Publications

TitleAbstractYear(sorted descending)
Filter
PMID
Filter
west nile virus infection of drosophila melanogaster induces a protective rnai response.to determine if west nile virus (wnv) infection of insect cells induces a protective rnai response, drosophila melanogaster s2 and aedes albopictus c6/36 cells were infected with wnv, and the production of wnv-homologous small rnas was assayed as an indicator of rnai induction. a distinct population of approximately 25 nt wnv-homologous small rnas was detected in infected s2 cells but not c6/36 cells. rnai knockdown of argonaute 2 in s2 cells resulted in slightly increased susceptibility to wnv ...200818501400
gene-specific signatures of elevated non-synonymous substitution rates correlate poorly across the plasmodium genus.comparative genome analyses of parasites allow large scale investigation of selective pressures shaping their evolution. an acute limitation to such analysis of plasmodium falciparum is that there is only very partial low-coverage genome sequence of the most closely related species, the chimpanzee parasite p. reichenowi. however, if orthologous genes have been under similar selective pressures throughout the plasmodium genus then positive selection on the p. falciparum lineage might be predicted ...200818509456
the transmembrane isoform of plasmodium falciparum maebl is essential for the invasion of anopheles salivary glands.malaria transmission depends on infective stages in the mosquito salivary glands. plasmodium sporozoites that mature in midgut oocysts must traverse the hemocoel and invade the mosquito salivary glands in a process thought to be mediated by parasite ligands. maebl, a homologue of the transmembrane ebp ligands essential in merozoite invasion, is expressed abundantly in midgut sporozoites. alternative splicing generates different maebl isoforms and so it is unclear what form is functionally essent ...200818509478
gene silencing in phlebotomine sand flies: xanthine dehydrogenase knock down by dsrna microinjections.lutzomyia longipalpis are vectors of medically important visceral leishmaniasis in south america. blood-fed adult females digest large amounts of protein, and xanthine dehydrogenase is thought to be a key enzyme involved in protein catabolism through the production of urate. large amounts of heme are also released during digestion with potentially damaging consequences, as heme can generate oxygen radicals that damage lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. however, urate is an antioxidant that may ...200818510977
comparison of male reproductive success in malaria-refractory and susceptible strains of anopheles gambiae.in female mosquitoes that transmit malaria, the benefits of being refractory to the plasmodium parasite are balanced by the immunity costs in the absence of infection. male mosquitoes, however, gain no advantage from being refractory to blood-transmitted parasites, so that any costs associated with an enhanced immune system in the males limit the evolution of female refractoriness and has practical implications for the release of transgenic males.200818534029
a sporozoite asparagine-rich protein controls initiation of plasmodium liver stage development.plasmodium sporozoites invade host hepatocytes and develop as liver stages (ls) before the onset of erythrocytic infection and malaria symptoms. ls are clinically silent, and constitute ideal targets for causal prophylactic drugs and vaccines. the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying ls development remain poorly characterized. here we describe a conserved plasmodium asparagine-rich protein that is specifically expressed in sporozoites and liver stages. gene disruption in plasmodium bergh ...200818551171
laboratory evaluation of 3 repellents against anopheles stephensi in the islamic republic of iran.this study evaluated the repellency effect of 3 topical repellents (permethrin, deet and neem tree extract) against 3-5 day old females of laboratory and field strains of anopheles stephensi. probing/biting rates on the shaved belly of white rabbits were counted. effective dose (ed) 50 and ed95 values were calculated by probit statistic software. the results revealed ed50 values of 0.007, 0.005 and 0.191 mg/cm2 for permethrin, deet and neem, respectively, against the field strain. the figures fo ...200818561716
proteomic analysis of zygote and ookinete stages of the avian malaria parasite plasmodium gallinaceum delineates the homologous proteomes of the lethal human malaria parasite plasmodium falciparum.delineation of the complement of proteins comprising the zygote and ookinete, the early developmental stages of plasmodium within the mosquito midgut, is fundamental to understand initial molecular parasite-vector interactions. the published proteome of plasmodium falciparum does not include analysis of the zygote/ookinete stages, nor does that of p. berghei include the zygote stage or secreted proteins. p. gallinaceum zygote, ookinete, and ookinete-secreted/released protein samples were prepare ...200818563747
novel peptide marker corresponding to salivary protein gsg6 potentially identifies exposure to anopheles bites.in order to improve malaria control, and under the aegis of who recommendations, many efforts are being devoted to developing new tools for identifying geographic areas with high risk of parasite transmission. evaluation of the human antibody response to arthropod salivary proteins could be an epidemiological indicator of exposure to vector bites, and therefore to risk of pathogen transmission. in the case of malaria, which is transmitted only by anopheline mosquitoes, maximal specificity could ...200818575604
depletion of plasmodium berghei plasmoredoxin reveals a non-essential role for life cycle progression of the malaria parasite.proliferation of the pathogenic plasmodium asexual blood stages in host erythrocytes requires an exquisite capacity to protect the malaria parasite against oxidative stress. this function is achieved by a complex antioxidant defence system composed of redox-active proteins and low mw antioxidants. here, we disrupted the p. berghei plasmoredoxin gene that encodes a parasite-specific 22 kda member of the thioredoxin superfamily. the successful generation of plasmoredoxin knockout mutants in the ro ...200818575607
rodent plasmodium: population dynamics of early sporogony within anopheles stephensi mosquitoes.early sporogony of plasmodium parasites involves 2 major developmental transitions within the insect vector, i.e., gametocyte-to-ookinete and ookinete-to-oocyst. this study compared the population dynamics of early sporogony among murine rodent plasmodium (plasmodium berghei, plasmodium chabaudi, plasmodium vinckei, and plasmodium yoelii) developing within anopheles stephensi mosquitoes. estimates of absolute densities were determined for gametocytes, ookinetes, and oocysts for 108 experimental ...200818576764
effect of washing on the bioefficacy of insecticide-treated nets (itns) and long-lasting insecticidal nets (llins) against main malaria vector anopheles stephensi by three bioassay methods.the use of pyrethoid impregnated bednets is one of the main malaria vector control strategies worldwide. the objective of the present study was to evaluate the bioefficacy of bednets impregnated with various pyrethroids after repeated washings.200818592843
chloroquine mediated modulation of anopheles gambiae gene expression.plasmodium development in the mosquito is crucial for malaria transmission and depends on the parasite's interaction with a variety of cell types and specific mosquito factors that have both positive and negative effects on infection. whereas the defensive response of the mosquito contributes to a decrease in parasite numbers during these stages, some components of the blood meal are known to favor infection, potentiating the risk of increased transmission. the presence of the antimalarial drug ...200818596975
plasmodium development in the mosquito: biology bottlenecks and opportunities for mathematical modeling.quantitative analyses of malaria parasite development are necessary to assess the efficacy of control measures. such analyses in the mammalian host have been difficult to implement, lagging behind the use of antiparasitic drugs, vaccine development and transmission-blocking strategies. even less is known about the genetic, environmental and other factors that impact sporogony in the mosquito host. here, we summarize current knowledge and review a first attempt to model sporogonic development qua ...200818603475
the aedes aegypti toll pathway controls dengue virus infection.aedes aegypti, the mosquito vector of dengue viruses, utilizes its innate immune system to ward off a variety of pathogens, some of which can cause disease in humans. to date, the features of insects' innate immune defenses against viruses have mainly been studied in the fruit fly drosophila melanogaster, which appears to utilize different immune pathways against different types of viruses, in addition to an rna interference-based defense system. we have used the recently released whole-genome s ...200818604274
phase 1 trial of malaria transmission blocking vaccine candidates pfs25 and pvs25 formulated with montanide isa 51.pfs25 and pvs25, surface proteins of mosquito stage of the malaria parasites p. falciparum and p. vivax, respectively, are leading candidates for vaccines preventing malaria transmission by mosquitoes. this single blinded, dose escalating, controlled phase 1 study assessed the safety and immunogenicity of recombinant pfs25 and pvs25 formulated with montanide isa 51, a water-in-oil emulsion.200818612426
evaluation of the function of a type i peritrophic matrix as a physical barrier for midgut epithelium invasion by mosquito-borne pathogens in aedes aegypti.in addition to modulating blood meal digestion and protecting the midgut epithelial cells from mechanical and chemical damage, a biological function attributed to the mosquito type i peritrophic matrix (pm) is preventing or reducing pathogen invasion, especially from plasmodium spp. previously, we demonstrated that chitin is an essential component of the pm and is synthesized de novo in response to blood feeding in aedes aegypti. therefore, knocking down chitin synthase expression by rna interfe ...200818627241
competency of anopheles stephensi mysorensis strain for plasmodium vivax and the role of inhibitory carbohydrates to block its sporogonic cycle.despite the abundance of studies conducted on the role of mosquitoes in malaria transmission, the biology and interaction of plasmodium with its insect host still holds many mysteries. this paper provides the first study to follow the sporogonic cycle of plasmodium vivax in a wild insecticide-resistant mysorensis strain of anopheles stephensi, a major vector of vivax malaria in south-eastern iran. the study subsequently demonstrates that host-parasite sugar binding interactions are critical to t ...200818627630
genistein-supplemented diet decreases malaria liver infection in mice and constitutes a potential prophylactic strategy.in tropical regions millions of people still live at risk of malaria infection. indeed the emergence of resistance to chloroquine and other drugs in use in these areas reinforces the need to implement alternative prophylactic strategies. genistein is a naturally occurring compound that is widely used as a food supplement and is thought to be effective in countering several pathologies. results presented here show that genistein inhibits liver infection by the plasmodium parasite, the causative a ...200818628947
imc1b is a putative membrane skeleton protein involved in cell shape, mechanical strength, motility, and infectivity of malaria ookinetes.membrane skeletons are cytoskeletal elements that have important roles in cell development, shape, and structural integrity. malaria parasites encode a conserved family of putative membrane skeleton proteins related to articulins. one member, imc1a, is expressed in sporozoites and localizes to the pellicle, a unique membrane complex believed to form a scaffold onto which the ligands and glideosome are arranged to mediate parasite motility and invasion. imc1b is a closely related structural paral ...200818650444
plasmodium yoelii sporozoites modulate cytokine profile and induce apoptosis in murine kupffer cells.plasmodium sporozoites traverse kupffer cells on their way into the liver. sporozoite contact does not elicit a respiratory burst in these hepatic macrophages and blocks the formation of reactive oxygen species in response to secondary stimuli via elevation of the intracellular camp concentration. here we show that increasing the camp level with dibutyryl cyclic adenosine monophosphate (db-camp) or isobutylmethylxanthine (ibmx) also modulates cytokine secretion in murine kupffer cells towards an ...200818656478
characterization of the multicopper oxidase gene family in anopheles gambiae.the multicopper oxidase (mco) family of enzymes includes laccases, which oxidize a broad range of substrates including diphenols, and several oxidases with specific substrates such as iron, copper or ascorbic acid. we have identified five putative mco genes in the genome of anopheles gambiae and have cloned cdnas encompassing the full coding region for each gene. mco1 mrna was detected in all developmental stages and in all of the larval and adult tissues tested. we observed an increase in mco1 ...200818675911
ethnobotanical study of some of mosquito repellent plants in north-eastern tanzania.the use of plant repellents against nuisance biting insects is common and its potential for malaria vector control requires evaluation in areas with different level of malaria endemicity. the essential oils of ocimum suave and ocimum kilimandscharicum were evaluated against malaria vectors in north-eastern tanzania.200818687119
temperature shift and host cell contact up-regulate sporozoite expression of plasmodium falciparum genes involved in hepatocyte infection.plasmodium sporozoites are deposited in the skin by anopheles mosquitoes. they then find their way to the liver, where they specifically invade hepatocytes in which they develop to yield merozoites infective to red blood cells. relatively little is known of the molecular interactions during these initial obligatory phases of the infection. recent data suggested that many of the inoculated sporozoites invade hepatocytes an hour or more after the infective bite. we hypothesised that this pre-invas ...200818688281
responses of anopheles gambiae, anopheles stephensi, aedes aegypti, and culex pipiens mosquitoes (diptera: culicidae) to cool and humid refugium conditions.like all terrestrial arthropods, mosquitoes must cope with the threat of desiccation. to gain insight into their survival strategies, we recorded the behavioral responses of anopheles gambiae, anopheles stephensi, aedes aegypti, and culex pipiens offered zones of different microclimatic conditions in laboratory cages. the cooled refugium was at 25.6 degrees c, 86% rh and the control was at 28.5 degrees c, 75% rh, i.e., a difference in saturation deficit of 3.9 mm hg between the two zones. we sho ...200818697317
efficacy of culture filtrates of metarhizium anisopliae against larvae of anopheles stephensi and culex quinquefasciatus.efficacy of culture filtrates of five strains of metarhizium anisopliae isolated from insects were evaluated against anopheles stephensi and culex quinquefasciatus. the culture filtrates released from the strains of m. anisopliae in the ypss and chitin broths were filtered and used for the bioassays after a growth of 7 days. among the culture filtrates of five strains, m. anisopliae 892 was found to be more effective against both the mosquitoes. the lc(50) values of culture filtrates of m. aniso ...200818709394
distinct malaria parasite sporozoites reveal transcriptional changes that cause differential tissue infection competence in the mosquito vector and mammalian host.the malaria parasite sporozoite transmission stage develops and differentiates within parasite oocysts on the anopheles mosquito midgut. successful inoculation of the parasite into a mammalian host is critically dependent on the sporozoite's ability to first infect the mosquito salivary glands. remarkable changes in tissue infection competence are observed as the sporozoites transit from the midgut oocysts to the salivary glands. our microarray analysis shows that compared to oocyst sporozoites, ...200818710954
establishment of a large semi-field system for experimental study of african malaria vector ecology and control in tanzania.medical entomologists increasingly recognize that the ability to make inferences between laboratory experiments of vector biology and epidemiological trends observed in the field is hindered by a conceptual and methodological gap occurring between these approaches which prevents hypothesis-driven empirical research from being conducted on relatively large and environmentally realistic scales. the development of semi-field systems (sfs) has been proposed as the best mechanism for bridging this ga ...200818715508
an insight into the salivary transcriptome and proteome of the soft tick and vector of epizootic bovine abortion, ornithodoros coriaceus.the salivary glands of blood-sucking arthropods contain a redundant 'magic potion' that counteracts their vertebrate host's hemostasis, inflammation, and immunity. we here describe the salivary transcriptome and proteomics (sialome) of the soft tick ornithodoros coriaceus. the resulting analysis helps to consolidate the classification of common proteins found in both soft and hard ticks, such as the lipocalins, kunitz, cystatin, basic tail, hebraein, defensin, til domain, metalloprotease, 5'-nuc ...200818725333
viral paratransgenesis in the malaria vector anopheles gambiae.paratransgenesis, the genetic manipulation of insect symbiotic microorganisms, is being considered as a potential method to control vector-borne diseases such as malaria. the feasibility of paratransgenic malaria control has been hampered by the lack of candidate symbiotic microorganisms for the major vector anopheles gambiae. in other systems, densonucleosis viruses (dnvs) are attractive agents for viral paratransgenesis because they infect important vector insects, can be genetically manipulat ...200818725926
cyanobacterial toxins as allelochemicals with potential applications as algaecides, herbicides and insecticides.cyanobacteria ("blue-green algae") from marine and freshwater habitats are known to produce a diverse array of toxic or otherwise bioactive metabolites. however, the functional role of the vast majority of these compounds, particularly in terms of the physiology and ecology of the cyanobacteria that produce them, remains largely unknown. a limited number of studies have suggested that some of the compounds may have ecological roles as allelochemicals, specifically including compounds that may in ...200818728763
attenuated plasmodium yoelii lacking purine nucleoside phosphorylase confer protective immunity.malaria continues to devastate sub-saharan africa owing to the emergence of drug resistance to established antimalarials and to the lack of an efficacious vaccine. plasmodium species have a unique streamlined purine pathway in which the dual specificity enzyme purine nucleoside phosphorylase (pnp) functions in both purine recycling and purine salvage. to evaluate the importance of pnp in an in vivo model of malaria, we disrupted pypnp, the gene encoding pnp in the lethal plasmodium yoelii ym str ...200818758447
reverse genetics screen identifies six proteins important for malaria development in the mosquito.transmission from the vertebrate host to the mosquito vector represents a major population bottleneck in the malaria life cycle that can successfully be targeted by intervention strategies. however, to date only about 25 parasite proteins expressed during this critical phase have been functionally analysed by gene disruption. we describe the first systematic, larger scale generation and phenotypic analysis of plasmodium berghei knockout (ko) lines, characterizing 20 genes encoding putatively sec ...200818761621
memory cd8 t cell responses exceeding a large but definable threshold provide long-term immunity to malaria.infection of mice with sporozoites of plasmodium berghei or plasmodium yoelii has been used extensively to evaluate liver-stage protection by candidate preerythrocytic malaria vaccines. unfortunately, repeated success of such vaccines in mice has not translated readily to effective malaria vaccines in humans. thus, mice may be used better as models to dissect basic parameters required for immunity to plasmodium-infection than as preclinical vaccine models. in turn, this basic information may aid ...200818780790
a quantitative in vitro assay for chemical mosquito-deterrent activity without human blood cells.we report that an aqueous solution containing 10(-3) m adenosine triphosphate (atp) and citrate-phosphate-dextrose-adenine (cpda-1) can effectively replace transfusable human red blood cells in an in vitro klun and debboun bioassay system for evaluating chemicals for mosquito feeding-deterrent activity, using either aedes aegypti or anopheles stephensi. these species fed with similar avidity through collagen membrane covering aqueous 10(-3) m atp plus cpda-1 or red blood cells in cpda-1 suppleme ...200819181057
sampling of adult mosquito vectors with mosquito magnet pro in panaji, goa, india.for mosquito vector population monitoring, a new commercial trap, mosquito magnet pro (mm-pro), was tested for its usefulness in goa, india. anopheles stephensi was tested for the presence of plasmodium sporozoite infection in the salivary glands. using the mm-pro 24 h a day for 34 days, 2,329 mosquitoes belonging to 16 species were collected. these included 6 species each of the genera anopheles and culex, 2 species of aedes, and 1 each of mansonia and armigeres. most (91%) of the mosquitoes ca ...200819181075
evaluation and optimization of membrane feeding compared to direct feeding as an assay for infectivity.malaria parasite infectivity to mosquitoes has been measured in a variety of ways and setting, includind direct feeds of and/or membrane feeding blood collected from randomly selected or gametocytemic volunteers. anopheles gambiae s.l is the main vector responsible of plasmodium falciparum transmission in bancoumana and represents about 90% of the laboratory findings, whereas plasmodium malariae and plasmodium ovale together represent only 10%.200819055715
anopheles gambiae males produce and transfer the vitellogenic steroid hormone 20-hydroxyecdysone to females during mating.in female insects, the steroid hormone 20-hydroxyecdysone (20e) plays a major role in activating vitellogenesis, a process required for egg development. by contrast with vertebrates, production of large amounts of hormonal steroids has not been reported in adult male insects. in the present study, we analyzed steroidogenesis in both male and female adult of the malaria mosquito anopheles gambiae and we found that a. gambiae male mosquitoes produce high amounts of the steroid hormone 20e. importa ...200819060216
the fatty acid biosynthesis enzyme fabi plays a key role in the development of liver-stage malarial parasites.the fatty acid synthesis type ii pathway has received considerable interest as a candidate therapeutic target in plasmodium falciparum asexual blood-stage infections. this apicoplast-resident pathway, distinct from the mammalian type i process, includes fabi. here, we report synthetic chemistry and transfection studies concluding that plasmodium fabi is not the target of the antimalarial activity of triclosan, an inhibitor of bacterial fabi. disruption of fabi in p. falciparum or the rodent para ...200819064257
enhancing effect of a protein from lonomia obliqua hemolymph on recombinant protein production.gene expression in animal cells allows large scale production of proteins used for either structure and function studies or therapeutic purposes. maximizing recombinant protein production is necessary to optimize cell growth and protein expression. some studies have demonstrated the presence of pharmacologically active substances in insect hemolymph. in this work, we have identified and purified a protein from lonomia obliqua hemolymph able to increase the production of the rabies virus glycopro ...200819003176
expression of the cytochrome p450s, cyp6p3 and cyp6m2 are significantly elevated in multiple pyrethroid resistant populations of anopheles gambiae s.s. from southern benin and nigeria.insecticide resistance in anopheles mosquitoes is threatening the success of malaria control programmes. this is particularly true in benin where pyrethroid resistance has been linked to the failure of insecticide treated bed nets. the role of mutations in the insecticide target sites in conferring resistance has been clearly established. in this study, the contribution of other potential resistance mechanisms was investigated in anopheles gambiae s.s. from a number of localities in southern ben ...200819014539
kinome-wide rnai screen implicates at least 5 host hepatocyte kinases in plasmodium sporozoite infection.plasmodium sporozoites, the causative agent of malaria, are injected into their vertebrate host through the bite of an infected anopheles mosquito, homing to the liver where they invade hepatocytes to proliferate and develop into merozoites that, upon reaching the bloodstream, give rise to the clinical phase of infection. to investigate how host cell signal transduction pathways affect hepatocyte infection, we used rnai to systematically test the entire kinome and associated genes in human huh7 ...200818989463
comparative performance of imagicides on anopheles stephensi, main malaria vector in a malarious area, southern iran.jiroft district has subtropical climate and prone to seasonal malaria transmission with annual parasite index (api) 4.2 per 1000 in 2006. anopheles stephensi liston is a dominant malaria vector. the monitoring of insecticide susceptibility and irritability was conducted using discriminative dose as described by who.200819248658
vesicle trafficking during sporozoite development in plasmodium berghei: ultrastructural evidence for a novel trafficking mechanism.oocysts from anopheles stephensi mosquitoes fed on murine blood infected with plasmodium berghei berghei, were fixed for electron microscopy 6-12 days post-feeding. ultrastructural analysis focused on golgi-related trafficking pathways for rhoptry and microneme formation during sporogony. a small golgi complex of 1-3 cisternae is formed close to the spindle pole body from coated vesicles budded from the nuclear envelope which is confluent with the endoplasmic reticulum. rhoptries begin as small ...200817908361
low levels of mammalian tgf-beta1 are protective against malaria parasite infection, a paradox clarified in the mosquito host.nitric oxide (no), derived from catalysis of inducible no synthase (inos), limits malaria parasite growth in mammals. transforming growth factor (tgf)-beta1 suppresses inos in cells in vitro as well as in vivo in mice, but paradoxically severe malaria in humans is associated with low levels of tgf-beta1. we hypothesized that this paradox is a universal feature of infection and occurs in the mosquito anopheles stephensi, an invertebrate host for plasmodium that also regulates parasite development ...200817920060
plasmodium yoelii: correlation of up-regulated prophenoloxidase and phenoloxidases with melanization induced by the antimalarial, nitroquine.although knowledge of the mosquito immune response has recently improved, less is known about the impact of antimalarial drugs on mosquito immunity. in the present study, we found that nitroquine, an effective antimalaria drug, could also induce melanotic encapsulation of plasmodium by anopheles stephensi. the melanization rate of the nitroquine treated group was 60.8%. to explore the effect of nitroquine on mosquito immunity, we determined the increase in activity of phenoloxidases (po) enzyme, ...200817936755
regulation of carbohydrate metabolism and flight performance by a hypertrehalosaemic hormone in the mosquito anopheles gambiae.the role of adipokinetic hormones (akhs) in the regulation of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism and flight performance was evaluated for females of the african malaria mosquito, anopheles gambiae. injection of various dosages of synthetic anoga-akh-i increased carbohydrate levels in the haemolymph and reduced glycogen reserves in sugar-fed females but did not affect lipid levels. anoga-akh-i enhanced the flight performance of both intact and decapitated sugar-fed females, during a 4 h flight per ...200818062987
an insight into the sialome of the soft tick, ornithodorus parkeri.while hard ticks (ixodidae) take several days to feed on their hosts, soft ticks (argasidae) feed faster, usually taking less than 1h per meal. saliva assists in the feeding process by providing a cocktail of anti-hemostatic, anti-inflammatory and immunomodullatory compounds. saliva of hard ticks has been shown to contain several families of genes each having multiple members, while those of soft ticks are relatively unexplored. analysis of the salivary transcriptome of the soft tick ornithodoru ...200818070662
exoerythrocytic development of plasmodium gallinaceum in the white leghorn chicken.plasmodium gallinaceum typically causes sub-clinical disease with low mortality in its primary host, the indian jungle fowl gallus sonnerati. domestic chickens of european origin, however, are highly susceptible to this avian malaria parasite. here we describe the development of p. gallinaceum in young white leghorn chicks with emphasis on the primary exoerythrocytic phase of the infection. using various regimens for infection, we found that p. gallinaceum induced a transient primary exoerythroc ...200818005972
wash resistance of permanets in comparison to hand-treated nets.the wash resistance of factory produced permanets (with deltamethrin bonded to the netting with a resin) was studied by bioassays with anopheles stephensi. commercial detergent powders were used to wash the nets. for comparison, conventionally treated nets were washed and bio-assayed. nets were washed under laboratory conditions using a rotary shaker for 10min. mosquito bioassays used standard who plastic cones with an exposure time of 3min. the permanet caused almost a 100% mortality of an. ste ...200818053964
inhibition of collagen-induced platelet aggregation by anopheline antiplatelet protein, a saliva protein from a malaria vector mosquito.during blood feeding, mosquitoes inject saliva containing a mixture of molecules that inactivate or inhibit various components of the hemostatic response to the bite injury as well as the inflammatory reactions produced by the bite, to facilitate the ingestion of blood. however, the molecular functions of the individual saliva components remain largely unknown. here, we describe anopheline antiplatelet protein (aapp) isolated from the saliva of anopheles stephensi, a human malaria vector mosquit ...200818056842
class ii-restricted protective immunity induced by malaria sporozoites.the irradiated-sporozoite vaccine elicits sterile immunity against plasmodium parasites in experimental rodent hosts and human volunteers. based on rodent malaria models, it has been proposed that cd8+ t cells are the key protective effector mechanism required in sporozoite-induced immunity. to investigate the role of class ii-restricted immunity in protective immunity, we immunized beta2-microglobulin knockout (beta2m-/-) mice with irradiated plasmodium yoelii or p. berghei sporozoites. sterile ...200818160479
transcriptionally active pcr for antigen identification and vaccine development: in vitro genome-wide screening and in vivo immunogenicity.we have evaluated a technology called transcriptionally active pcr (tap) for high throughput identification and prioritization of novel target antigens from genomic sequence data using the plasmodium parasite, the causative agent of malaria, as a model. first, we adapted the tap technology for the highly at-rich plasmodium genome, using well-characterized p. falciparum and p. yoelii antigens and a small panel of uncharacterized open reading frames from the p. falciparum genome sequence database. ...200818164079
can transgenic mosquitoes afford the fitness cost?in a recent study, sm1-transgenic anopheles stephensi, which are resistant partially to plasmodium berghei, had higher fitness than non-transgenic mosquitoes when they were maintained on plasmodium-infected blood. this result should be interpreted cautiously with respect to malaria control using transgenic mosquitoes because, despite the evolutionary advantage conferred by the transgene, a concomitant cost prevents it from invading the entire population. indeed, for the spread of a resistance tr ...200818164248
isolation and identification of mosquito larvicidal compound from abutilon indicum (linn.) sweet.larvicidal activity of crude hexane, ethyl acetate, petroleum ether, acetone and methanol extracts of five medicinal plants, abutilon indicum, aegle marmelos, euphorbia thymifolia, jatropha gossypifolia and solanum torvum were assayed for their toxicity against the early fourth-instar larvae of culex quinquefasciatus. the larval mortality was observed after 24 h exposure. all extracts showed moderate larvicidal effects; however, the highest larval mortality was found in petroleum ether extract o ...200818176816
plasmodium infection and endotoxic shock induce the expansion of regulatory dendritic cells.during an acute plasmodium infection, uncontrolled proinflammatory responses can cause morbidity and mortality. regulation of this response is required to prevent immunopathology. we therefore decided to investigate a recently characterized subset of regulatory dendritic cells (dcs) that expresses low levels of cd11c and high levels of cd45rb. during a plasmodium yoelii infection, these regulatory cd11clowcd45rbhigh dcs become the prevalent cd11c-expressing cells in the spleen, overtaking the co ...200818178809
the midgut transcriptome of lutzomyia longipalpis: comparative analysis of cdna libraries from sugar-fed, blood-fed, post-digested and leishmania infantum chagasi-infected sand flies.in the life cycle of leishmania within the alimentary canal of sand flies the parasites have to survive the hostile environment of blood meal digestion, escape the blood bolus and attach to the midgut epithelium before differentiating into the infective metacyclic stages. the molecular interactions between the leishmania parasites and the gut of the sand fly are poorly understood. in the present work we sequenced five cdna libraries constructed from midgut tissue from the sand fly lutzomyia long ...200818194529
identity and transfer of male reproductive gland proteins of the dengue vector mosquito, aedes aegypti: potential tools for control of female feeding and reproduction.male reproductive gland proteins (mrgps) impact the physiology and/or behavior of mated females in a broad range of organisms. we sought to identify mrgps of the yellow fever mosquito, aedes aegypti, the primary vector of dengue and yellow fever viruses. earlier studies with ae. aegypti demonstrated that "matrone" (a partially purified male reproductive accessory gland substance) or male accessory gland fluid injected into virgin female ae. aegypti affect female sexual refractoriness, blood feed ...200818207079
new active drugs against liver stages of plasmodium predicted by molecular topology.we conducted a quantitative structure-activity relationship (qsar) study based on a database of 127 compounds previously tested against the liver stage of plasmodium yoelii in order to develop a model capable of predicting the in vitro antimalarial activities of new compounds. topological indices were used as structural descriptors, and their relation to antimalarial activity was determined by using linear discriminant analysis. a topological model consisting of two discriminant functions was cr ...200818212104
inhibition of histamine-mediated signaling confers significant protection against severe malaria in mouse models of disease.from the inoculation of plasmodium sporozoites via anopheles mosquito bites to the development of blood-stage parasites, a hallmark of the host response is an inflammatory reaction characterized by elevated histamine levels in the serum and tissues. given the proinflammatory and immunosuppressive activities associated with histamine, we postulated that this vasoactive amine participates in malaria pathogenesis. combined genetic and pharmacologic approaches demonstrated that histamine binding to ...200818227221
evidence of blood stage efficacy with a virosomal malaria vaccine in a phase iia clinical trial.previous research indicates that a combination vaccine targeting different stages of the malaria life cycle is likely to provide the most effective malaria vaccine. this trial was the first to combine two existing vaccination strategies to produce a vaccine that induces immune responses to both the pre-erythrocytic and blood stages of the p. falciparum life cycle.200818231580
pbcap380, a novel oocyst capsule protein, is essential for malaria parasite survival in the mosquito.an essential requisite for transmission of plasmodium, the causative agent of malaria, is the successful completion of a complex developmental cycle in its mosquito vector. of hundreds of ookinetes that form in the mosquito midgut, only few transform into oocysts, a loss attributed to the action of the mosquito immune system. however, once oocysts form, they appear to be resistant to mosquito defences. during oocyst development, a thick capsule forms around the parasite and appears to function a ...200818248630
annotation and expression profiling of apoptosis-related genes in the yellow fever mosquito, aedes aegypti.apoptosis has been extensively studied in drosophila by both biochemical and genetic approaches, but there is a lack of knowledge about the mechanisms of apoptosis regulation in other insects. in mosquitoes, apoptosis occurs during plasmodium and arbovirus infection in the midgut, suggesting that apoptosis plays a role in mosquito innate immunity. we searched the aedes aegypti genome for apoptosis-related genes using drosophila and anopheles gambiae protein sequences as queries. in this study we ...200818252247
single-dose protection against plasmodium berghei by a simian adenovirus vector using a human cytomegalovirus promoter containing intron a.human adenovirus serotype 5 (adh5) vector vaccines elicit strong immune responses to the encoded antigen and have been used in various disease models. we designed adh5 vectors expressing antigen under the control of a human cytomegalovirus (hcmv) immediate-early promoter containing its intron a sequence. the transcriptional levels of antigen and immune responses to antigen for vectors with the hcmv promoter with the intron a sequence (lp) were greater than those for adh5 vectors using the hcmv p ...200818256155
progression of plasmodium berghei through anopheles stephensi is density-dependent.it is well documented that the density of plasmodium in its vertebrate host modulates the physiological response induced; this in turn regulates parasite survival and transmission. it is less clear that parasite density in the mosquito regulates survival and transmission of this important pathogen. numerous studies have described conversion rates of plasmodium from one life stage to the next within the mosquito, yet few have considered that these rates might vary with parasite density. here we e ...200718166078
a virosomal malaria peptide vaccine elicits a long-lasting sporozoite-inhibitory antibody response in a phase 1a clinical trial.peptides delivered on the surface of influenza virosomes have been shown to induce solid humoral immune responses in experimental animals. high titers of peptide-specific antibodies were also induced in a phase 1a clinical trial in volunteers immunized with virosomal formulations of two peptides derived from the circumsporozoite protein (csp) and the apical membrane antigen 1 (ama-1) of plasmodium falciparum. the main objective of this study was to perform a detailed immunological and functional ...200718060072
continuous exposure to plasmodium results in decreased susceptibility and transcriptomic divergence of the anopheles gambiae immune system.plasmodium infection has been shown to compromise the fitness of the mosquito vector, reducing its fecundity and longevity. however, from an evolutionary perspective, the impact of plasmodium infection as a selective pressure on the mosquito is largely unknown.200718053261
construction and characterization of an expressed sequenced tag library for the mosquito vector armigeres subalbatus.the mosquito, armigeres subalbatus, mounts a distinctively robust innate immune response when infected with the nematode brugia malayi, a causative agent of lymphatic filariasis. in order to mine the transcriptome for new insight into the cascade of events that takes place in response to infection in this mosquito, 6 cdna libraries were generated from tissues of adult female mosquitoes subjected to immune-response activation treatments that lead to well-characterized responses, and from aging, n ...200718088419
morphological method for sexing anopheline larvae.most of autocidal control of malaria vectors relies on the rearing and release of large numbers of sterile male into a wild population and it would be crucial to separate the males from females before release. this could result in enormous economic benefits in the mass rearing and raise the efficiency of the field operations. the development of genetic sexing of mosquitoes, enabling the release of males only, but impairing the overall fitness of the released insect has been considered greatly. h ...200718092530
serial analysis of gene expression in plasmodium berghei salivary gland sporozoites.the invasion of anopheles salivary glands by plasmodium sporozoites is an essential step for transmission of the parasite to the vertebrate host. salivary gland sporozoites undergo a developmental programme to express genes required for their journey from the site of the mosquito bite to the liver and subsequent invasion of, and development within, hepatocytes. a serial analysis of gene expression was performed on anopheles gambiae salivary glands infected or not with plasmodium berghei and we r ...200718093287
improved isolation of murine hepatocytes for in vitro malaria liver stage studies.primary hepatocyte cultures are a valuable tool for the understanding of cellular and molecular phenomena occurring during malaria liver stage. this paper describes an improved perfusion/dissociation procedure to isolate hepatocytes from mouse liver that is suitable for malaria studies and allows reproducible preparation of primary hepatocytes with consistent cell yields and controlled purity.200718096071
sterile protection against malaria is independent of immune responses to the circumsporozoite protein.background: research aimed at developing vaccines against infectious diseases generally seeks to induce robust immune responses to immunodominant antigens. this approach has led to a number of efficient bacterial and viral vaccines, but it has yet to do so for parasitic pathogens. for malaria, a disease of global importance due to infection by plasmodium protozoa, immunization with radiation-attenuated sporozoites uniquely leads to long lasting sterile immunity against infection. the circumsporo ...200718159254
hemolytic c-type lectin cel-iii from sea cucumber expressed in transgenic mosquitoes impairs malaria parasite development.the midgut environment of anopheline mosquitoes plays an important role in the development of the malaria parasite. using genetic manipulation of anopheline mosquitoes to change the environment in the mosquito midgut may inhibit development of the malaria parasite, thus blocking malaria transmission. here we generate transgenic anopheles stephensi mosquitoes that express the c-type lectin cel-iii from the sea cucumber, cucumaria echinata, in a midgut-specific manner. cel-iii has strong and rapid ...200718159942
mosquitoes inoculate high doses of west nile virus as they probe and feed on live hosts.west nile virus (wnv) is transmitted to vertebrate hosts by mosquitoes as they take a blood meal. the amount of wnv inoculated by mosquitoes as they feed on a live host is not known. previous estimates of the amount of wnv inoculated by mosquitoes (10(1.2)-10(4.3) pfu) were based on in vitro assays that do not allow mosquitoes to probe or feed naturally. here, we developed an in vivo assay to determine the amount of wnv inoculated by mosquitoes as they probe and feed on peripheral tissues of a m ...200717941708
cross-protection between attenuated plasmodium berghei and p. yoelii sporozoites.an attenuated plasmodium falciparum sporozoite (pfspz) vaccine is under development, in part, based on studies in mice with p. berghei. we used p. berghei and p. yoelii to study vaccine-induced protection against challenge with a species of parasite different from the immunizing parasite in balb/c mice. one-hundred percent of mice were protected against homologous challenge. seventy-nine percent immunized with attenuated p. berghei sporozoite (pbspz) (six experiments) were protected against chal ...200717944745
susceptibility of anopheles gambiae and anopheles stephensi to tropical isolates of plasmodium falciparum.the susceptibility of anopheline mosquito species to plasmodium infection is known to be variable with some mosquitoes more permissive to infection than others. little work, however, has been carried out investigating the susceptibility of major malaria vectors to geographically diverse tropical isolates of plasmodium falciparum aside from examining the possibility of infection extending its range from tropical regions into more temperate zones.200717958900
release of hepatic plasmodium yoelii merozoites into the pulmonary microvasculature.plasmodium undergoes one round of multiplication in the liver prior to invading erythrocytes and initiating the symptomatic blood phase of the malaria infection. productive hepatocyte infection by sporozoites leads to the generation of thousands of merozoites capable of erythrocyte invasion. merozoites are released from infected hepatocytes as merosomes, packets of hundreds of parasites surrounded by host cell membrane. intravital microscopy of green fluorescent protein-expressing p. yoelii para ...200717997605
heparan sulfate proteoglycans provide a signal to plasmodium sporozoites to stop migrating and productively invade host cells.malaria infection is initiated when anopheles mosquitoes inject plasmodium sporozoites into the skin. sporozoites subsequently reach the liver, invading and developing within hepatocytes. sporozoites contact and traverse many cell types as they migrate from skin to liver; however, the mechanism by which they switch from a migratory mode to an invasive mode is unclear. here, we show that sporozoites of the rodent malaria parasite plasmodium berghei use the sulfation level of host heparan sulfate ...200718005753
combination of protein and viral vaccines induces potent cellular and humoral immune responses and enhanced protection from murine malaria challenge.the search for an efficacious vaccine against malaria is ongoing, and it is now widely believed that to confer protection a vaccine must induce very strong cellular and humoral immunity concurrently. we studied the immune response in mice immunized with the recombinant viral vaccines fowlpox strain fp9 and modified virus ankara (mva), a protein vaccine (cv-1866), or a combination of the two; all vaccines express parts of the same preerythrocytic malaria antigen, the plasmodium berghei circumspor ...200717908809
inhibition of plasmodium falciparum oocyst production by membrane-permeant cysteine protease inhibitor e64d.during asexual intraerythrocytic growth, plasmodium falciparum utilizes hemoglobin obtained from the host red blood cell (rbc) as a nutrient source. papain-like cysteine proteases, falcipains 2 and 3, have been reported to be involved in hemoglobin digestion and are targets of current antimalarial drug development efforts. however, their expression during gametocytogenesis, which is required for malaria parasite transmission, has not been studied. many of the available antimalarials do not inhib ...200717178799
plasmodium berghei: plasmodium perforin-like protein 5 is required for mosquito midgut invasion in anopheles stephensi.during its life cycle the malarial parasite plasmodium forms three invasive stages which have to invade different and specific cells for replication to ensue. invasion is vital to parasite survival and consequently proteins responsible for invasion are considered to be candidate vaccine/drug targets. plasmodium perforin-like proteins (pplps) have been implicated in invasion because they contain a predicted pore-forming domain. ookinetes express three pplps, and one of them (pplp3) has previously ...200717367780
transgenic malaria-resistant mosquitoes have a fitness advantage when feeding on plasmodium-infected blood.the introduction of genes that impair plasmodium development into mosquito populations is a strategy being considered for malaria control. the effect of the transgene on mosquito fitness is a crucial parameter influencing the success of this approach. we have previously shown that anopheline mosquitoes expressing the sm1 peptide in the midgut lumen are impaired for transmission of plasmodium berghei. moreover, the transgenic mosquitoes had no noticeable fitness load compared with nontransgenic m ...200717372227
effect of the antimicrobial peptide gomesin against different life stages of plasmodium spp.while seeking strategies for interfering with plasmodium development in vertebrate/invertebrate hosts, we tested the activity of gomesin, an antimicrobial peptide isolated from the hemocytes of the spider acanthoscurria gomesiana. gomesin was tested against asexual, sexual and pre-sporogonic forms of plasmodium falciparum and plasmodium berghei parasites. the peptide inhibited the in vitro growth of intraerythrocytic forms of p. falciparum. when gomesin was added to in vitro culture of p. berghe ...200717376436
binding of cyt1aa and cry11aa toxins of bacillus thuringiensis serovar israelensis to brush border membrane vesicles of tipula paludosa (diptera: nematocera) and subsequent pore formation.bacillus thuringiensis serovar israelensis (b. thuringiensis subsp. israelensis) produces four insecticidal crystal proteins (icps) (cry4a, cry4b, cry11a, and cyt1a). toxicity of recombinant b. thuringiensis subsp. israelensis strains expressing only one of the toxins was determined with first instars of tipula paludosa (diptera: nematocera). cyt1a was the most toxic protein, whereas cry4a, cry4b, and cry11a were virtually nontoxic. synergistic effects were recorded when cry4a and/or cry4b was c ...200717416690
transcriptional analysis of insecticide resistance in anopheles stephensi using cross-species microarray hybridization.a large scale microarray (20k mmc1) from the african malaria vector anopheles gambiae was used to monitor gene expression in insecticide resistant and susceptible strains of the asian mosquito anopheles stephensi. heterologous hybridization at slightly reduced stringency yielded approximately 7000 significant signals. thirty-six putative genes were differentially transcribed between the pyrethroid-resistant (dub-r) and the susceptible (beech) strains. the expression profiles of selected transcri ...200717433071
an insight into the sialome of the oriental rat flea, xenopsylla cheopis (rots).the salivary glands of hematophagous animals contain a complex cocktail that interferes with the host hemostasis and inflammation pathways, thus increasing feeding success. fleas represent a relatively recent group of insects that evolved hematophagy independently of other insect orders.200717437641
identification and characterization of a new kallikrein-kinin system inhibitor from the salivary glands of the malaria vector mosquito anopheles stephensi.a new kallikrein-kinin system inhibitor, designated anophensin, was identified in the salivary glands of the malaria vector mosquito, anopheles stephensi. in vitro reconstitution experiments showed that anophensin inhibits activation of the kallikrein-kinin system by inhibiting the reciprocal activation of factor xii (fxii) and prekallikrein (pk), and subsequent release of bradykinin. additionally, anophensin inhibits activation of the kallikrein-kinin system on cultured human umbilical vein end ...200717456441
minimum requirements for ookinete to oocyst transformation in plasmodium.during their passage through a mosquito vector, malaria parasites undergo several developmental transformations including that from a motile zygote, the ookinete, to a sessile oocyst that develops beneath the basal lamina of the midgut epithelium. this transformation process is poorly understood and the oocyst is the least studied of all the stages in the malaria life cycle. we have used an in vitro culture system to monitor morphological features associated with transformation of plasmodium ber ...200717482621
bacteria of the genus asaia stably associate with anopheles stephensi, an asian malarial mosquito vector.here, we show that an alpha-proteobacterium of the genus asaia is stably associated with larvae and adults of anopheles stephensi, an important mosquito vector of plasmodium vivax, a main malaria agent in asia. asaia bacteria dominate mosquito-associated microbiota, as shown by 16s rrna gene abundance, quantitative pcr, transmission electron microscopy and in situ-hybridization of 16s rrna genes. in adult mosquitoes, asaia sp. is present in high population density in the female gut and in the ma ...200717502606
genomic and evolutionary analyses of tango transposons in aedes aegypti, anopheles gambiae and other mosquito species.tango is a transposon of the tc1 family and was originally discovered in the african malaria mosquito, anopheles gambiae. here we report a systematic analysis of the genome sequence of the yellow fever mosquito, aedes aegypti, which uncovered three distinct tango transposons. we name the only an. gambiae tango transposon agtango1 and the three ae. aegypti tango elements aetango1-3. like agtango1, aetango1 and aetango2 elements both have members that retain characteristics of autonomous elements ...200717506852
a long and winding road: the plasmodium sporozoite's journey in the mammalian host.the plasmodium sporozoite, the infectious stage of the malaria parasite, makes a remarkable journey in its mammalian host. here we review our current knowledge of the molecular and cellular basis of this journey, which begins in the skin and ends in the hepatocyte.200717513164
plasmodium yoelii sporozoites with simultaneous deletion of p52 and p36 are completely attenuated and confer sterile immunity against infection.malaria infection starts when sporozoites are transmitted to the mammalian host during a mosquito bite. sporozoites enter the blood circulation, reach the liver, and infect hepatocytes. the formation of a parasitophorous vacuole (pv) establishes their intracellular niche. recently, two members of the 6-cys domain protein family, p52 and p36, were each shown to play an important albeit nonessential role in plasmodium berghei sporozoite infectivity for the rodent host. here, we generated p52/p36-d ...200717517871
larvicidal effects of a neem (azadirachta indica) oil formulation on the malaria vector anopheles gambiae.larviciding is a key strategy used in many vector control programmes around the world. costs could be reduced if larvicides could be manufactured locally. the potential of natural products as larvicides against the main african malaria vector, anopheles gambiae s.s was evaluated.200717519000
induction of nitric oxide synthase and activation of signaling proteins in anopheles mosquitoes by the malaria pigment, hemozoin.anopheles stephensi, a major vector for malaria parasite transmission, responds to plasmodium infection by synthesis of inflammatory levels of nitric oxide (no), which can limit parasite development in the midgut. we have previously shown that plasmodium falciparum glycosylphosphatidylinositols (pfgpis) can induce a. stephensi no synthase (asnos) expression in the midgut epithelium in vivo in a manner similar to the manner in which cytokines and no are induced by pfgpis in mammalian cells. in mo ...200717526741
rubidium marking of anopheles mosquitoes detectable by field-capable x-ray spectrometry.we present a mosquito marking technique suitable for mark-release-recapture that can be used with a hand-held, portable x-ray fluorescence (xrf) spectrometer, which is practical for field measurements. third instar anopheles gambiae giles sensu stricto (diptera: culicidae) and anopheles stephensi liston larvae were cultured to pupation in water containing rubidium (rb) cl at concentrations up to 1000 p.p.m. rb. anopheles gambiae larvae survived to adulthood at concentrations as high as 1000 p.p. ...200717550439
an insight into immunogenic salivary proteins of anopheles gambiae in african children.during blood feeding, the mosquito injects saliva into the vertebrate host. this saliva contains bioactive components which may play a role in pathogen transmission and in host-vector relationships by inducing an immune response in the vertebrate host. the evaluation of human immune responses to arthropod bites might also represent a research direction for assessing individual exposure to the bite of a malaria vector.200717550586
cytokine responses of cd4+ t cells during a plasmodium chabaudi chabaudi (er) blood-stage infection in mice initiated by the natural route of infection.investigation of host responses to blood stages of plasmodium spp, and the immunopathology associated with this phase of the life cycle are often performed on mice infected directly with infected red blood cells. thus, the effects of mosquito bites and the pre-erythrocytic stages of the parasite, which would be present in natural infection, are ignored in this paper, plasmodium chabaudi chabaudi infections of mice injected directly with infected red blood cells were compared with those of mice i ...200717555592
enhanced malaria parasite transmission from helminth co-infected mice.helminth infections are prevalent in malaria-endemic areas, yet the potential for helminths to alter malaria transmission has not been closely examined. we used the echinostoma caproni-plasmodium yoelii murine model of co-infection to assess the impact of helminth co-infection on malaria transmission. in four replicate experiments, anopheles stephensi mosquitoes exposed to co-infected mice five days post-malaria infection had a higher rate of infectivity (80.1%, n = 241) than those exposed to ma ...200717556610
the anopheles gambiae vitellogenin gene (vgt2) promoter directs persistent accumulation of a reporter gene product in transgenic anopheles stephensi following multiple bloodmeals.mosquitoes made resistant to pathogens through genetic engineering are proposed as a basis for developing a strategy to control disease transmission. transgenic approaches that introduce exogenous antipathogen effector genes into mosquito genomes require cis-acting regulatory dna to control tissue-, stage-, and sex-specific transgene expression. we show that control sequences derived from a vitellogenin-encoding gene of anopheles gambiae, a major vector in sub-saharan africa, can direct expressi ...200717556621
morphological evidence for proliferative regeneration of the anopheles stephensi midgut epithelium following plasmodium falciparum ookinete invasion.ookinetes are motile invasive stages of the malaria parasite that enter the midgut epithelium of the mosquito vector via an intracellular route. ookinetes often migrate through multiple adjacent midgut epithelial cells, which subsequently undergo apoptosis/necrosis and are extruded from the midgut epithelium into the midgut lumen. hundreds of ookinetes may simultaneously invade the midgut epithelium, causing destruction of an appreciable proportion of the total number of midgut epithelial cells. ...200717575986
Refresh
firstprev
...11121314151617181920...
nextlast
Displaying items 1701 - 1800 of 2895