Publications

revisiting the gram-negative lipoprotein paradigm.	the processing of lipoproteins (lpps) in gram-negative bacteria is generally considered an essential pathway. mature lipoproteins in these bacteria are triacylated, with the final fatty acid addition performed by lnt, an apolipoprotein n-acyltransferase. the mature lipoproteins are then sorted by the lol system, with most lpps inserted into the outer membrane (om). we demonstrate here that the lnt gene is not essential to the gram-negative pathogen francisella tularensis subsp. tularensis strain ...	2015	25755189
evolution and population genomics of the lyme borreliosis pathogen, borrelia burgdorferi.	population genomic studies have the potential to address many unresolved questions about microbial pathogens by facilitating the identification of genes underlying ecologically important traits, such as novel virulence factors and adaptations to humans or other host species. additionally, this framework improves estimations of population demography and evolutionary history to accurately reconstruct recent epidemics and identify the molecular and environmental factors that resulted in the outbrea ...	2015	25765920
an escherichia coli strain, pgb01, isolated from feral pigeon faeces, thermally fit to survive in pigeon, shows high level resistance to trimethoprim.	in this study, of the hundred escherichia coli strains isolated from feral pigeon faeces, eighty five strains were resistant to one or more antibiotics and fifteen sensitive to all the antibiotics tested. the only strain (among all antibiotic-resistant e. coli isolates) that possessed class 1 integron was pgb01. the dihydrofolate reductase gene of the said integron was cloned, sequenced and expressed in e. coli jm109. since pgb01 was native to pigeon's gut, we have compared the growth of pgb01 a ...	2015	25750990
first arrived takes all: inhibitory priority effects dominate competition between co-infecting borrelia burgdorferi strains.	within-host microbial communities and interactions among microbes are increasingly recognized as important factors influencing host health and pathogen transmission. the microbial community associated with a host is indeed influenced by a complex network of direct and indirect interactions between the host and the lineages of microbes it harbors, but the mechanisms are rarely established. we investigated the within-host interactions among strains of borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of l ...	2015	25887119
anaphylaxis to the carbohydrate side chain alpha-gal.	in 2007, the monoclonal antibody cetuximab caused severe hypersensitivity reactions during the first infusion in a region of the southeastern united states. investigation of pretreatment sera established that they contained immunoglobulin (ig) e against the oligosaccharide galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose (alpha-gal), which is present on the fab of cetuximab. alpha-gal is a blood group substance of nonprimate mammals. these ige antibodies are also associated with delayed anaphylaxis to red meat (ie ...	2015	25841549
fever and cardiac arrest in a patient with a left ventricular assist device.	a 68-year-old avid deer hunter with ischemic cardiomyopathy underwent left ventricular assist device (lvad) implantation for destination therapy two years ago. he was living an active lifestyle, tracking deer and fishing in a midwestern forest in november. his wife removed an engorged tick on his thorax. a few days later, he experienced fever, confusion, and ataxia and was hospitalized with septic shock and ventricular fibrillation. the lvad site had no signs of trauma, drainage, warmth, or tend ...	2015	26380334
virulence regulation with venus flytrap domains: structure and function of the periplasmic moiety of the sensor-kinase bvgs.	two-component systems (tcs) represent major signal-transduction pathways for adaptation to environmental conditions, and regulate many aspects of bacterial physiology. in the whooping cough agent bordetella pertussis, the tcs bvgas controls the virulence regulon, and is therefore critical for pathogenicity. bvgs is a prototypical tcs sensor-kinase with tandem periplasmic venus flytrap (vft) domains. vft are bi-lobed domains that typically close around specific ligands using clamshell motions. we ...	2015	25738876
rna-binding proteins involved in post-transcriptional regulation in bacteria.	post-transcriptional regulation is a very important mechanism to control gene expression in changing environments. in the past decade, a lot of interest has been directed toward the role of small rnas (srnas) in bacterial post-transcriptional regulation. however, srnas are not the only molecules controlling gene expression at this level, rna-binding proteins (rbps) play an important role as well. csra and hfq are the two best studied bacterial proteins of this type, but recently, additional prot ...	2015	25784899
the "urban myth" of the association between neurological disorders and vaccinations.	in modern society, a potentially serious adverse event attributed to a vaccination is likely to be snapped up by the media, particularly newspapers and television, as it appeals to the emotions of the public. the widespread news of the alleged adverse events of vaccination has helped to create the "urban myth" that vaccines cause serious neurological disorders and has boosted antivaccination associations. this speculation is linked to the fact that the true causes of many neurological diseases a ...	2015	26789825
b cells and antibodies in the defense against mycobacterium tuberculosis infection.	better understanding of the immunological components and their interactions necessary to prevent or control mycobacterium tuberculosis (mtb) infection in humans is critical for tuberculosis (tb) vaccine development strategies. although the contributory role of humoral immunity in the protection against mtb infection and disease is less defined than the role of t cells, it has been well-established for many other intracellular pathogens. here we update and discuss the increasing evidence and the ...	2015	25703559
the alpha-gal story: lessons learned from connecting the dots.	anaphylaxis is a severe allergic reaction that can be rapidly progressing and fatal, and therefore establishing its cause is pivotal to long-term risk management. our recent work has identified a novel ige antibody response to a mammalian oligosaccharide epitope, galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose (alpha-gal). ige to alpha-gal has been associated with 2 distinct forms of anaphylaxis: (1) immediate-onset anaphylaxis during first exposure to intravenous cetuximab and (2) delayed-onset anaphylaxis 3 to ...	2015	25747720
seven challenges for modelling indirect transmission: vector-borne diseases, macroparasites and neglected tropical diseases.	many of the challenges which face modellers of directly transmitted pathogens also arise when modelling the epidemiology of pathogens with indirect transmission--whether through environmental stages, vectors, intermediate hosts or multiple hosts. in particular, understanding the roles of different hosts, how to measure contact and infection patterns, heterogeneities in contact rates, and the dynamics close to elimination are all relevant challenges, regardless of the mode of transmission. howeve ...	2015	25843376
male genital lichen sclerosus.	male genital lichen sclerosus (mglsc) is a chronic inflammatory skin disease responsible for male sexual dyspareunia and urological morbidity. an afeared complication is squamous cell carcinoma (scc) of the penis. the precise etiopathogenesis of mglsc remains controversial although genetic, autoimmune and infective (such as human papillomavirus (hpv) hepatitis c (hcv), epstein-barr virus (ebv) and borrelia) factors have been implicated: consideration of all the evidence suggests that chronic exp ...	2015	25814697
morphological and biochemical features of borrelia burgdorferi pleomorphic forms.	the spirochaete bacterium borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato is the causative agent of lyme disease, the most common tick-borne infection in the northern hemisphere. there is a long-standing debate regarding the role of pleomorphic forms in lyme disease pathogenesis, while very little is known about the characteristics of these morphological variants. here, we present a comprehensive analysis of b. burgdorferi pleomorphic formation in different culturing conditions at physiological temperature. int ...	2015	25564498
endemic zoonoses in the tropics: a public health problem hiding in plain sight.	zoonotic diseases are a significant burden on animal and human health, particularly in developing countries. despite recognition of this fact, endemic zoonoses often remain undiagnosed in people, instead being mistaken for febrile diseases such as malaria. here, as part of veterinary record's ongoing series of articles on one health, a multidisciplinary team of researchers from scotland, tanzania and new zealand argues that a one health approach is needed to effectively combat these diseases.	2015	25722334
detection and quantification of anaplasma phagocytophilum and babesia spp. in ixodes ricinus ticks from urban and rural environment, northern poland, by real-time polymerase chain reaction.	anaplasma phagocytophilum and babesia spp. are emerging tick-borne pathogens which can threaten human health. a duplex real-time pcr and qpcrs with primers and probes targeting 97 and 116 bp fragments of 16s rrna and 18s rrna genes, respectively, were used for qualitative and quantitative detection of both pathogens in ixodes ricinus ticks. altogether 1875 ticks (1084 adults and 791 nymphs) were collected from rural and urban habitats in northern poland. of them, at least 0.9% were found to be i ...	2015	25721255
prevalence of borrelia burgdorferi-infected ticks from wildlife hosts, a response to norris et al.	in a recent letter to the editor, norris et al. questioned the validity of some of our data reported by feria-arroyo et al. the main issue investigated by us was the potential impact of climate change on the probable distribution of the tick vector ixodes scapularis in the texas-mexico transboundary region. as an ancillary issue, an analysis of sequence data for the intergenic spacer of borrelia burgdorferi was conducted. in the present letter, we provide further evidence supporting our original ...	2015	25885773
dominance of dermacentor reticulatus over ixodes ricinus (ixodidae) on livestock, companion animals and wild ruminants in eastern and central poland.	the most common tick species parasitizing animals in poland are ixodes ricinus and dermacentor reticulatus. these tick species differ in their distribution, habitats, seasonal activity and host specificity. ixodes ricinus is the most prevalent and widely distributed, whereas the range of d. reticulatus is limited to eastern and central parts of the country with several new foci in the middle-west and the west. however, as in many central european countries, the range of d. reticulatus is expandi ...	2015	25717007
disseminated conidiobolus incongruus in a dog: a case report and literature review.	conidiobolomycosis is a rare fungal disease of both humans and animals, occurring mainly in tropical and subtropical climates. we describe a disseminated fungal infection in a young, apparently immunocompetent dog who initially presented for antibiotic resistant pneumonia. histopathology and mycology identified a conidiobolus sp., further confirmed as conidiobolus incongruus through dna sequencing of d1/d2 regions. this is the first report of this species causing disease in dogs and the fifth re ...	2015	25830088
factors associated with preventive behaviors regarding lyme disease in canada and switzerland: a comparative study.	lyme disease (ld) is a vector-borne disease that is endemic in many temperate countries, including switzerland, and is currently emerging in canada. this study compares the importance of knowledge, exposure and risk perception for the adoption of individual preventive measures, within and between two different populations, one that has been living in a ld endemic region for several decades, the neuchâtel canton in switzerland, and another where the disease is currently emerging, the montérégie r ...	2015	25884424
borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato spirochetes in wild birds in northwestern california: associations with ecological factors, bird behavior and tick infestation.	although borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.) are found in a great diversity of vertebrates, most studies in north america have focused on the role of mammals as spirochete reservoir hosts. we investigated the roles of birds as hosts for subadult ixodes pacificus ticks and potential reservoirs of the lyme disease spirochete b. burgdorferi sensu stricto (s.s.) in northwestern california. overall, 623 birds representing 53 species yielded 284 i. pacificus larvae and nymphs. we used generalized l ...	2015	25714376
discovery and targeted proteomics on cutaneous biopsies infected by borrelia to investigate lyme disease.	lyme disease is the most important vector-borne disease in the northern hemisphere and represents a major public health challenge with insufficient means of reliable diagnosis. skin is rarely investigated in proteomics but constitutes in the case of lyme disease the key interface where the pathogens can enter, persist, and multiply. therefore, we investigated proteomics on skin samples to detect borrelia proteins directly in cutaneous biopsies in a robust and specific way. we first set up a disc ...	2015	25713121
a new player at the flagellar motor: flil controls both motor output and bias.	the bacterial flagellum is driven by a bidirectional rotary motor, which propels bacteria to swim through liquids or swarm over surfaces. while the functions of the major structural and regulatory components of the flagellum are known, the function of the well-conserved flil protein is not. in salmonella and escherichia coli, the absence of flil leads to a small defect in swimming but complete elimination of swarming. here, we tracked single motors of these bacteria and found that absence of fli ...	2015	25714720
rhipicephalus microplus and ixodes ovatus cystatins in tick blood digestion and evasion of host immune response.	cystatins are a group of cysteine protease inhibitors responsible for physiological proteolysis regulation and present in a wide range of organisms. studies about this class of inhibitors in parasites have contributed to clarify their roles in important physiological processes, like blood digestion and modulation of host immune response during blood feeding. thus, cystatins are a subject of research on the development of new parasite control methods. additionally, the characterization of protein ...	2015	25889092
proteomic profiling of the outer membrane fraction of the obligate intracellular bacterial pathogen ehrlichia ruminantium.	the outer membrane proteins (omps) of gram-negative bacteria play a crucial role in virulence and pathogenesis. identification of these proteins represents an important goal for bacterial proteomics, because it aids in vaccine development. here, we have developed such an approach for ehrlichia ruminantium, the obligate intracellular bacterium that causes heartwater. a preliminary whole proteome analysis of elementary bodies, the extracellular infectious form of the bacterium, had been performed ...	2015	25710494
mechanism of coupling drug transport reactions located in two different membranes.	gram- negative bacteria utilize a diverse array of multidrug transporters to pump toxic compounds out of the cell. some transporters, together with periplasmic membrane fusion proteins (mfps) and outer membrane channels, assemble trans-envelope complexes that expel multiple antibiotics across outer membranes of gram-negative bacteria and into the external medium. others further potentiate this efflux by pumping drugs across the inner membrane into the periplasm. together these transporters creat ...	2015	25759685
a coding variant of ano10, affecting volume regulation of macrophages, is associated with borrelia seropositivity.	in a first genome-wide association study (gwas) approach to anti-borrelia seropositivity, we identified two significant single nucleotide polymorphisms (snps) (rs17850869, p = 4.17e-09; rs41289586, p = 7.18e-08). both markers, located on chromosomes 16 and 3, respectively, are within or close to genes previously connected to spinocerebellar ataxia. the risk snp rs41289586 represents a missense variant (r263h) of anoctamin 10 (ano10), a member of a protein family encoding cl(-) channels and phosp ...	2015	25730773
ixodes ricinus salivary serpin irs-2 affects th17 differentiation via inhibition of the interleukin-6/stat-3 signaling pathway.	th17 cells constitute a subset of cd4(+) t lymphocytes that play a crucial role in protection against extracellular bacteria and fungi. they are also associated with tissue injury in autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. here, we report that serpin from the tick ixodes ricinus, irs-2, inhibits th17 differentiation by impairment of the interleukin-6 (il-6)/stat-3 signaling pathway. following activation, mature dendritic cells produce an array of cytokines, including the pleiotropic cytokine il-6, ...	2015	25712932
two classes of bacterial impdhs according to their quaternary structures and catalytic properties.	inosine-5'-monophosphate dehydrogenase (impdh) occupies a key position in purine nucleotide metabolism. in this study, we have performed the biochemical and physico-chemical characterization of eight bacterial impdhs, among which six were totally unexplored. this study led to a classification of bacterial impdhs according to the regulation of their catalytic properties and their quaternary structures. class i impdhs are cooperative enzymes for imp, which are activated by mgatp and are octameric ...	2015	25706619
card stabilizes mycobacterial open complexes via a two-tiered kinetic mechanism.	card is an essential and global transcriptional regulator in mycobacteria. while its biological role is unclear, card functions by interacting directly with rna polymerase (rnap) holoenzyme promoter complexes. here, using a fluorescent reporter of open complex, we quantitate rpo formation in real time and show that mycobacterium tuberculosis card has a dramatic effect on the energetics of rnap bound complexes on the m. tuberculosis rrnap3 ribosomal rna promoter. the data reveal that mycobacteriu ...	2015	25697505
transstadial transmission of borrelia turcica in hyalomma aegyptium ticks.	borrelia turcica comprises the third major group of arthropod-transmitted borreliae and is phylogenetically divergent from other borrelia groups. the novel group of borrelia was initially isolated from hyalomma aegyptium ticks in turkey and it was recently found in blood and multiple organs of tortoises exported from jordan to japan. however, the ecology of these spirochetes and their development in ticks or the vertebrate hosts were not investigated in detail; our aims were to isolate the patho ...	2015	25695663
borrelia miyamotoi infection in nature and in humans.	borrelia miyamotoi is a relapsing fever borrelia group spirochete that is transmitted by the same hard-bodied (ixodid) tick species that transmit the agents of lyme disease. it was discovered in 1994 in ixodes persulcatus ticks in japan. b. miyamotoi species phylogenetically cluster with the relapsing fever group spirochetes, which usually are transmitted by soft-bodied (argasid) ticks or lice. b. miyamotoi infects at least six ixodes tick species in north america and eurasia that transmit lyme ...	2015	25700888
malaria and the liver: immunological hide-and-seek or subversion of immunity from within?	during the pre-erythrocytic asymptomatic phase of malarial infection, sporozoites develop transiently inside less than 100 hepatocytes that subsequently release thousands of merozoites. killing of these hepatocytes by cytotoxic t cells (ctls) confers protection to subsequent malarial infection, suggesting that this bottleneck phase in the parasite life cycle can be targeted by vaccination. during natural transmission, although some ctls are generated in the skin draining lymph nodes, they are un ...	2015	25741320
transient lesion in the splenium of the corpus callosum due to rotavirus infection.	transient signal changes in magnetic resonance imaging (mri) of the splenium of the corpus callosum (scc) can result from many different reasons, including encephalitis and encephalopathy caused by infection, seizures, metabolic disorders and asphyxia. we report a case of a 6-year-old polish girl with rotavirus infection demonstrating a reversible scc lesion on diffusion-weighted mri images. she presented six episodes of generalized tonic seizures with mild acute gastroenteritis. stool test for ...	2015	25686898
motor rotation is essential for the formation of the periplasmic flagellar ribbon, cellular morphology, and borrelia burgdorferi persistence within ixodes scapularis tick and murine hosts.	borrelia burgdorferi must migrate within and between its arthropod and mammalian hosts in order to complete its natural enzootic cycle. during tick feeding, the spirochete transmits from the tick to the host dermis, eventually colonizing and persisting within multiple, distant tissues. this dissemination modality suggests that flagellar motor rotation and, by extension, motility are crucial for infection. we recently reported that a nonmotile flab mutant that lacks periplasmic flagella is rod sh ...	2015	25690096
the lyme disease pathogen has no effect on the survival of its rodent reservoir host.	zoonotic pathogens that cause devastating morbidity and mortality in humans may be relatively harmless in their natural reservoir hosts. the tick-borne bacterium borrelia burgdorferi causes lyme disease in humans but few studies have investigated whether this pathogen reduces the fitness of its reservoir hosts under natural conditions. we analyzed four years of capture-mark-recapture (cmr) data on a population of white-footed mice, peromyscus leucopus, to test whether b. burgdorferi and its tick ...	2015	25688863
characterization of the relbbu regulon in borrelia burgdorferi reveals modulation of glycerol metabolism by (p)ppgpp.	the bacterial stringent response is triggered by deficiencies of available nutrients and other environmental stresses. it is mediated by 5'-triphosphate-guanosine-3'-diphosphate and 5'-diphosphate-guanosine-3'-diphosphate (collectively (p)ppgpp) and generates global changes in gene expression and metabolism that enable bacteria to adapt to and survive these challenges. borrelia burgdorferi encounters multiple stressors in its cycling between ticks and mammals that could trigger the stringent res ...	2015	25688856
integrin binding by borrelia burgdorferi p66 facilitates dissemination but is not required for infectivity.	p66, a borrelia burgdorferi surface protein with porin and integrin-binding activities, is essential for murine infection. the role of p66 integrin-binding activity in b. burgdorferi infection was investigated and found to affect transendothelial migration. the role of integrin binding, specifically, was tested by mutation of two amino acids (d205a,d207a) or deletion of seven amino acids (del202-208). neither change affected surface localization or channel-forming activity of p66, but both signi ...	2015	25604835
mechanism of immunosuppressants combined with cord blood for severe aplastic anemia.	this study aims to explore the mechanism of immunosuppressants combined with cord blood (is + cbi) for severe aplastic anemia. selecting 30 patients with saa and all treated with is + cbi (newly diagnosed group). 23 patients who were treated effectively (effective group) while 7 cases were treated invalidly (invalid group). another 20 healthy individuals were selected as control group. to detect the expression levels of il-17, il-22 and other cytokines by elisa method in each group. to detect th ...	2015	25932194
identification of three extra-chromosomal replicons in leptospira pathogenic strain and development of new shuttle vectors.	the genome of pathogenic leptospira interrogans contains two chromosomes. plasmids and prophages are known to play specific roles in gene transfer in bacteria and can potentially serve as efficient genetic tools in these organisms. although plasmids and prophage remnants have recently been reported in leptospira species, their characteristics and potential applications in leptospiral genetic transformation systems have not been fully evaluated.	2015	25887950
anopheles midgut epithelium evades human complement activity by capturing factor h from the blood meal.	hematophagous vectors strictly require ingesting blood from their hosts to complete their life cycles. exposure of the alimentary canal of these vectors to the host immune effectors necessitates efficient counteractive measures by hematophagous vectors. the anopheles mosquito transmitting the malaria parasite is an example of hematophagous vectors that within seconds can ingest human blood double its weight. the innate immune defense mechanisms, like the complement system, in the human blood sho ...	2015	25679788
genome sequence of borrelia chilensis va1, a south american member of the lyme borreliosis group.	borrelia chilensis strain va1 is a recently described south american member of the borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato complex from chile. whole-genome sequencing analysis determined its linear chromosome and plasmids lp54 and cp26, confirmed its membership in the lyme borreliosis group, and will open new research avenues regarding its pathogenic potential.	2015	25676758
exploring the association between morgellons disease and lyme disease: identification of borrelia burgdorferi in morgellons disease patients.	morgellons disease (md) is a complex skin disorder characterized by ulcerating lesions that have protruding or embedded filaments. many clinicians refer to this condition as delusional parasitosis or delusional infestation and consider the filaments to be introduced textile fibers. in contrast, recent studies indicate that md is a true somatic illness associated with tickborne infection, that the filaments are keratin and collagen in composition and that they result from proliferation and activa ...	2015	25879673
atg16l1 deficiency in macrophages drives clearance of uropathogenic e. coli in an il-1β-dependent manner.	urinary tract infections (utis) are frequent, commonly recurrent, and costly. deficiency in a key autophagy protein, atg16l1, protects mice from infection with the predominant bacterial cause of utis, uropathogenic e. coli (upec). here, we report that loss of atg16l1 in macrophages accounts for this protective phenotype. compared with wild-type macrophages, macrophages deficient in atg16l1 exhibit increased uptake of upec and enhanced secretion of interleukin-1β (il-1β). the increased il-1β prod ...	2015	25669147
borreliacidal activity of borrelia metal transporter a (bmta) binding small molecules by manganese transport inhibition.	borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of lyme disease, utilizes manganese (mn) for its various metabolic needs. we hypothesized that blocking mn transporter could be a possible approach to inhibit metabolic activity of this pathogen and eliminate the infection. we used a combination of in silico protein structure prediction together with molecular docking to target the borrelia metal transporter a (bmta), a single known mn transporter in borrelia and screened libraries of fda approved compou ...	2015	25709405
immunization with a recombinant subunit ospa vaccine markedly impacts the rate of newly acquired borrelia burgdorferi infections in client-owned dogs living in a coastal community in maine, usa.	in north america, borrelia burgdorferi is the causative bacterial agent of canine lyme borreliosis and is transmitted following prolonged attachment and feeding of vector ticks, ixodes scapularis or ixodes pacificus. its prevention is predicated upon tick-avoidance, effective on-animal tick control and effective immunization strategies. the purpose of this study is to characterize dogs that are newly seropositive for borrelia burgdorferi infection in relation to compliant use of a recombinant os ...	2015	25890386
complete genome sequence and description of salinispira pacifica gen. nov., sp. nov., a novel spirochaete isolated form a hypersaline microbial mat.	during a study of the anaerobic microbial community of a lithifying hypersaline microbial mat of lake 21 on the kiritimati atoll (kiribati republic, central pacific) strain l21-rpul-d2(t) was isolated. the closest phylogenetic neighbor was spirochaeta africana z-7692(t) that shared a 16s rrna gene sequence identity value of 90% with the novel strain and thus was only distantly related. a comprehensive polyphasic study including determination of the complete genome sequence was initiated to chara ...	2015	26203324
erythema nodosum and mycoplasma pneumoniae infections in childhood: further observations in two patients and a literature review.	erythema nodosum (en) is the most frequent panniculitis in childhood and has been associated with various conditions, such as infectious and autoimmune disorders, medications, and malignancies. the author reports on two children affected with en associated with mycoplasma pneumoniae infection, which occurred in one patient without pulmonary detection. the available literature on en and m. pneumoniae infection in childhood is also reviewed.	2015	25699127
the role of wildlife in the transmission of parasitic zoonoses in peri-urban and urban areas.	during the last 100 years in many countries of the world, there have been dramatic changes in natural/rural landscapes due to urbanization. since many wildlife species are unable to adapt to these alterations in their environment, urbanization is commonly responsible for a decline of biodiversity in areas of urban development. in contrast, some wild animal species are attracted to peri-urban and urban habitats due to the availability of an abundant food supply and the presence of structures in w ...	2015	25830108
analysis of the outer membrane proteome and secretome of bacteroides fragilis reveals a multiplicity of secretion mechanisms.	bacteroides fragilis is a widely distributed member of the human gut microbiome and an opportunistic pathogen. cell surface molecules produced by this organism likely play important roles in colonization, communication with other microbes, and pathogenicity, but the protein composition of the outer membrane (om) and the mechanisms used to transport polypeptides into the extracellular space are poorly characterized. here we used lc-ms/ms to analyze the om proteome and secretome of b. fragilis nct ...	2015	25658944
prevalence of borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in ticks from eastern china.	to explore the tick distribution and prevalence of borrelia in zhejiang province, we performed a survey in nine sites. a total of 447 adult ticks of 11 species were captured and the dominant tick species were haemaphysalis longicornis and ixodes sinensis and the abundance of tick species in different areas varied significantly. overall, 4.70% of the ticks were polymerase chain reaction (pcr) positive for borrelia. the average pcr positive rates were 5.19% for h. longicornis, 3.45% for amblyomma ...	2015	25548382
exploring the existence of lipid rafts in bacteria.	an interesting concept in the organization of cellular membranes is the proposed existence of lipid rafts. membranes of eukaryotic cells organize signal transduction proteins into membrane rafts or lipid rafts that are enriched in particular lipids such as cholesterol and are important for the correct functionality of diverse cellular processes. the assembly of lipid rafts in eukaryotes has been considered a fundamental step during the evolution of cellular complexity, suggesting that bacteria a ...	2015	25652542
guideline for veterinary practitioners on canine ehrlichiosis and anaplasmosis in europe.	canine ehrlichiosis and anaplasmosis are important tick-borne diseases with a worldwide distribution. information has been continuously collected on these infections in europe, and publications have increased in recent years. prevalence rates are high for ehrlichia and anaplasma spp. infections in dogs from different european countries. the goal of this article was to provide a practical guideline for veterinary practitioners on the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of ehrlichiosis and anapla ...	2015	25649069
health care costs, utilization and patterns of care following lyme disease.	lyme disease is the most frequently reported vector borne infection in the united states. the centers for disease control have estimated that approximately 10% to 20% of individuals may experience post-treatment lyme disease syndrome - a set of symptoms including fatigue, musculoskeletal pain, and neurocognitive complaints that persist after initial antibiotic treatment of lyme disease. little is known about the impact of lyme disease or post-treatment lyme disease symptoms (ptlds) on health car ...	2015	25650808
extranodal marginal zone lymphoma of the lung: evolution from an underlying reactive lymphoproliferative disorder.	extranodal marginal zone lymphoma (enmzl) of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (malt) is a problematic and sometimes controversial diagnosis. while commonly seen in the stomach in the setting of chronic helicobacter pylori infection, other extranodal sites, such as the lung, may also present with disease. enmzl is clinically and morphologically heterogeneous; however, regardless of presentation, the etiology lies in the accumulation of lymphoid tissue in non-traditional sites. this phenomenon is ...	2015	26457231
a novel pyrroloquinoline quinone-dependent 2-keto-d-glucose dehydrogenase from pseudomonas aureofaciens.	a gene encoding an enzyme similar to a pyrroloquinoline quinone (pqq)-dependent sugar dehydrogenase from filamentous fungi, which belongs to new auxiliary activities (aa) family 12 in the cazy database, was cloned from pseudomonas aureofaciens. the deduced amino acid sequence of the cloned enzyme showed only low homology to previously characterized pqq-dependent enzymes, and multiple-sequence alignment analysis showed that the enzyme lacks one of the three conserved arginine residues that functi ...	2015	25645559
investigations on cxcl13 in anti-n-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis: a potential biomarker of treatment response.	anti-n-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (nmdar) encephalitis is a severe but treatable autoimmune encephalitis affecting mainly young adults and children. the lack of suitable biomarkers of disease activity makes treatment decisions and identification of relapses challenging.	2015	25436993
the contemporary management of urethral strictures in men resulting from lichen sclerosus.	lichen sclerosus (ls) is a chronic, inflammatory disease primarily involving the genital skin and urethra in males. historically, the treatment of this common condition was a challenge due to its uncertain etiology, variable response to therapy, and predilection to recur. the etiology of ls is still debated and has been linked to autoimmune disease, infection, trauma, and genetics. today, topical steroids are a mainstay of therapy for patients, even in the presence of advanced disease, and can i ...	2015	26816805
five youth with pediatric acute-onset neuropsychiatric syndrome of differing etiologies.	pediatric acute-onset neuropsychiatric syndrome (pans) is diagnosed by the abrupt onset of new obsessive compulsive disorder (ocd) or food-restricting symptoms, and at least two of a variety of other neuropsychiatric symptoms. detailed clinical presentation of youth with this condition has not yet been provided in the literature.	2015	25695942
update on persistent symptoms associated with lyme disease.	lyme disease, caused by borrelia burgdorferi, is the most common vector-borne illness in the united states. the pathogenesis, ecology, and epidemiology of lyme disease have been well described, and antimicrobial treatment is very effective. there has been controversy about whether infection can persist and cause chronic symptoms despite treatment with antimicrobials. this review summarizes recent studies that have addressed this issue.	2015	25490690
comparison of detection of borrelia burgdorferi dna and anti-borrelia burgdorferi antibodies in patients with erythema migrans in north-eastern poland.	diagnostic methods in erythema migrans are still not standardized.	2015	25821421
clinical evaluation of youth with pediatric acute-onset neuropsychiatric syndrome (pans): recommendations from the 2013 pans consensus conference.	on may 23 and 24, 2013, the first pans consensus conference was convened at stanford university, calling together a geographically diverse group of clinicians and researchers from complementary fields of pediatrics: general and developmental pediatrics, infectious diseases, immunology, rheumatology, neurology, and child psychiatry. participants were academicians with clinical and research interests in pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorder associated with streptococcus (pandas) in youth, ...	2015	25325534
characterization of the pediatric acute-onset neuropsychiatric syndrome phenotype.	pediatric acute-onset neuropsychiatric syndrome (pans) is a subtype of obsessive compulsive disorder (ocd) marked by an abrupt onset or exacerbation of neuropsychiatric symptoms. we aim to characterize the phenotypic presentation of youth with pans.	2015	25314221
novel candidatus rickettsia species detected in nostril tick from human, gabon, 2014.	we report the identification of a nymphal nostril tick (amblyomma sp.) from a national park visitor in gabon and subsequent molecular detection and characterization of tickborne bacteria. our findings provide evidence of a potentially new rickettsia sp. circulating in africa and indicate that tick bites may pose a risk to persons visiting parks in the region.	2015	25625886
potentially novel ehrlichia species in horses, nicaragua.	ehrlichia sp. dna was amplified from 4 ehrlichia-seroreactive horses from mérida, nicaragua. sequencing of 16s rdna, sodb, and groel genes indicated that the bacterium is most likely a novel ehrlichia species. the tick vector and the potential for canine and human infection remain unknown.	2015	25625228
the bba33 lipoprotein binds collagen and impacts borrelia burgdorferi pathogenesis.	borrelia burgdorferi, the etiologic agent of lyme disease, adapts to the mammalian hosts by differentially expressing several genes in the bosr and rrp2-rpon-rpos dependent pathways, resulting in a distinct protein profile relative to that seen for survival in the ixodes spp. tick. previous studies indicate that a putative lipoprotein, bba33, is produced in an rpos-dependent manner under conditions that mimic the mammalian component of the borrelial lifecycle. however, the significance and funct ...	2015	25560615
complex population structure of borrelia burgdorferi in southeastern and south central canada as revealed by phylogeographic analysis.	lyme disease, caused by the bacterium borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, is an emerging zoonotic disease in canada and is vectored by the blacklegged tick, ixodes scapularis. here we used bayesian analyses of sequence types (sts), determined by multilocus sequence typing (mlst), to investigate the phylogeography of b. burgdorferi populations in southern canada and the united states by analyzing mlst data from 564 b. burgdorferi-positive samples collected during surveillance. a total of 107 cana ...	2015	25501480
complement system in dermatological diseases - fire under the skin.	the complement system plays a key role in several dermatological diseases. overactivation, deficiency, or abnormality of the control proteins are often related to a skin disease. autoimmune mechanisms with autoantibodies and a cytotoxic effect of the complement membrane attack complex on epidermal or vascular cells can cause direct tissue damage and inflammation, e.g., in systemic lupus erythematosus (sle), phospholipid antibody syndrome, and bullous skin diseases like pemphigoid. by evading com ...	2015	25688346
acaricidal efficacy of a new combination of fipronil and permethrin against ixodes ricinus and rhipicephalus sanguineus ticks.	two blinded, controlled laboratory studies were conducted to assess the acaricidal efficacy of a new combination of fipronil and permethrin (frontline tri-act/frontect) against two tick species. study a evaluated the efficacy of the product against both ixodes ricinus and rhipicephalus sanguineus and study b evaluated the efficacy against r. sanguineus only.	2015	25622698
glycosaminoglycan binding by borrelia burgdorferi adhesin bbk32 specifically and uniquely promotes joint colonization.	microbial pathogens that colonize multiple tissues commonly produce adhesive surface proteins that mediate attachment to cells and/or extracellular matrix in target organs. many of these 'adhesins' bind to multiple ligands, complicating efforts to understand the role of each ligand-binding activity. borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of lyme disease, produces bbk32, first identified as a fibronectin-binding adhesin that promotes skin and joint colonization. bbk32 also binds to glycosamino ...	2015	25486989
investigation of tick-borne bacteria (rickettsia spp., anaplasma spp., ehrlichia spp. and borrelia spp.) in ticks collected from andean tapirs, cattle and vegetation from a protected area in ecuador.	ixodid ticks play an important role in the transmission and ecology of infectious diseases. information about the circulation of tick-borne bacteria in ticks is lacking in ecuador. our aims were to investigate the tick species that parasitize andean tapirs and cattle, and those present in the vegetation from the buffer zone of the antisana ecological reserve and cayambe-coca national park (ecuador), and to investigate the presence of tick-borne bacteria.	2015	25616567
structural analysis of dna binding by c.csp231i, a member of a novel class of r-m controller proteins regulating gene expression.	in a wide variety of bacterial restriction-modification systems, a regulatory `controller' protein (or c-protein) is required for effective transcription of its own gene and for transcription of the endonuclease gene found on the same operon. we have recently turned our attention to a new class of controller proteins (exemplified by c.csp231i) that have quite novel features, including a much larger dna-binding site with an 18 bp (∼60 å) spacer between the two palindromic dna-binding sequences an ...	2015	25664751
γδ t cells and dendritic cells in refractory lyme arthritis.	lyme disease is a multisystem infection transmitted by tick vectors with an incidence of up to 300,000 individuals/yr in the united states. the primary treatments are oral or i.v. antibiotics. despite treatment, some individuals do not recover and have prolonged symptoms affecting multiple organs, including the nervous system and connective tissues. inflammatory arthritis is a common symptom associated with lyme pathology. in the past decades, γδ t cells have emerged as candidates that contribut ...	2015	25605869
recognition of bacterial signal peptides by mammalian formyl peptide receptors: a new mechanism for sensing pathogens.	formyl peptide receptors (fprs) are g-protein-coupled receptors that function as chemoattractant receptors in innate immune responses. here we perform systematic structure-function analyses of fprs from six mammalian species using structurally diverse fpr peptide agonists and identify a common set of conserved agonist properties with typical features of pathogen-associated molecular patterns. guided by these results, we discover that bacterial signal peptides, normally used to translocate protei ...	2015	25605714
apparent role for borrelia burgdorferi luxs during mammalian infection.	the lyme disease spirochete, borrelia burgdorferi, controls protein expression patterns during its tick-mammal infection cycle. earlier studies demonstrated that b. burgdorferi synthesizes 4,5-dihydroxy-2,3-pentanedione (autoinducer-2 [ai-2]) and responds to ai-2 by measurably changing production of several infection-associated proteins. luxs mutants, which are unable to produce ai-2, exhibit altered production of several proteins. b. burgdorferi cannot utilize the other product of luxs, homocys ...	2015	25605770
allosteric regulation of lactobacillus plantarum xylulose 5-phosphate/fructose 6-phosphate phosphoketolase (xfp).	xylulose 5-phosphate/fructose 6-phosphate phosphoketolase (xfp), which catalyzes the conversion of xylulose 5-phosphate (x5p) or fructose 6-phosphate (f6p) to acetyl phosphate, plays a key role in carbohydrate metabolism in a number of bacteria. recently, we demonstrated that the fungal cryptococcus neoformans xfp2 exhibits both substrate cooperativity for all substrates (x5p, f6p, and pi) and allosteric regulation in the forms of inhibition by phosphoenolpyruvate (pep), oxaloacetic acid (oaa), ...	2015	25605308
a three-generation family with idiopathic facial palsy suggesting an autosomal dominant inheritance with high penetrance.	idiopathic facial palsy (ifp), also known as bell's palsy, is a common neurologic disorder, but recurrent and familial forms are rare. this case series presents a three-generation family with idiopathic facial palsy. the mode of inheritance of ifp has previously been suggested as autosomal dominant with low or variable penetrance, but the present family indicates an autosomal dominant trait with high or complete penetrance. chromosome microarray studies did not reveal a pathogenic copy number va ...	2015	25685580
a case of a laryngeal malt lymphoma in a patient with a history of gastric malt.	we are reporting a case of a 62-year-old african american woman with a history of gastric malt lymphoma successfully treated with radiation who presented with a laryngeal malt lymphoma 4 years after her original diagnosis. she received definitive radiation with a complete response. the case presented is unique for the rare presentation of a malt lymphoma in the larynx, especially in light of the patient's previously treated gastric malt lymphoma years ago.	2015	25664189
manganese and microbial pathogenesis: sequestration by the mammalian immune system and utilization by microorganisms.	bacterial and fungal pathogens cause a variety of infectious diseases and constitute a significant threat to public health. the human innate immune system represents the first line of defense against pathogenic microbes and employs a range of chemical artillery to combat these invaders. one important mechanism of innate immunity is the sequestration of metal ions that are essential nutrients. manganese is one nutrient that is required for many pathogens to establish an infective lifestyle. this ...	2015	25594606
synanthropic rodents and their ectoparasites as carriers of a novel haemoplasma and vector-borne, zoonotic pathogens indoors.	despite their close association with human dwellings, the role of synanthropic rodents in the epidemiology of vector-borne infections is seldom studied. the aim of the present study was to compensate for this lack of information, by the molecular investigation of vector-borne bacteria in peridomestic rodents and their ectoparasites.	2015	25589174
tick-borne pathogens and the vector potential of ticks in china.	ticks, as obligate blood-sucking ectoparasites, attack a broad range of vertebrates and transmit a great diversity of pathogenic microorganisms. they are considered second only to mosquitoes as vectors of human disease, and the most important vector of pathogens of domestic and wild animals. of the 117 described species in the chinese tick fauna, 60 are known to transmit one or more diseases: 36 species isolated within china and 24 species isolated outside china. moreover, 38 of these species ca ...	2015	25586007
the rig-i-like helicase receptor mda5 (ifih1) is involved in the host defense against candida infections.	the induction of host defense against candida species is initiated by recognition of the fungi by pattern recognition receptors and activation of downstream pathways that produce inflammatory mediators essential for infection clearance. in this study, we present complementary evidence based on transcriptome analysis, genetics, and immunological studies in knockout mice and humans that the cytosolic rig-i-like receptor mda5 (ifih1) has an important role in the host defense against c. albicans. fi ...	2015	25579795
use of an endogenous plasmid locus for stable in trans complementation in borrelia burgdorferi.	targeted mutagenesis and complementation are important tools for studying genes of unknown function in the lyme disease spirochete borrelia burgdorferi. a standard method of complementation is reintroduction of a wild-type copy of the targeted gene on a shuttle vector. however, shuttle vectors are present at higher copy numbers than b. burgdorferi plasmids and are potentially unstable in the absence of selection, thereby complicating analyses in the mouse-tick infectious cycle. b. burgdorferi ha ...	2015	25452278
an hd-domain phosphodiesterase mediates cooperative hydrolysis of c-di-amp to affect bacterial growth and virulence.	the nucleotide cyclic di-3',5'- adenosine monophosphate (c-di-amp) was recently identified as an essential and widespread second messenger in bacterial signaling. among c-di-amp-producing bacteria, altered nucleotide levels result in several physiological defects and attenuated virulence. thus, a detailed molecular understanding of c-di-amp metabolism is of both fundamental and practical interest. currently, c-di-amp degradation is recognized solely among dhh-dhha1 domain-containing phosphodiest ...	2015	25583510
small-molecule inhibitors of gram-negative lipoprotein trafficking discovered by phenotypic screening.	in gram-negative bacteria, lipoproteins are transported to the outer membrane by the lol system. in this process, lipoproteins are released from the inner membrane by the abc transporter lolcde and passed to lola, a diffusible periplasmic molecular chaperone. lipoproteins are then transferred to the outer membrane receptor protein, lolb, for insertion in the outer membrane. here we describe the discovery and characterization of novel pyridineimidazole compounds that inhibit this process. escheri ...	2015	25583975
visualization of the type iii secretion sorting platform of shigella flexneri.	bacterial type iii secretion machines are widely used to inject virulence proteins into eukaryotic host cells. these secretion machines are evolutionarily related to bacterial flagella and consist of a large cytoplasmic complex, a transmembrane basal body, and an extracellular needle. the cytoplasmic complex forms a sorting platform essential for effector selection and needle assembly, but it remains largely uncharacterized. here we use high-throughput cryoelectron tomography (cryo-et) to visual ...	2015	25583506
outer-inner membrane vesicles naturally secreted by gram-negative pathogenic bacteria.	outer-inner membrane vesicles (o-imvs) were recently described as a new type of membrane vesicle secreted by the antarctic bacterium shewanella vesiculosa m7t. their formation is characterized by the protrusion of both outer and plasma membranes, which pulls cytoplasmic components into the vesicles. to demonstrate that this is not a singular phenomenon in a bacterium occurring in an extreme environment, the identification of o-imvs in pathogenic bacteria was undertaken. with this aim, a structur ...	2015	25581302
comparison of tick feeding success and vector competence for borrelia burgdorferi among immature ixodes scapularis (ixodida: ixodidae) of both southern and northern clades.	northern and southern ixodes scapularis say populations differ greatly in density, host utilization, and especially questing behavior of the immatures. haplotypes of i. scapularis in north america can be divided into two major clades-the all american clade (haplotypes a through j) and the southern clade (m through o). this genetic variation may affect feeding success and vector competence. this study compared feeding success of larval i. scapularis measured by time-to-drop-off and subsequent tra ...	2015	26336283
dna double-strand breaks and telomeres play important roles in trypanosoma brucei antigenic variation.	human-infecting microbial pathogens all face a serious problem of elimination by the host immune response. antigenic variation is an effective immune evasion mechanism where the pathogen regularly switches its major surface antigen. in many cases, the major surface antigen is encoded by genes from the same gene family, and its expression is strictly monoallelic. among pathogens that undergo antigenic variation, trypanosoma brucei (a kinetoplastid), which causes human african trypanosomiasis, pla ...	2015	25576484
sexual differences in the sialomes of the zebra tick, rhipicephalus pulchellus.	ticks rely exclusively on vertebrate blood for their survival. during feeding ticks inject into their hosts a sophisticated salivary potion that overcomes host hemostasis and adverse inflammatory responses. these mediators may also enhance pathogen transmission. knowledge of the tick salivary protein repertoire may lead to vaccine targets to disrupt feeding and/or parasite transmission as well as to the discovery of novel pharmacological agents. male saliva may also assist reproduction because m ...	2015	25576852
the first case of human autochtonous subconjunctival dirofilariosis in poland and malt lymphoma as possible consequence of this parasitosis.	the first case of human dirofilarosis in poland was recorded in 2007. until that time our country was free of dirofilaria repens. recent studies show that 21,4- 60% of dogs in warsaw region harbour microfilariae, therefore it is becoming a growing problem in central europe. in april 2013 a subconjunctival d. repens was removed from the eye of 61-year-old woman. it was the twenty first case of this disease in poland, the third case of eye dirofilaria and the fourth autochtonous case. the patient ...	2015	25589901
borrelial pseudolymphoma of the nose.	a 52-year-old colombian woman, a patient with psoriasis, undergoing phototherapy with (ultraviolet b narrowband) uvbnb, presented with a symptomless solitary diffuse erythaematous plaque on her nose for 3 months. initially, she was treated with pimecrolimus 1% cream for 8 weeks, which was then combined with metronidazole cream for 4 weeks, with the initial diagnosis of uv-triggered rosacea, without improvement. a punch biopsy was performed and the histology showed a pseudolymphomatous reaction. ...	2015	25568264
search for blood or water is influenced by borrelia burgdorferi in ixodes ricinus.	an increasing number of studies suggest that vector-borne parasites are able to alter phenotypic traits in their arthropod vectors so that microorganism transmission is enhanced. this review documents this phenomenon, which occurs between borrelia burgdorferi bacteria, the causative agents of lyme borreliosis, and their tick vectors belonging to the ixodes ricinus complex. it also reviews the influence of other tick-borne pathogens on these ticks. ticks belonging to the ixodes ricinus complex be ...	2015	25560984
diagnosis and incidence risk of clinical canine monocytic ehrlichiosis under field conditions in southern europe.	canine monocytic ehrlichiosis (cme), due to the bacterium ehrlichia canis and transmitted by the brown dog tick rhipicephalus sanguineus, is a major tick-borne disease in southern europe. in this area, infections with other vector-borne pathogens (vbp) are also described and result in similar clinical expression. the aim of the present study was to evaluate the incidence risk of clinical cme in those endemic areas and to assess the potential involvement of other vbp in the occurrence of clinical ...	2015	25561342
herniation of uncus and parahippocampal gyrus: an accidental finding on magnetic resonance imaging of cerebrum.	idiopathic herniation of uncus and parahippocampal gyrus into the ambient cistern is a very rare entity, which could be mistaken for other pathology such as tumor. to the best of our knowledge, two prior cases of this kind of herniation have been described. one of these cases was with associated symptomatology and other abnormalities, and the other was characterized as idiopathic. in this case report, we report a case of accidental finding of a herniation of uncus and parahippocampal gyrus into ...	2015	25610616
repeat or persistent lyme disease: persistence, recrudescence or reinfection with borrelia burgdorferi?	whether or not borrelia burgdorferi can persist after conventional treatment with antimicrobials has been a very controversial issue. two recent studies took different approaches to try to answer this question. in one, investigators showed that, in each of 22 instances in 17 patients with two consecutive episodes of culture-proved erythema migrans, the strains of b. burgdorferi were different based on their genotypes. this indicated that the repeat episodes were due to new infections rather than ...	2015	25705394
biparietal variant of alzheimer's disease: a rare presentation of a common disease.	alzheimer's disease (ad) is a clinically heterogeneous disease that may have atypical presentations with focal cortical syndromes and relatively preserved episodic memory. the posterior variant of ad has two subtypes: occipitotemporal, presenting with visuoperceptive impairment, and biparietal, presenting with visuospatial dysfunction and apraxia. we report a case of a 51-year-old woman with progressive limb apraxia and choreiform movements. her neuropsychological evaluation was compatible with ...	2015	25564588
applications of bacillus calmette-guerin and recombinant bacillus calmette-guerin in vaccine development and tumor immunotherapy.	bacillus calmette-guerin (bcg) vaccines are attenuated live strains of mycobacterium bovis and are among the most widely used vaccines in the world. bcg is proven to be effective in preventing severe infant meningitis and miliary tuberculosis. intravesical instillation of bcg is also a standard treatment for non-muscle invasive bladder cancer. in the past few decades, recombinant bcg (rbcg) technology had been extensively applied to develop vaccine candidates for a variety of infectious diseases ...	2015	26268434
understanding the pathogenesis of abdominal aortic aneurysms.	an aortic aneurysm is a dilatation in which the aortic diameter is ≥3.0 cm. if left untreated, the aortic wall continues to weaken and becomes unable to withstand the forces of the luminal blood pressure resulting in progressive dilatation and rupture, a catastrophic event associated with a mortality of 50-80%. smoking and positive family history are important risk factors for the development of abdominal aortic aneurysms (aaa). several genetic risk factors have also been identified. on the hist ...	2015	26308600
role of glycosaminoglycans in infectious disease.	glycosaminoglycans (gags) have been shown to bind to a wide variety of microbial pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, parasites, and fungi in vitro. gags are thought to promote pathogenesis by facilitating pathogen attachment, invasion, or evasion of host defense mechanisms. however, the role of gags in infectious disease has not been extensively studied in vivo and therefore their pathophysiological significance and functions are largely unknown. here we describe methods to directly investig ...	2015	25325982