector competence are lacking. this study aimed to determine the rat ...201223327306
production of congopain, the major cysteine protease of trypanosoma (nannomonas) congolense, in pichia pastoris reveals unexpected dimerisation at physiological ph.african animal trypanosomosis (nagana) is arguably the most important parasitic disease affecting livestock in sub-saharan africa. since none of the existing control measures are entirely satisfactory, vaccine development is being actively pursued. however, due to antigenic variation, the quest for a conventional vaccine has proven elusive. as a result, we have sought an alternative 'anti-disease vaccine approach', based on congopain, a cysteine protease of trypanosoma congolense, which was show ...201120828616
differential protein expression throughout the life cycle of trypanosoma congolense, a major parasite of cattle in africa.trypanosoma congolense is an important pathogen of livestock in africa. to study protein expression throughout the t. congolense life cycle, we used culture-derived parasites of each of the three main insect stages and bloodstream stage parasites isolated from infected mice, to perform differential protein expression analysis. three complete biological replicates of all four life cycle stages were produced from t. congolense il3000, a cloned parasite that is amenable to culture of major life cyc ...201121354217
analysis of host genetic factors influencing african trypanosome species infection in a cohort of tanzanian bos indicus cattle.trypanosomosis caused by infection with protozoan parasites of the genus trypanosoma is a major health constraint to cattle production in many african countries. one hundred and seventy one bos indicus cattle from traditional pastoral maasai (87) and more intensively managed boran (84) animals in tanzania were screened by pcr for the presence of african animal trypanosomes (trypanosoma congolense, trypanosoma vivax and trypanosoma brucei), using blood samples archived on fta cards. all cattle sc ...201121377802
structural characterization and epitope mapping of the glutamic acid/alanine-rich protein from trypanosoma congolense: defining assembly on the parasite cell surface.trypanosoma congolense is an african trypanosome that causes serious disease in cattle in sub-saharan africa. the four major life cycle stages of t. congolense can be grown in vitro, which has led to the identification of several cell-surface molecules expressed on the parasite during its transit through the tsetse vector. one of these, glutamic acid/alanine-rich protein (garp), is the first expressed on procyclic forms in the tsetse midgut and is of particular interest because it replaces the m ...201121471223
trypanosoma congolense infections: induced nitric oxide inhibits parasite growth in vivo.wild-type (wt) c57bl/6 mice infected intraperitoneally with 5 × 10(6) trypanosoma congolense survive for more than 30 days. c57bl/6 mice deficient in inducible nitric oxide synthase (inos(-/-)) and infected with 10(3) or 5 × 10(6) parasites do not control the parasitemia and survive for only 14 ± 7 or 6.8 ± 0.1 days, respectively. bloodstream trypanosomes of inos(-/-) mice infected with 5 × 10(6)t. congolense had a significantly higher ratio of organisms in the s+g2+m phases of the cell cycle th ...201121584233
genetic and expression analysis of cattle identifies candidate genes in pathways responding to trypanosoma congolense infection.african bovine trypanosomiasis caused by trypanosoma sp., is a major constraint on cattle productivity in sub-saharan africa. some african bos taurus breeds are highly tolerant of infection, but the potentially more productive bos indicus zebu breeds are much more susceptible. zebu cattle are well adapted for plowing and haulage, and increasing their tolerance of trypanosomiasis could have a major impact on crop cultivation as well as dairy and beef production. we used three strategies to obtain ...201121593421
african trypanosoma infection in a dog in france. 201121622597
improved pcr-rflp for the detection of diminazene resistance in trypanosoma congolense under field conditions using filter papers for sample storage. 201121814586
il-10 limits production of pathogenic tnf by m1 myeloid cells through induction of nuclear nf-kb p50 member in trypanosoma congolense infection resistant c57bl/6 mice.a balance between parasite elimination and control of infection-associated pathogenicity is crucial for resistance to african trypanosomiasis. by producing tnf and no, cd11b(+) myeloid cells with a classical activation status (m1) contribute to parasitemia control in experimental trypanosoma congolense infection in resistant c57bl/6 mice. however, in these mice, il-10 is required to regulate m1-associated inflammation, avoiding tissue/liver damage and ensuring prolonged survival. in an effort to ...201121805465
epidemiological aspects of the transmission of the parasites causing human african trypanosomiasis in angola. 201121801505
biochemical characterization of trans-sialidase ts1 variants from trypanosoma congolense.abstract: background: animal african trypanosomiasis, sleeping sickness in humans and nagana in cattle, is a resurgent disease in africa caused by trypanosoma parasites. trans-sialidases expressed by trypanosomes play an important role in the infection cycle of insects and mammals. whereas trans-sialidases of other trypanosomes like the american t. cruzi are well investigated, relatively little research has been done on these enzymes of t. congolense. results: based on a partial sequence and an ...201121801439
characterisation of the wildlife reservoir community for human and animal trypanosomiasis in the luangwa valley, zambia.animal and human trypanosomiasis are constraints to both animal and human health in sub-saharan africa, but there is little recent evidence as to how these parasites circulate in wild hosts in natural ecosystems. the luangwa valley in zambia supports high densities of tsetse flies (glossina species) and is recognised as an historical sleeping sickness focus. the objective of this study was to characterise the nature of the reservoir community for trypanosomiasis in the absence of influence from ...201121713019
prevalence of trypanosoma sp. in cattle from tanzania estimated by conventional pcr and loop-mediated isothermal amplification (lamp).this study compared the prevalence of trypanosome infections estimated by pfr-loop-mediated isothermal amplification (lamp) with conventional polymerase chain reaction (pcr) tests. one hundred forty eight cattle blood samples were collected from robanda village, mara region, tanzania in april 2008. in conventional pcr, four sets of primers, specific for the detection of trypanosoma sp., trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, trypanosoma vivax, and trypanozoon, as well as a modified lamp were used. conv ...201121739311
trypanosoma vivax, t. congolense "forest type" and t. simiae: prevalence in domestic animals of sleeping sickness foci of cameroon.in order to better understand the epidemiology of human and animal trypanosomiasis that occur together in sleeping sickness foci, a study of prevalences of animal parasites (trypanosoma vivax, t. congolense "forest type", and t. simiae) infections was conducted on domestic animals to complete the previous work carried on t. brucei gambiense prevalence using the same animal sample. 875 domestic animals, including 307 pigs, 264 goats, 267 sheep and 37 dogs were sampled in the sleeping sickness foc ...201121678793
the internal transcribed spacer 1 (its-1), a controversial marker for the genetic diversity of trypanosoma evansi.seven trypanosoma evansi isolates from china and a trypanosoma congolense sp. gifted from kenya were characterized genetically by the internal transcribed spacer 1 (its-1) of nuclear ribosomal dna (rdna). the its-1 rdna with the length of 338-342 bp was amplified by polymerase chain reaction (pcr) and sequenced from individual isolates of t. evansi. although sequence variation between t. evansi isolates from china only was 0.3-3.8%, the constructed phylogenetic tree based on the its-1 rdna seque ...201121875582
Trypanosoma brucei brucei oligopeptidase B null mutants display increased prolyl oligopeptidase-like activity.African trypanosomosis is a parasitic disease in man and animals caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Trypanosoma. Nagana, the cattle form of the disease, is caused by Trypanosoma congolense, Trypanosoma vivax and Trypanosoma brucei brucei. An option for developing vaccines and chemotherapeutic agents against trypanosomosis is to target pathogenic factors released by the parasite during infection, namely an "anti-disease" approach. One such pathogenic factor is oligopeptidase B (TbOPB), a ...201122123425
sialidases play a key role in infection and anaemia in trypanosoma congolense animal trypanosomiasis.animal african trypanosomiasis is a major constraint to livestock productivity and has an important impact on millions of people in developing african countries. this parasitic disease, caused mainly by trypanosoma congolense, results in severe anaemia leading to animal death. in order to characterise potential targets for an anti-disease vaccine, we investigated a multigenic trans-sialidase family (tcots) in t. congolense. sialidase and trans-sialidase activities were quantified for the first t ...201122136727
high prevalence of drug resistance in animal trypanosomes without a history of drug exposure.trypanosomosis caused by trypanosoma congolense is a major constraint to animal health in sub-saharan africa. unfortunately, the treatment of the disease is impaired by the spread of drug resistance. resistance to diminazene aceturate (da) in t. congolense is linked to a mutation modifying the functioning of a p2-type purine-transporter responsible for the uptake of the drug. our objective was to verify if the mutation was linked or not to drug pressure.201122206039
Tandem repeat protein as potential diagnostic antigen for Trypanosoma evansi infection.Trypanosoma evansi infection (surra) causes significant losses in livestock production in tropical and sub-tropical areas. The current ELISA recommended by OIE for diagnosis of the disease is based on trypanosome lysate antigen. However, antigenic variation and unstable nature of cell lysate antigen make it difficult to standardize the assay. Thus, there are needs to develop recombinant antigen-based ELISA that improve stability, sensitivity, and specificity of the test. Since tandem repeat (TR) ...201121927872
experimental evaluation of xenodiagnosis to detect trypanosomes at low parasitaemia levels in infected hosts.in human african trypanosomosis (hat) endemic areas, there are a number of subjects that are positive to serological tests but in whom trypanosomes are difficult to detect with the available parasitological tests. in most cases and particularly in west africa, these subjects remain untreated, thus posing a fundamental problem both at the individual level (because of a possible lethal evolution of the disease) and at the epidemiological level (since they are potential reservoirs of trypanosomes). ...201122091459
field detection of resistance to isometamidium chloride and diminazene aceturate in trypanosoma vivax from the region of the boucle du mouhoun in burkina faso.a longitudinal study assessed the chemoresistance to isometamidium chloride (ism) and diminazene aceturate (da) in the region of the boucle du mouhoun in burkina faso. a preliminary cross-sectional survey allowed the identification of the 10 villages with the highest parasitological prevalences (from 2.1% to 16.1%). in each of these 10 villages, two herds of approximately 50 bovines were selected, one being treated with ism (1mg/kg b.w.) and the other remaining untreated as control group. all an ...201122264748
investigation of the antitrypanosomal activity of buchholzia coriacea seed extract against a field strain of trypanosoma congolense.the antitrypanosomal activity of the methanol extract of buchholzia coriacea seed against a field strain of trypanosoma congolense was investigated using experimentally infected mice of both sexes. monitoring of parasitaemia was by the rapid matching technique. when parasitaemia was approximately log 7.8 (63 × 10(6) parasites/ml), treatment with graded doses of the extract (250, 500 and 1000 mg/kg) was instituted for 5 consecutive days. diminazene diaceturate (dimivet skm pharma pvt. ltd.) was g ...201122754072
bovine trypanosomiasis risk in an endemic area on the eastern plateau of zambia.the control of bovine trypanosomiasis could be improved by using the available control tools during periods when the incidence of the disease is highest. the present study assessed the monthly risk of bovine trypanosomiasis in 85 sentinel cattle kept on the tsetse-infested eastern plateau of zambia during a period of 19 consecutive months. to avoid problems associated with persistence of infections because of trypanocidal drug resistance and/or the time lag between sampling and molecular analysi ...201120466392
tsetse fly blood meal modification and trypanosome identification in two sleeping sickness foci in the forest of southern cameroon.the blood meal origins of 222 tsetse flies (213 glossina palpalis palpalis, 7 glossina pallicera pallicera, one glossina nigrofusca and one glossina caliginea) caught in 2008 in two human african trypanosomiasis foci (bipindi and campo) of south cameroon were investigated. 88.7% of tsetse flies blood meals were identified using the heteroduplex method and the origin of the remaining blood meals (11.3%) was identified by sequencing the cytochrome b gene. most of the meals were from humans (45.9%) ...201020541513
bovine trypanosomosis and its vectors in two districts of bench maji zone, south western ethiopia.a cross-sectional study was carried out from november 2008 to february 2009 in guraferda and sheko districts of bench maji zone, south western ethiopia. the objective of the study was to determine the prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis and the density of its vectors. an overall prevalence of trypanosome infection in the study area was 4.4%. trypanosoma congolense (36.36%) was the dominant trypanosome species followed by trypanosoma vivax (18.18%) and trypanosoma brucei (9.09%). mean packed cell ...201020577803
expression, purification and characterisation of two variant cysteine peptidases from trypanosoma congolense with active site substitutions.congopain, the major cysteine peptidase of trypanosoma congolense is an attractive candidate for an anti-disease vaccine and target for the design of specific inhibitors. a complicating factor for the inclusion of congopain in a vaccine is that multiple variants of congopain are present in the genome of the parasite. in order to determine whether the variant congopain-like genes code for peptidases with enzymatic activities different to those of congopain, two variants were cloned and expressed. ...201020609389
serodiagnosis of bovine trypanosomosis based on hsp70/bip inhibition elisa.animal trypanosomosis is a serious constraint to livestock productivity in tropical and sub-tropical countries. the pathogenic trypanosomes in bovidae are trypanosoma congolense, t. vivax, t. brucei and t. evansi. current serological tests to detect trypanosome infections are based on the use of whole trypanosome lysates; their potential is limited by antigen instability, lack of reproducibility and lack of test specificity due to the antibody's long persistence after treatment. the development ...201020637547
comparative haematological study of single and mixed infections of mongrel dogs with trypanosoma congolense and trypanosoma brucei brucei.the haematological effects of single and mixed infections of trypanosoma congolense and trypanosoma brucei brucei were compared in experimentally infected mongrel dogs. twenty mongrel dogs of both sexes aged between 3 and 6 months, and weighing between 2.5 and 5.9 kg were used for the study. the dogs were kept in clean metal cages in a fly-proof house and were adequately fed and given water ad libitum. the twenty dogs were divided into four groups of five dogs each. group i dogs were uninfected ...201020638796
[glossina feeding habits and diversity of species of trypanosomes in an active focus of human african trypanosomiasis in gabon].feeding host is an important factor upon which depend the glossina infection rate and the proportion of different species of trypanosome. glossina feed both upon animals and humans. in order to identify species of trypanosomes present in the komo-mondah focus and to verify whether there is any relationship between the prevalence of sleeping sickness and the feeding habits of glossina, we have carried out an entomological survey in this focus of gabon. flies were dissected and organs were analyse ...201020821180
from clonal to sexual: a step in t. congolense evolution?although clearly demonstrated in trypanosoma brucei, genetic exchange remains controversial in other trypanosome species. recently, morrison and co-workers applied a population-genetics analysis, and established the existence of mating in trypanosoma congolense. starting from this original discovery, we focus here on the important question of how mating is induced during the trypanosome life cycle and discuss the use of statistics to evidence this type of non-obligatory biological process.201020006549
prevalence and incidence of bovine trypanosomosis in an agro-pastoral area of southwestern burkina faso.the present study was conducted to determine the prevalence and incidence of trypanosomosis and to investigate some factors influencing them in an agro-pastoral area of southwestern burkina faso. a total of 363 crossbred cattle (baoule-zebu peul), which were bred under natural trypanosomosis challenge, were monitored monthly for parasitaemia, packed cell volume (pcv) and serological analyses over 2years. the parasitological prevalence estimated at the beginning of the survey using the buffy coat ...201020044115
no gold standard estimation of the sensitivity and specificity of two molecular diagnostic protocols for trypanosoma brucei spp. in western kenya.african animal trypanosomiasis is caused by a range of tsetse transmitted protozoan parasites includingtrypanosoma vivax, trypanosoma congolense and trypansoma brucei. in western kenya and other parts of east africa two subspecies of t. brucei, t.b. brucei and the zoonotict.b. rhodesiense, co-circulate in livestock. a range of polymerase chain reactions (pcr) have been developed as important molecular diagnostic tools for epidemiological investigations of t. brucei s.l. in the animal reservoir a ...201020062795
the protease resistant surface (prs) glycoconjugate from trypanosoma congolense has an inositol-acylated glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor, containing a significant proportion of myristate at the sn-2 position.in the tsetse fly, the surface of trypanosoma congolense parasites is covered by a dense layer of glycosylphosphatidylinositol (gpi)-anchored molecules. these include epgengt procyclin and protease resistant surface molecule (prs), as well as congolense epimastigote-specific protein, cesp, and glutamic acid- and alanine-rich protein (garp). the gpi structures of epgengt and garp have been partially elucidated, but very little is known about prs. we now purified prs and analyzed its gpi lipid str ...201020138924
a cross-sectional study of trypanosomosis and its vectors in donkeys and mules in northwest ethiopia.a preliminary study was conducted in january 2009 in four peasant associations (pas) selected from two districts in benishangul gumuz regional state, northwest ethiopia to investigate the prevalence and species of trypanosomes infecting donkeys and mules and identify the fly vectors playing a role in the transmission of trypanosomosis. blood samples were collected from a total of 334 donkeys and 52 mules and examined by dark ground/phase contrast buffy coat technique and giemsa-stained blood sme ...201020143093
characterization of major surface protease homologues of trypanosoma congolense.trypanosomes encode a family of proteins known as major surface metalloproteases (msps). we have identified six putative msps encoded within the partially sequenced t. congolense genome. phylogenic analysis indicates that t. congolense msps belong to five subfamilies that are conserved among african trypanosome species. molecular modeling, based on the known structure of leishmania major gp63, reveals subfamily-specific structural variations around the putative active site despite conservation o ...201020145707
complete in vitro life cycle of trypanosoma congolense: development of genetic tools.animal african trypanosomosis, a disease mainly caused by the protozoan parasite trypanosoma congolense, is a major constraint to livestock productivity and has a significant impact in the developing countries of africa. rna interference (rnai) has been used to study gene function and identify drug and vaccine targets in a variety of organisms including trypanosomes. however, trypanosome rnai studies have mainly been conducted in t. brucei, as a model for human infection, largely ignoring livest ...201020209144
tsetse ep protein protects the fly midgut from trypanosome establishment.african trypanosomes undergo a complex developmental process in their tsetse fly vector before transmission back to a vertebrate host. typically, 90% of fly infections fail, most during initial establishment of the parasite in the fly midgut. the specific mechanism(s) underpinning this failure are unknown. we have previously shown that a glossina-specific, immunoresponsive molecule, tsetse ep protein, is up regulated by the fly in response to gram-negative microbial challenge. here we show by kn ...201020221444
prevalence of mixed trypanosoma congolense infections in livestock and tsetse in kwazulu-natal, south africa.trypanosoma congolense causes the most economically important animal trypanosomosis in africa. in south africa, a rinderpest pandemic of the 1890s removed many host animals, resulting in the near-eradication of most tsetse species. further suppression was achieved through spraying with dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (ddt); however, residual populations of glossina austeni and g. brevipalpis remained in isolated pockets. a total of 506 of these tsetse flies were captured in the hluhluwe-imfolozi ...201021526736
claudin 13, a member of the claudin family regulated in mouse stress induced erythropoiesis.mammals are able to rapidly produce red blood cells in response to stress. the molecular pathways used in this process are important in understanding responses to anaemia in multiple biological settings. here we characterise the novel gene claudin 13 (cldn13), a member of the claudin family of tight junction proteins using rna expression, microarray and phylogenetic analysis. we present evidence that cldn13 appears to be co-ordinately regulated as part of a stress induced erythropoiesis pathway ...201020844758
interleukin-17-mediated control of parasitemia in experimental trypanosoma congolense infection in mice.balb/c mice are highly susceptible to experimental trypanosoma congolense infections, whereas c57bl/6 mice are relatively resistant. infected highly susceptible balb/c mice die of systemic inflammatory response syndrome. because interleukin-17 (il-17) and th17 cells regulate inflammatory responses, we investigated their role in the pathogenesis of experimental african trypanosomiasis in mice. we show that the production of il-17 by spleen and liver cells and the serum il-17 level increased after ...201020855512
chemosensitization of trypanosoma congolense strains resistant to isometamidium chloride by tetracyclines and enrofloxacin.because of the development of resistance in trypanosomes to trypanocidal drugs, the livelihood of millions of livestock keepers in sub-saharan africa is threatened now more than ever. the existing compounds have become virtually useless and pharmaceutical companies are not keen on investing in the development of new trypanocides. we may have found a breakthrough in the treatment of resistant trypanosomal infections, through the combination of the trypanocide isometamidium chloride (ism) with two ...201020927189
the prevalence of african animal trypanosomoses and tsetse presence in western senegal.in 2005, the government of senegal initiated a tsetse eradication campaign in the niayes and la petite côte aiming at the removal of african animal trypanosomosis (aat), which is one of the main constraints to the development of more effective cattle production systems. the target area has particular meteorological and ecological characteristics that provide great potential for animal production, but it is unfortunately still infested by the riverine tsetse species glossina palpalis gambiensis v ...201021073148
dyes, trypanosomiasis and dna: a historical and critical review.trypanosomiasis, a group of diseases including sleeping sickness in humans and nagana in cattle in africa, and chagas' disease in south america, remains a considerable problem in the 21(st) century. the therapies that are available, however, usually have their roots in the "dye therapy" of a century ago, knowledge gained at the microscope from parasite staining procedures and converted to chemotherapy based on compounds closely related to the laboratory reagents. dyes such as trypan red and tryp ...201021080764
a comprehensive genetic analysis of candidate genes regulating response to trypanosoma congolense infection in mice.african trypanosomes are protozoan parasites that cause "sleeping sickness" in humans and a similar disease in livestock. trypanosomes also infect laboratory mice and three major quantitative trait loci (qtl) that regulate survival time after infection with t. congolense have been identified in two independent crosses between susceptible a/j and balb/c mice, and the resistant c57bl/6. these were designated tir1, tir2 and tir3 for trypanosoma infection response, and range in size from 0.9-12 cm.201021085469
[resistant sleeping sickness parasite can still be killed]. 201021141614
spatio-temporal distribution of tsetse and other biting flies in the mouhoun river basin, burkina faso.in the mouhoun river basin, burkina faso, the main vectors of african animal trypanosomoses are glossina palpalis gambiensis vanderplank and glossina tachinoides westwood (diptera: glossinidae), both of which are riverine tsetse species. the aim of our study was to understand the impact of landscape anthropogenic changes on the seasonal dynamics of vectors and associated trypanosomosis risk. three sites were selected on the basis of the level of disturbance of tsetse habitats and predominant tse ...201021198714
virulence in trypanosoma congolense savannah subgroup. a comparison between strains and transmission cycles.trypanosoma congolense strains have been shown to differ in their virulence both between subgroups and within the savannah subgroup between strains. this review revisits these findings and complements them with information on the virulence of t. congolense savannah subgroup strains isolated from cattle (domestic transmission cycle) in different geographical areas and of strains isolated in protected areas where trypanotolerant wildlife species are the reservoir of the trypanosomes (sylvatic tran ...201021204855
intradermal infections of mice by low numbers of african trypanosomes are controlled by innate resistance but enhance susceptibility to reinfection.antibodies are required to control blood-stage forms of african trypanosomes in humans and animals. here, we report that intradermal infections by low numbers of african trypanosomes are controlled by innate resistance but prime the adaptive immune response to increase susceptibility to a subsequent challenge. mice were found 100 times more resistant to intradermal infections by trypanosoma congolense or trypanosoma brucei than to intraperitoneal infections. b cell-deficient and rag2(-/-) mice a ...201021208931
transmissibility, by glossina morsitans morsitans, of trypanosoma congolense strains during the acute and chronic phases of infection.in order to verify whether chronic trypanosomal infections can affect the transmissibility of trypanosoma congolense by tsetse flies, batches of glossina morsitans morsitans were fed on mice infected with the same level of parasitemia (10(8.1)trypanosomes/ml of blood) of two cloned low virulent t. congolense strains during the acute and the chronic phases of infection. results showed that the proportions of procyclic infections in flies that were fed during the acute phase (32.6% and 45.4% for i ...201019765543
divergent antimicrobial peptide (amp) and acute phase protein (app) responses to trypanosoma congolense infection in trypanotolerant and trypanosusceptible cattle.african animal trypanosomiasis (aat) is endemic across sub-saharan african and is a major constraint to livestock production. the ability of certain cattle breeds to remain productive despite infection is known as trypanotolerance; however, the underlying immune mechanisms contributing to this trait remain poorly understood. antimicrobial peptides (amps) and acute phase proteins (apps) are evolutionarily conserved effector molecules of the innate immune system that have important roles in the re ...200919889461
comparative histopathology of the lymph nodes, spleen, liver and kidney in experimental ovine trypanosomosis.the infection of yankassa rams with three important trypanosome species affecting livestock, namely, trypanosoma congolense, t. vivax and t. bruceiproduced both acute and chronic fatal conditions. chronic infections were induced in the three infections by the application of subcurative doses of diaminazene aceturate (berenil). pathological changes in the infected animals included splenomegaly and hepatomegaly which were more pronounced in acute than in chronic t. congolense infection. however, t ...200921344787
[eco-distribution and trypanosoma infection of glossina palpalis palpalis in the banco forest of and its relics, abidjan (côte d'ivoire)].in order to implement an anti-vector programme in the suburb of abidjan (côte d'ivoire), investigations were conducted to assess the tsetse fly densities as well as infection with trypanosomes. catches were carried out during the rainy season and dry season with vavoua traps laid during four consecutive days in different sites (banco forest, abidjan zoological park, area of the university of abobo-adjamé). one species of tsetse fly (glossina polpalis palpalis) and two species of trypanosomes (tr ...200920092060
epidemiological study of canine trypanosomosis in an urban area of ivory coast.following confirmed cases of trypanosomosis in military working dogs, a cross-sectional study was undertaken to evaluate the source of infection and determine the prevalence of canine infection with trypanosoma congolense in the urban focus of abidjan, ivory coast. blood from 123 dogs were collected and subjected to pcr using specific primers for trypanosoma congolense "forest type". in addition, an entomological study was conducted in an urban area near the forest surronding the military camp. ...200920092062
the effect of aqueous extracts of hibiscus sabdariffa (sorrel) calyces on heamatological profile and organ pathological changes in trypanasoma congolense - infected rats.the effects of aqueous extract of hibiscus sabdariffa calyces on haematology and pathological changes in some selected organs during experimental trypanosoma congolense infection of rats were investigated. three groups of rats were intraperitoneally infected with t. congolense (karu stock). one group was administered with the aqueous extract and another given a solution of vitamin c in drinking water; the remaining infected group was left untreated. data from these groups were compared with thos ...200920606781
identification of total and differentially expressed excreted-secreted proteins from trypanosoma congolense strains exhibiting different virulence and pathogenicity.animal trypanosomosis is a major constraint to livestock productivity in the tropics and has a significant impact on the life of millions of people globally (mainly in africa, south america and south-east asia). in africa, the disease in livestock is caused mainly by trypanosoma congolense, trypanosoma vivax, trypanosoma evansi and trypanosoma brucei brucei. the extracellular position of trypanosomes in the bloodstream of their host requires consideration of both the parasite and its naturally e ...200919285981
synthetic nonamer peptides derived from insect defensin mediate the killing of african trypanosomes in axenic culture.synthetic antimicrobial 9-mer peptides (designated as peptides a and b) designed on the basis of insect defensins and their effects on the growth of african trypanosomes were examined using two isolates of trypanosoma congolense, il1180 and il3338, and two isolates of trypanosoma brucei brucei, iltat1.1and gutat 3.1, under axenic culture conditions. both peptides inhibited the growth of all bloodstream form (bsf) trypanosomes at 200-400 microg/ml in the complete growth medium, with peptide a bei ...200919308456
selenoprotein p-expression, functions, and roles in mammals.selenoprotein p (sepp1) is a secreted protein that is made up of 2 domains. the larger n-terminal domain contains 1 selenocysteine residue in a redox motif and the smaller c-terminal domain contains the other 9 selenocysteines. sepp1 isoforms of varying lengths occur but quantitation of them has not been achieved. hepatic synthesis of sepp1 affects whole-body selenium content and the liver is the source of most plasma sepp1. apoer2, a member of the lipoprotein receptor family, binds sepp1 and fa ...200919345254
endemic type of animal trypanosomiasis is not associated with lower genotype variability of trypanosoma congolense isolates circulating in livestock.in order to verify whether the low impact on livestock production in endemic areas is related to a low number of trypanosome strains circulating in livestock, 37 trypanosoma congolense isolates collected from cattle in 11 sites in an endemic trypanosomiasis area in eastern zambia were characterised for genotype variability using a modified amplified fragment length polymorphism technique (aflp). isolates were further cloned to evaluate the occurrence of mixed infections in individuals. the resul ...200919356778
mechanisms controlling anaemia in trypanosoma congolense infected mice.trypanosoma congolense are extracellular protozoan parasites of the blood stream of artiodactyls and are one of the main constraints on cattle production in africa. in cattle, anaemia is the key feature of disease and persists after parasitaemia has declined to low or undetectable levels, but treatment to clear the parasites usually resolves the anaemia.200919365556
transcriptional profiling of cattle infected with trypanosoma congolense highlights gene expression signatures underlying trypanotolerance and trypanosusceptibility.african animal trypanosomiasis (aat) caused by tsetse fly-transmitted protozoa of the genus trypanosoma is a major constraint on livestock and agricultural production in africa and is among the top ten global cattle diseases impacting on the poor. here we show that a functional genomics approach can be used to identify temporal changes in host peripheral blood mononuclear cell (pbmc) gene expression due to disease progression. we also show that major gene expression differences exist between cat ...200919409086
cross-protection between trypanosoma congolense strains of low and high virulence.the aim of this study was to assess the existence of possible cross-protection between trypanosoma congolense strains of low and extreme virulence circulating in the same trypanosomiasis focus. groups of six mice were infected using one of three strains of low virulence and challenged with one of three strains of extreme virulence. a group of six mice was used as control for each strain of low and extreme virulence. the results showed that mice infected with one of the strains of extreme virulen ...200919423225
proline racemases are conserved mitogens: characterization of a trypanosoma vivax proline racemase.trypanosoma cruzi proline racemases (tcprac) are the only eukaryotic proline racemases described so far. except their role in the interconversion of free l- and d-proline enantiomers, parasite tcpracs are involved in major t. cruzi biological pathways. these essential enzymes are implicated in the process of parasite differentiation and the acquisition of virulence during metacyclogenesis and are currently considered as key targets for drug development against chagas' disease. in this study, we ...200919428664
discovery of mating in the major african livestock pathogen trypanosoma congolense.the protozoan parasite, trypanosoma congolense, is one of the most economically important pathogens of livestock in africa and, through its impact on cattle health and productivity, has a significant effect on human health and well being. despite the importance of this parasite our knowledge of some of the fundamental biological processes is limited. for example, it is unknown whether mating takes place. in this paper we have taken a population genetics based approach to address this question. t ...200919440370
nutritional stress of adult female tsetse flies (diptera: glossinidae) affects the susceptibility of their offspring to trypanosomal infections.the epidemiology of tsetse-transmitted trypanosomiasis depends, among other factors, on the proportion of infected flies in a tsetse population. a wide range of intrinsic and extrinsic factors seem to determine the ability of a tsetse fly to become infected and to transmit the parasite. in this paper, we investigated the effect of nutritional stress of reproducing female glossina morsitans morsitans on the susceptibility of their offspring to trypanosomal infections. adult female flies that were ...200919445895
trypanosoma vivax displays a clonal population structure.african animal trypanosomiasis, or nagana, is a debilitating and economically costly disease with a major impact on animal health in sub-saharan africa. trypanosoma vivax, one of the principal trypanosome species responsible for the disease, infects a wide host range including cattle, goats, horses and donkeys and is transmitted both cyclically by tsetse flies and mechanically by other biting flies, resulting in a distribution covering large swathes of south america and much of sub-saharan afric ...200919520081
modulation of the immunogenicity of the trypanosoma congolense cysteine protease, congopain, through complexation with alpha(2)-macroglobulin.the protozoan parasite trypanosoma congolense is the main causative agent of livestock trypanosomosis. congopain, the major lysosomal cysteine proteinase of t. congolense, contributes to disease pathogenesis, and antibody-mediated inhibition of this enzyme may contribute to mechanisms of trypanotolerance. the potential of different adjuvants to facilitate the production of antibodies that would inhibit congopain activity was evaluated in the present study. rabbits were immunised with the recombi ...200919549486
analysis of expressed sequence tags from the four main developmental stages of trypanosoma congolense.trypanosoma congolense is one of the most economically important pathogens of livestock in africa. culture-derived parasites of each of the three main insect stages of the t. congolense life cycle, i.e., the procyclic, epimastigote and metacyclic stages, and bloodstream stage parasites isolated from infected mice, were used to construct stage-specific cdna libraries and expressed sequence tags (ests or cdna clones) in each library were sequenced. thirteen est clusters encoding different variant ...200919559733
altered proinflammatory cytokine production and enhanced resistance to trypanosoma congolense infection in lymphotoxin beta-deficient mice.balb/c mice are highly susceptible to trypanosoma congolense infection, whereas c57bl/6 mice are relatively resistant. overproduction of interferon-gamma (ifn-gamma) and other proinflammatory cytokines contribute to death in susceptible mice. here, we show that lymphotoxin beta-deficient (ltbeta(-/-)) mice are more resistant than wild-type (wt) mice to t. congolense infection, as shown by a lower parasitemia level and a longer survival duration. the enhanced resistance of ltbeta(-/-) mice was as ...200919563258
clinical chemistry of congenic mice with quantitative trait loci for predicted responses to trypanosoma congolense infection.trypanosoma congolense is a protozoan parasite that causes severe diseases in livestock. three major quantative trait loci (qtl), tir1, tir2, and tir3, control the survival time of mice after infection with t. congolense. congenic mice carrying the c57bl/6 resistance alleles on the a/j background were developed for each of these loci. the congenic mice were used to physically map the regions containing the qtl gene(s) and to investigate the physiological effect of each locus. clinical chemistry ...200919596769
specific detection and identification of african trypanosomes in bovine peripheral blood by means of a pcr-elisa assay.the aim of the present study was to develop a pcr-elisa assay for the detection and differentiation of the main african pathogen trypanosomal species present in peripheral blood of cattle. the proposed methodology allows to specifically differentiate trypanosoma congolense, trypanosoma vivax and the subgenus trypanozoon, by means of a sensitive universal pcr amplifying trypanosome dna followed by an elisa-based hybridization with three highly specific probes. the semi-nested pcr had a sensitivit ...200919619947
inoculation of killed leishmania major into immune mice rapidly disrupts immunity to a secondary challenge via il-10-mediated process.recovery from natural or experimental leishmania major infection, the causative agent of cutaneous leishmaniasis, results in development of durable immunity in mice and humans that is manifested as rapid control of parasite replication and resolution of cutaneous lesion after secondary challenge. this form of "infection-induced" immunity is thought to occur naturally in endemic areas and is generally considered the gold standard for any effective vaccine against cutaneous leishmaniasis. to deter ...200919666482
trypanosomatid genomes contain several subfamilies of ingi-related retroposons.retroposons are ubiquitous transposable elements found in the genomes of most eukaryotes, including trypanosomatids. the african and american trypanosomes (trypanosoma brucei and trypanosoma cruzi) contain long autonomous retroposons of the ingi clade (tbingi and l1tc, respectively) and short nonautonomous truncated versions (tbrime and nartc, respectively), as well as degenerate ingi-related retroposons devoid of coding capacity (dires). in contrast, leishmania major contains only remnants of e ...200919666780
the effect of alpha-tocopherol transfer protein gene disruption on trypanosoma congolense infection in mice.at present 15 to 20 million people are estimated to be infected with pathogenic trypanosome parasites worldwide, mainly in developing countries. there are a number of factors that affect the severity of trypanosomiasis, including the nutritional status of the host. however, the relationship between micronutrient levels and trypanosomiasis outcome has yet to be reported in detail. here, we demonstrate that the inhibition of alpha-tocopherol transfer protein, a determinant of the vitamin e concent ...200919695323
nutritional stress affects the tsetse fly's immune gene expression.tsetse-transmitted trypanosomiasis poses a serious threat to human and animal health in sub-saharan africa. the majority of tsetse flies (glossina spp.) in a natural population will not develop a mature infection of either trypanosoma congolense or trypanosoma brucei sp. because of refractoriness, a phenomenon that is affected by different factors, including the tsetse fly's immune defence. starvation of tsetse flies significantly increases their susceptibility to the establishment of a trypanos ...200919712150
development of a mathematical model for mechanical transmission of trypanosomes and other pathogens of cattle transmitted by tabanids.mechanical transmission of pathogens by biting insects is a non-specific phenomenon in which pathogens are transmitted from the blood of an infected host to another host during interrupted feeding of the insects. a large range of pathogens can be mechanically transmitted, e.g. hemoparasites, bacteria and viruses. some pathogens are almost exclusively mechanically transmitted, while others are also cyclically transmitted. for agents transmitted both cyclically and mechanically (mixed transmission ...200918755195
establishment of an in vitro transgene expression system in epimastigotes of trypanosoma congolense.trypanosoma congolense epimastigote forms (emfs) adhere to the tsetse fly proboscis, proliferate, and differentiate into animal-infective metacyclic forms (mcfs). this differentiation step, called metacyclogenesis, is indispensable for the cyclical transmission of the parasite. although an in vitro metacyclogenesis culture system was established several decades ago, few genetic tools have been utilized to investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying t. congolense metacyclogenesis. this study ...200919135170
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