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quantification of vibrio parahaemolyticus, vibrio vulnificus and vibrio cholerae in french mediterranean coastal lagoons.vibrio parahaemolyticus, vibrio vulnificus and vibrio cholerae are human pathogens. little is known about these vibrio spp. in the coastal lagoons of france. the purpose of this study was to investigate their incidence in water, shellfish and sediment of three french mediterranean coastal lagoons using the most probable number-polymerase chain reaction (mpn-pcr). in summer, the total number of v. parahaemolyticus in water, sediment, mussels and clams collected from the three lagoons varied from ...201323770313
triplex pcr assay for the rapid identification of 3 major vibrio species, vibrio cholerae, vibrio parahaemolyticus, and vibrio fluvialis.a triplex pcr assay was developed for the identification of 3 major vibrio spp., vibrio cholerae, vibrio parahaemolyticus, and vibrio fluvialis by targeting their haemolysin, haem-utilizing, and central regulatory genes, respectively. this simple, rapid, sensitive, and specific assay using cell lysates from 227 samples established its usefulness in research and epidemiology.201323706502
in vitro and in vivo bactericidal activity of vitex negundo leaf extract against diverse multidrug resistant enteric bacterial pathogens.to investigate in vitro and in vivo antibacterial potentials of vitex negundo (v. negundo) leaf extracts against diverse enteric pathogens.201323608373
abundance and distribution of vibrio cholerae, v. parahaemolyticus, and v. vulnificus following a major freshwater intrusion into the mississippi sound.in response to a major influx of freshwater to the mississippi sound following the opening of the bonnet carre spillway, water samples were collected from three sites along the mississippi shoreline to assess the impact of altered salinity on three pathogenic vibrio species. salinity readings across the affected area during the 2011 sample period ranged from 1.4 to 12.9 ppt (mean = 7.0) and for the 2012 sample period from 14.1 to 23.6 ppt (mean = 19.8). analyses of the data collected in 2011 sho ...201323494573
mechanistic and statistical models of total vibrio abundance in the neuse river estuary.bacteria in the genus vibrio are ubiquitous to estuarine waters worldwide and are often the dominant genus recovered from these environments. this genus contains several potentially pathogenic species, including vibrio vulnificus, vibrio cholerae, vibrio parahaemolyticus, and vibrio alginolyticus. these bacteria have short generation times, as low as 20-30 min, and can thus respond rapidly to changing environmental conditions. a five-parameter mechanistic model was generated based on environment ...201323948561
temporal and spatial distribution patterns of potentially pathogenic vibrio spp. at recreational beaches of the german north sea.the number of reported vibrio-related wound infections associated with recreational bathing in northern europe has increased within the last decades. in order to study the health risk from potentially pathogenic vibrio spp. in the central wadden sea, the seasonal and spatial distribution of vibrio vulnificus, vibrio parahaemolyticus, vibrio alginolyticus and vibrio cholerae were investigated at ten recreational beaches in this area over a 2-year period. v. alginolyticus and v. parahaemolyticus w ...201323563708
distribution and pathogenic relationship of virulence associated genes among vibrio alginolyticus from the mariculture systems.vibrio alginolyticus has been confirmed as an important pathogen for aquatic animals. however, the pathogenic mechanism of v. alginolyticus is not completely understood. a total of 31 isolates of v. alginolyticus from sea water, fish and shrimp on the mariculture systems were fingerprinted by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. the pathogenicity of these isolates was tested by challenge and the 21 genes associated with the virulence of vibrio cholerae or vibrio parahaemolyticus were examined in v. ...201323562411
dynamics of vibrio with virulence genes detected in pacific harbor seals (phoca vitulina richardii) off california: implications for marine mammal health.given their coastal site fidelity and opportunistic foraging behavior, harbor seals (phoca vitulina) may serve as sentinels for coastal ecosystem health. seals using urbanized coastal habitat can acquire enteric bacteria, including vibrio that may affect their health. to understand vibrio dynamics in seals, demographic and environmental factors were tested for predicting potentially virulent vibrio in free-ranging and stranded pacific harbor seals (phoca vitulina richardii) off california. vibri ...201323392641
phenotypic characterization and rapd fingerprinting of vibrio parahaemolyticus and vibrio alginolyticus isolated during tunisian fish farm outbreaks.the genus vibrio is characterized by a large number of species and some of them are human pathogens causing gastrointestinal and wound infections through the ingestion or manipulation of contaminated fishes and shellfish including vibrio parahaemolyticus and vibrio alginolyticus. in this study, we reported the phenotypic and molecular characterization of 9 v. parahaemolyticus and 27 v. alginolyticus strains isolated from outbreaks affecting cultured gilthead sea bream (sparus aurata l.) and sea ...201322684973
relationship of aquatic environmental factors with the abundance of vibrio cholerae, vibrio parahaemolyticus, vibrio mimicus and vibrio vulnificus in the coastal area of guaymas, sonora, mexico.members of the genus vibrio are common in aquatic environments. among them are v. cholerae, v. vulnificus, v. parahaemolyticus and v. mimicus. several studies have shown that environmental factors, such as temperature, salinity, and dissolved oxygen, are involved in their epidemiology. therefore, the main objective of this study is to determine if there is a correlation between the presence/amount of v. cholerae, v, vulnificus, v. parahaemolyticus and v. mimicus and the environmental conditions ...201324334844
multiplex real-time polymerase chain reaction assays for simultaneous detection of vibrio cholerae, vibrio parahaemolyticus, and vibrio vulnificus.a multiplex real-time polymerase chain reaction (rt-pcr) method was developed for the identification of three vibrio species: vibrio cholerae, vibrio parahaemolyticus, and vibrio vulnificus.201324159544
vibrio cholerae and vibrio parahaemolyticus detected in seafood products from senegal.the detection of pathogenic vibrio in seafood from senegal has generated five food alerts in the european union. to investigate the presence and abundance vibrio cholerae and vibrio parahaemolyticus in seafood and coastal and estuarine waters, 123 seafood samples and 52 water samples were collected during 2007-2009 from two large seafood markets in dakar, and from different oceanic and estuarine areas of the country. v. parahaemolyticus was detected in 30.1% of seafood samples, whereas presence ...201324147655
effect of water treatment on the growth potential of vibrio cholerae and vibrio parahaemolyticus in seawater.in laboratory experiments we added vibrio cholerae and vibrio parahaemolyticus to bottles with seawater previously treated by filtration, uv, chlorine or ozone. the purpose was to investigate the influence of different treatment techniques on the growth potential of these bacteria in simulated ballast water tanks. residual oxidants were removed before inoculation, and the bottles were incubated at 21 ± 1 °c. the growth potential of the vibrios was investigated in two different experimental setup ...201323127287
development of a groel gene-based species-specific multiplex polymerase chain reaction assay for simultaneous detection of vibrio cholerae, vibrio parahaemolyticus and vibrio vulnificus.to develop an effective multiplex polymerase chain reaction (pcr) for the simultaneous detection of three important vibrio species, vibrio cholerae (vc), v. parahaemolyticus (vp) and v. vulnificus (vv) using the groel gene, a potential phylogenetic marker.201323121500
three vibrio-resistance related est-ssr markers revealed by selective genotyping in the clam meretrix meretrix.the clam meretrix meretrix is an important commercial bivalve distributed in the coastal areas of south and southeast asia. in this study, marker-trait association analyses were performed based on the stock materials of m. meretrix with different vibrio-resistance profile obtained by selective breeding. forty-eight est-ssr markers were screened and 27 polymorphic ssrs of them were genotyped in the clam stocks with different resistance to vibrio parahaemolyticus (11-r and 11-s) and to vibrio harv ...201323707743
prevention of quorum-sensing-mediated biofilm development and virulence factors production in vibrio spp. by curcumin.the increasing occurrence of disease outbreaks caused by vibrio spp. and the emergence of antibiotic resistance has led to a growing interest in finding alternative strategies to prevent vibriosis. since the pathogenicity of vibrios is controlled in part by quorum-sensing (qs) system, interfering with this mechanism would prevent the pathogenicity of vibrios without developing resistance. hence, a non-toxic phytochemical curcumin from curcuma longa was assessed for its potential in reducing the ...201323354447
the trend of vibrio parahaemolyticus infections in southern thailand from 2006 to 2010.the bacterium, vibrio parahaemolyticus was isolated from 776 patients at hat yai hospital in southern thailand from 2006 to 2010. 51.3-73.6% of the isolates were tdh (+) trh (-) and group-specific pcr positive pandemic strains. a comparison of the number of v. parahaemolyticus isolates in this study and that from the same hospital in 2000-2005 indicates that this region of thailandis endemic for v. parahaemolyticus.201324478592
serotype, virulence, and genetic traits of foodborne and clinical vibrio parahaemolyticus isolates in shanghai, china.vibrio parahaemolyticus is a major foodborne pathogen in china and other countries. in this study, a total of 578 clinical v. parahaemolyticus strains and 51 foodborne strains were isolated during the period from 2009 to 2011 in the eastern coastal city of shanghai, china. their serotypes, virulence genes, pandemic traits, and genotyping were investigated. a total of nine o groups and 20 k types were identified by serological analysis of all isolates. six different o groups and 14 different k ty ...201323988077
in situ and in vitro impacts of the deepwater horizon oil spill on vibrio parahaemolyticus.most established virulence genes in vibrio parahaemolyticus (vp), e.g., thermostable direct hemolysin (tdh), tdh-related hemolysin (trh), and type three secretion system 2 (ttss2), are on the chromosome 2 pathogenicity island, which also possesses numerous uncharacterized genes. we hypothesized the 2010 deepwater horizon (dh) oil spill would cause an increase in populations of vibrio parahaemolyticus carrying environmental adaptation genes. vp isolated pre- and post-spill were analyzed for ttss2 ...201323987095
the msha pilus of vibrio parahaemolyticus has lectin functionality and enables ttss-mediated pathogenicity.vibrio parahaemolyticus is a seafood-borne pathogen which causes acute inflammatory gastroenteritis--a process which is mediated by the translocation of type three secretion system effector proteins. the molecular interactions governing colonization of the intestinal epithelium by this pathogen remain poorly understood. the mannose-sensitive haemagglutinin (msha) pilus was identified in this study as a significant factor in bacterial-host cell adherence and subsequent pathogenesis towards caco-2 ...201323981476
cell density- and quorum sensing-dependent expression of type vi secretion system 2 in vibrio parahaemolyticus.vibrio parahaemolyticus apha and opar are the two master quorum sensing (qs) regulators that are abundantly expressed at low cell density (lcd) and high cell density (hcd), respectively, with a feature of reciprocally gradient production of them with transition between lcd and hcd. the type vi secretion system 2 (t6ss2) gene cluster can be assigned into three putative operons, namely vpa1027-1024, vpa1043-1028, and vpa1044-1046. t6ss2 contributes to adhesion of v. parahaemolyticus to host cells.201323977385
[construction of biofilm formation related mutants in vibrio parahaemolyticus].to construct the mutants of biofilm related genes in vibrio parahaemolyticus and confirm the mutants.201323958128
differences in the stress tolerances of vibrio parahaemolyticus strains due to their source and harboring of virulence genes.to investigate the diversity of stress tolerance levels in vibrio parahaemolyticus, 200 v. parahaemolyticus strains isolated from various coastal environments, seafood, and human clinical cases were exposed to acid, low-osmolality, freezing-thawing, and heat stresses. tolerance against acid stress was higher in the virulent (tdh- and/or trh-positive) strains than in the avirulent (tdh- and trh-negative) strains. tolerance against low-osmolality, freezing-thawing, and heat stresses was higher in ...201323905806
[preparation of monoclonal antibodies against flagellin core protein of vibrio parahaemolyticus and its activity analysis].to prepare monoclonal antibodies (mabs) against flagellin core protein of vibrio (v.) parahaemolyticus and establish the double-sandwich elisa for testing v.parahaemolyticus from food products.201323837985
preliminary stochastic model for managing vibrio parahaemolyticus and total viable bacterial counts in a pacific oyster (crassostrea gigas) supply chain.vibrio parahaemolyticus can accumulate and grow in oysters stored without refrigeration, representing a potential food safety risk. high temperatures during oyster storage can lead to an increase in total viable bacteria counts, decreasing product shelf life. therefore, a predictive tool that allows the estimation of both v. parahaemolyticus populations and total viable bacteria counts in parallel is needed. a stochastic model was developed to quantitatively assess the populations of v. parahaem ...201323834791
[the development of complex technique of evaluation of virulence of parahemolytic vibrio].the article deals with results of studying parahemolytic vibrio separatedfrom different sources according their phenotype and genotype attributes associated with virulence. in certain cases the mismatch of results of kanagava tests and polymerase chain reaction test of gene tdh was established. the need in virulence complex evaluation is substantiated. this complex has to include detection of hemolytic activity in kanagava test and urease activity on the kristensen medium and polymerase chain re ...201323808010
extensive investigation of antimicrobial resistance in vibrio parahaemolyticus from shellfish and clinical sources, italy. 201323796895
draft genome sequence of vibrio parahaemolyticus v110, isolated from shrimp in hong kong.we report the whole-genome sequence of a tdh- and trh-negative vibrio parahaemolyticus strain, v110, from shrimp. the major difference of v110 from clinical strains was its lack of the type iii secretion system t3ss2, a key component of virulence. further sequence comparison can shed light on the pathogenesis of v. parahaemolyticus.201323788537
the vibrio parahaemolyticus small rna ryhb promotes production of the siderophore vibrioferrin by stabilizing the polycistronic mrna.high-affinity iron acquisition in vibrio parahaemolyticus is mediated by the cognate siderophore vibrioferrin. we have previously reported that the vibrioferrin biosynthesis operon (pvsop) is regulated at the transcriptional level by the iron-responsive repressor fur (t. tanabe, t. funahashi, h. nakao, s. miyoshi, s. shinoda, and s. yamamoto, j. bacteriol. 185:6938-6949, 2003). in this study, we identified the fur-regulated small rna ryhb and the rna chaperone hfq protein as additional regulator ...201323772063
biosynthesis of the osmoprotectant ectoine, but not glycine betaine, is critical for survival of osmotically stressed vibrio parahaemolyticus cells.vibrio parahaemolyticus is a halophile present in marine and estuarine environments, ecosystems characterized by fluctuations in salinity and temperature. one strategy to thrive in such environments is the synthesis and/or uptake of compatible solutes. the v. parahaemolyticus genome contains biosynthesis systems for both ectoine and glycine betaine, which are known to act as compatible solutes in other species. we showed that v. parahaemolyticus had a 6% nacl tolerance when grown in m9 minimal m ...201323770911
mechanisms of fluoroquinolone resistance in vibrio parahaemolyticus. 201323751355
genome sequence analysis of the vibrio parahaemolyticus lytic bacteriophage vpms1.vpms1 is a vibrio parahaemolyticus lytic phage isolated from a marine clam. the 42.3-kb genome was predicted to encode 53 proteins. comparison of the vpms1 dna genome with known phage genomes revealed no similarity; hence, it represents a new vp phage, organized into three differently oriented modules. the module for packaging covers 12 % of the genome, the module for structure covers 31 %, and the module for replication and regulation covers 48 %. the g + c content was 44.67 %. the coding regio ...201323732928
molecular characterization of a p38 mapk from litopenaeus vannamei and its expression during the molt cycle and following pathogen infection.the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (mapk), a serine/threonine-specific protein kinase, has been reported to be involved in innate immunity, development and muscle differentiation. to explore the function of p38 in shrimp, partial cdna sequence of p38 in litopenaeus vannamei (designated as lv-p38) was characterized and the expression of lv-p38 in hepatopancreas of the shrimp after being infected with vibrio parahaemolyticus and in muscle of the shrimp at different molt stages was detected b ...201323707783
molecular epidemiology and genetic variation of pathogenic vibrio parahaemolyticus in peru.vibrio parahaemolyticus is a foodborne pathogen that has become a public health concern at the global scale. the epidemiological significance of v. parahaemolyticus infections in latin america received little attention until the winter of 1997 when cases related to the pandemic clone were detected in the region, changing the epidemic dynamics of this pathogen in peru. with the aim to assess the impact of the arrival of the pandemic clone on local populations of pathogenic v. parahaemolyticus in ...201323696906
the iodide-transport-defect-causing mutation r124h: a δ-amino group at position 124 is critical for maturation and trafficking of the na+/i- symporter.na(+)/i(-) symporter (nis)-mediated active accumulation of i(-) in thyrocytes is a key step in the biosynthesis of the iodine-containing thyroid hormones t3 and t4. several nis mutants have been identified as a cause of congenital i(-) transport defect (itd), and their investigation has yielded valuable mechanistic information on nis. here we report novel findings derived from the thorough characterization of the itd-causing mutation r124h, located in the second intracellular loop (il-2). r124h ...201323690546
molecular characterization of clinical and environmental vibrio parahaemolyticus isolates in taiwan.vibrio parahaemolyticus is the most prevalent foodborne pathogen in taiwan and it is frequently recovered from seafood. in this study, v. parahaemolyticus that was isolated in recent years from aquacultural environments and clinical specimens were comparatively analyzed by noti-restricted pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (pfge) and polymerase chain reaction, targeting common toxin genes (tdh, trh, urec), mtase gene, toxr regulator, markers for pandemic strains (orf8, group-specific toxrs) and re ...201323685468
a pentaplex pcr assay for detection and characterization of vibrio vulnificus and vibrio parahaemolyticus isolates.vibrio parahaemolyticus and vibrio vulnificus are the leading causes of seafood-related illnesses and also can cause wound infections. these bacteria often co-exist in marine and estuarine environments. however, there have been no reported protocols that can detect and characterize (i.e. pathogenic or nonpathogenic) them in a single pcr. in this study, we developed a ppcr assay with a combination of two species-specific and three pathogenic-specific pcr primers to simultaneously detect virulent ...201323682646
[selection of reference genes for virulence gene expression in vibrio parahaemolyticus].we selected reference genes for virulence gene expression of vibrio parahaemolyticus under different environmental conditions.201323678578
molecular insights of the first gastropod tlr counterpart from disk abalone (haliotis discus discus), revealing its transcriptional modulation under pathogenic stress.toll-like receptors (tlrs) are well-characterized pattern recognition receptors of innate immunity, known to induce immune responses against the pathogens by interacting with evolutionarily conserved pathogen-associated molecular patterns (pamps). in this study, a novel tlr homolog from disk abalone (haliotis discus discus) was identified and characterized at molecular level. the open reading frame (orf) of abtlr is 3804 bp in length and encodes a 1268 amino acid peptide with a calculated molecu ...201323669649
expression of glutamine synthetase in tegillarca granosa (bivalvia, arcidae) hemocytes stimulated by vibrio parahaemolyticus and lipopolysaccharides.the blood cockle, tegillarca granosa, is a widely consumed clam in the indo-pacific region. glutamine synthetase (gs) is an enzyme that plays an essential role in the metabolism of nitrogen by catalyzing the condensation of glutamate and ammonia to form glutamine. we identified the gs of t. granosa (tg-gs) from hemocytes by 3'- and 5'-rapid amplification of cdna ends (race)-pcr. the full-length cdna consisted of 1762 bp, with a 1104-bp open reading frame encoding 367 amino acids. sequence compar ...201323661439
multiplex pcr for the detection and differentiation of vibrio parahaemolyticus strains using the groel, tdh and trh genes.vibrio parahaemolyticus is a significant cause of human gastrointestinal disorders worldwide, transmitted primarily by ingestion of raw or undercooked contaminated seafood. in this study, a multiplex pcr assay for the detection and differentiation of v. parahaemolyticus strains was developed using primer sets for a species-specific marker, groel, and two virulence markers, tdh and trh. multiplex pcr conditions were standardised, and extracted genomic dna of 70 v. parahaemolyticus strains was use ...201323660458
a vibrio parahaemolyticus t3ss effector mediates pathogenesis by independently enabling intestinal colonization and inhibiting tak1 activation.vibrio parahaemolyticus type iii secretion system 2 (t3ss2) is essential for the organism's virulence, but the effectors required for intestinal colonization and induction of diarrhea by this pathogen have not been identified. here, we identify a type iii secretion system (t3ss2)-secreted effector, vopz, that is essential for v. parahaemolyticus pathogenicity. vopz plays distinct, genetically separable roles in enabling intestinal colonization and diarrheagenesis. truncation of vopz prevents v.  ...201323623501
[inactivation kinetics of vibrio parahaemolyticus in peeled shrimp treated with organic acids].to establish the kinetic inactivation models of vibrio parahaemolytius in saline and peeled shrimp treated with acetic acid, lactic acid and citric acid for guidance of their potential application in shrimp decontamination.201323614238
vibrio parahaemolyticus type vi secretion system 1 is activated in marine conditions to target bacteria, and is differentially regulated from system 2.vibrio parahaemolyticus is a marine bacterium that thrives in warm climates. it is a leading cause of gastroenteritis resulting from consumption of contaminated uncooked shellfish. this bacterium harbors two putative type vi secretion systems (t6ss). t6sss are widespread protein secretion systems found in many gram-negative bacteria, and are often tightly regulated. for many t6sss studied to date, the conditions and cues, as well as the regulatory mechanisms that control t6ss activity are unknow ...201323613791
gating of the trkh ion channel by its associated rck protein trka.trkh belongs to a superfamily of k(+) transport proteins required for growth of bacteria in low external k(+) concentrations. the crystal structure of trkh from vibrio parahaemolyticus showed that trkh resembles a k(+) channel and may have a gating mechanism substantially different from k(+) channels. trkh assembles with trka, a cytosolic protein comprising two rck (regulate the conductance of k(+)) domains, which are found in certain k(+) channels and control their gating. however, fundamental ...201323598339
murine macrophage inflammatory cytokine production and immune activation in response to vibrio parahaemolyticus infection.vibrio parahaemolyticus is the most common cause of bacterial, seafood-related illness in the usa. currently, there is a dearth of published reports regarding immunity to infection with this pathogen. here, production of both pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines by v. parahaemolyticus-infected raw 264.7 murine macrophages was studied. it was determined that this infection results in increased concentrations of il-1α, il-6, tnf-α and il-10. additionally, decreases in cell surface tlr2 and tlr4 an ...201323586636
isolation and characterization of pandemic and nonpandemic strains of vibrio parahaemolyticus from an outbreak of diarrhea in north 24 parganas, west bengal, india.strains of the enteric pathogen vibrio parahaemolyticus harboring the thermostable hemolysin (tdh) encoding gene tdh is known to cause epidemic and pandemic diarrhea. in industrialized countries, this pathogen causes sporadic or outbreaks of diarrheal illness associated with consumption of raw or improperly cooked seafood. this report describes a foodborne outbreak of gastroenteritis caused by v. parahaemolyticus in june 2011 following consumption of food served at a funeral reception held at ha ...201323566271
effects of pre- or post-processing storage conditions on high-hydrostatic pressure inactivation of vibrio parahaemolyticus and v. vulnificus in oysters.the effects of storage conditions on subsequent high-hydrostatic pressure (hhp) inactivation of vibrio parahaemolyticus and vibrio vulnificus in oysters were investigated. live oysters were inoculated with v. parahaemolyticus or v. vulnificus to ca. 7-8 log mpn/g by feeding and stored at varying conditions (i.e., 21 or 35 °c for 5h, 4 or 10 °c for 1 and 2 days and -18 °c for 2 weeks). oyster meats were then treated at 225-300 mpa for 2 min at 4, 21 or 35 °c. hhp at 300 mpa for 2 min achieved a > ...201323545264
ecological study of pathogenic vibrios in aquatic environments.an ecological study of pathogenic vibrios in aquatic environments of okayama was carried out. the number of vibrio parahaemolyticus detected in the sea area was comparatively smaler than that found in the survey of about two decades ago. various reasons for the decrease in the case of food poisoning by v. parahaemolyticus have been suggested but the lower number of the vibrio in aquatic environments may be one explanation. although the number of v. vulnificus was also not as large, most of the i ...201323538851
transcriptomic and cellular response to bacterial challenge (pathogenic vibrio parahaemolyticus) in farmed juvenile haliotis rufescens fed with or without probiotic diet.the abalone production in chile has increased considerably in recent years with no sign of tapering off. open and semi-closed circuits in the marine water zones in the north and south of chile are the preferred areas of culture. coastal ecosystems are subjected to a wide variety of contaminants that generate stress that affects populations via their impacts to individuals at both physiological and genetic levels. this work investigated the genomic and cellular response of post-weaning juvenile h ...201323535139
susceptibility of vibrio parahaemolyticus to disinfectants after prior exposure to sublethal stress.in the present study, vibrio parahaemolyticus 690 in phosphate buffered-saline containing 3% nacl was subjected to sublethal stresses: heat shock at 42 °c for 15 min, acid adaptation at ph 5.0 for 30 min, or cold shock at 20 °c for 4 h. the effect of sublethal stress on the susceptibility of v. parahaemolyticus to a chlorine-containing disinfectant (clidox-s) and a quaternary ammonium compound (quatricide) at 25 and 40 °c was investigated. it was found that the sublethal stresses examined enhanc ...201323498199
[isolation of vibrio parahaemolyticus having new combination of o and k serotypes from sporadic diarrheal patients]. 201323484380
structure and immune expression analysis of hemoglobin genes from the blood clam tegillarca granosa.hemoglobin (hb) is the major protein component of erythrocytes in animals with red blood, although it can serve additional functions beyond the transport of oxygen. the blood clam (tegillarca granosa) is one of the few mollusks that has hb, although the structure and function of molluskan hbs remain unclear. we characterized two unique and highly compartmentalized blood clam hemoglobin genes, tg-hbiia and tg-hbiib, at the molecular level. the full-length cdna of tg-hbiia was 731 bp with a 450-bp ...201323479150
polymorphism of the multiple hemoglobins in blood clam tegillarca granosa and its association with disease resistance to vibrio parahaemolyticus.hemoglobin (hb) is the major protein component of erythrocytes in animals with red blood, but it can serve additional functions beyond the transport of oxygen. in this study, we identified polymorphism in the blood clam tegillarca granosa hb (tg-hb) genes and investigated the association of this polymorphism with resistance/susceptibility to vibrio parahaemolyticus. analysis of the 540 sequences revealed 28 snps in the coding region of three tg-hbs, corresponding to about one snp per 48 bp. thre ...201323470816
complete genome sequence of prepandemic vibrio parahaemolyticus bb22op.the number of inflammatory gastroenteritis outbreaks due to the food-borne pathogen vibrio parahaemolyticus is rising sharply worldwide and in the united states in particular. here we report the complete, annotated genome sequence of the prepandemic v. parahaemolyticus strain bb22op and make some initial comparisons to the complete genome sequence for pandemic strain rimd2210633.201323469330
rapid identification of vibrio parahaemolyticus isolated from shellfish, sea water and sediments of the khnifiss lagoon, morocco, by maldi-tof mass spectrometry.we establish the presence of vibrio parahaemolyticus and deepen the comparison of isolates using maldi-tof ms for the typing of isolates originating from the khnifiss lagoon (morocco). amongst 48 samples from sea water, sediment and shellfish isolated from different sites of khnifiss lagoon, morocco, we obtained 22 isolates of v. parahaemolyticus identified by vitek 2™ system (biomérieux) and maldi biotyper™ (bruker daltonics). all isolates were highly resistant to ampicillin and ticarcillin, mo ...201323464928
in silico analysis of putative paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins export proteins in cyanobacteria.paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins (psts) are a family of more than 30 natural alkaloids synthesized by dinoflagellates and cyanobacteria whose toxicity in animals is mediated by voltage-gated na(+) channel blocking. the export of pst analogues may be through sxtf and sxtm, two putative mate (multidrug and toxic compound extrusion) family transporters encoded in psts biosynthetic gene cluster (sxt). sxtm is present in every sxt cluster analyzed; however, sxtf is only present in the cylindrospe ...201323457475
isolation of pandemic vibrio parahaemolyticus from uk water and shellfish produce.vibrio parahaemolyticus is a gram-negative, halophilic bacterium found commonly in temperate and warm estuarine waters worldwide. v. parahaemolyticus is considered an emerging bacterial pathogen in europe and has been responsible for several recent seafood-associated outbreaks. during ad hoc testing of raw shellfish produce in may 2012, pandemic group (o3:k6) v. parahaemolyticus was isolated from pacific oysters (crassostrea gigas), harvested in southern england. follow-on testing of water and s ...201323455432
vibrio parahaemolyticus type iv pili mediate interactions with diatom-derived chitin and point to an unexplored mechanism of environmental persistence.vibrio parahaemolyticus is a naturally occurring bacterium common in coastal waters where it concentrates in shellfish through filter feeding. the bacterium is a human pathogen and the leading cause of seafood-borne gastroenteritis. presently there is little information regarding mechanisms of environmental persistence of v.parahaemolyticus or an accurate early warning system for outbreak prediction. vibrios have been shown to adhere to several substrates in the environment, including chitin, on ...201323441888
virulence determinants for vibrio parahaemolyticus infection.vibrio parahaemolyticus is a marine microorganism that causes acute gastroenteritis associated with the consumption of contaminated raw or under cooked seafood. during infection, the bacterium utilizes a wide variety of virulence factors, including adhesins, toxins and type iii secretion systems, to cause both cytotoxicity in cultured cells and enterotoxicity in animal models. herein, we describe recent discoveries on the regulation and characterization of the virulence factors from v. para. det ...201323433802
presence of pathogenic vibrio parahaemolyticus in waters and seafood from the tunisian sea.the occurrence of the hemolysin genes, tdh and trh, in vibrio parahaemolyticus strains isolated from environmental samples collected from various exported seafood products comprising of fishes and shellfish (mytilus edulis and crassostrea gigas) or seawater, was studied. eight strains were confirmed as v. parahaemolyticus by toxr -based polymerase chain reaction and only one strain out of these 8 strains was positive for tdh and trh genes. toxigenic v. parahaemolyticus isolates are present in tu ...201323430717
population structure of clinical and environmental vibrio parahaemolyticus from the pacific northwest coast of the united states.vibrio parahaemolyticus is a common marine bacterium and a leading cause of seafood-borne bacterial gastroenteritis worldwide. although this bacterium has been the subject of much research, the population structure of cold-water populations remains largely undescribed. we present a broad phylogenetic analysis of clinical and environmental v. parahaemolyticus originating largely from the pacific northwest coast of the united states. repetitive extragenic palindromic pcr (rep-pcr) separated 167 is ...201323409028
draft genome sequence of vibrio parahaemolyticus snuvps-1 isolated from korean seafood.vibrio parahaemolyticus is the leading cause of food-borne diseases, and several pathogenic strains cause global gastroenteritis outbreaks. here, we report a draft genome sequence of v. parahaemolyticus snuvps-1, which was isolated from seafood in a fishery market in the republic of korea and contained tl, toxr, and toxrs(old) genes. the current draft genome sequence will contribute to the effort to monitor the spread of v. parahaemolyticus seafood isolates and clinical isolates.201323405312
uptake and retention of vibrio parahaemolyticus in a cohabitating population of ruditapes decussatus and ruditapes philippinarum under experimental conditions.the presence of vibrio parahaemolyticus in bivalve mollusc is an important cause of foodborne illnesses, and their levels are influenced by environmental changes, such as temperature and salinity. clams are common species in estuaries and are used in environmental monitoring programmes. present study compared the uptake and retention of nonpathogenic v. parahaemolyticus by two species of clam (ruditapes decussatus and r. philippinarum), cohabitating in a closed system. results showed no signific ...201323397223
a candidate ion-retaining state in the inward-facing conformation of sodium/galactose symporter: clues from atomistic simulations.the recent vibrio parahaemolyticus sodium/galactose (vsglt) symporter crystal structure captures the protein in an inward-facing substrate-bound conformation, with the sodium ion placed, by structural alignment, in a site equivalent to the na2 site of the leucine transporter (leut). a recent study, based on molecular dynamics simulations, showed that the sodium ion spontaneously leaves its initial position diffusing outside vsglt, toward the intracellular space. this suggested that the crystal s ...201326588767
genetic relationships of vibrio parahaemolyticus isolates from clinical, human carrier, and environmental sources in thailand, determined by multilocus sequence analysis.vibrio parahaemolyticus is a seafood-borne pathogenic bacterium that is a major cause of gastroenteritis worldwide. we investigated the genetic and evolutionary relationships of 101 v. parahaemolyticus isolates originating from clinical, human carrier, and various environmental and seafood production sources in thailand using multilocus sequence analysis. the isolates were recovered from clinical samples (n = 15), healthy human carriers (n = 18), various types of fresh seafood (n = 18), frozen s ...201323377932
in situ strain-level detection and identification of vibrio parahaemolyticus using surface-enhanced raman spectroscopy.the outer membrane of a bacterium is composed of chemical and biological components that carry specific molecular information related to strains, growth stages, expressions to stimulation, and maybe even geographic differences. in this work, we demonstrate that the biochemical information embedded in the outer membrane can be used for rapid detection and identification of pathogenic bacteria using surface-enhanced raman spectroscopy (sers). we used seven different strains of the marine pathogen ...201323356387
high frequency of virulence factor genes tdh, trh, and tlh in vibrio parahaemolyticus strains isolated from a pristine estuary.virulence factor genes encoding the thermostable direct hemolysin (tdh) and the thermostable direct hemolysin-related hemolysin (trh) are strongly correlated with virulence of the emergent human pathogen vibrio parahaemolyticus. the gene encoding the thermolabile hemolysin (tlh) is also considered a signature molecular marker for the species. these genes are typically reported in very low percentages (1 to 2%) of nonclinical strains. v. parahaemolyticus strains were isolated from various niches ...201323354697
inactivation of vibrio parahaemolyticus in hard clams (mercanaria mercanaria) by high hydrostatic pressure (hhp) and the effect of hhp on the physical characteristics of hard clam meat.shellfish may internalize dangerous pathogens during filter feeding. traditional methods of depuration have been found ineffective against certain pathogens. the objective was to explore high hydrostatic pressure (hhp) as an alternative to the traditional depuration process. the effect of hhp on the survival of vibrio parahaemolyticus in live clams (mercanaria mercanaria) and the impact of hhp on physical characteristics of clam meat were investigated. clams were inoculated with up to 7 log cfu/ ...201323324022
preliminary study of transplanting as a process for reducing levels of vibrio vulnificus and vibrio parahaemolyticus in shellstock oysters.increasingly strict standards for harvest of oysters for the raw, half-shell market (designated as "white tag") should increase the proportion of oysters not meeting these standards (designated as "green tag"). transplanting of green tag oysters into highsalinity waters (>20 practical salinity units) was explored as a means of returning vibrio vulnificus and vibrio parahaemolyticus levels to levels present on initial harvest. in summer 2011, oysters originally harvested in louisiana were transpl ...201323317866
effects of the dietary administration of sodium alginate on the immune responses and disease resistance of taiwan abalone, haliotis diversicolor supertexta.sodium alginate extracted from brown algae was reported to enhance the immune response and resistance of fish and shrimp. in this study, survival rates of the abalone, haliotis diversicolor supertexta, against vibrio parahaemolyticus, and its non-specific immune parameters such as the total haemocyte count (thc), phenoloxidase (po) activity, respiratory bursts, superoxide dismutase (sod) activity, phagocytic activity, and clearance efficiency to v. parahaemolyticus by h. diversicolor supertexta ...201323296117
decontamination of vibrio parahaemolyticus in fish by washing with hygienic seawater and impacts of the high level contamination in the gills and viscera.the effect of washing in vibrio parahaemolyticus contaminated and hygienic seawater on fish, and the frequency and level of natural v. parahaemolyticus contamination in fish were investigated. in the first experiment, live horse mackerel was experimentally kept in seawater artificially contaminated with v. parahaemolyticus. after washing in contaminated and hygienic seawater, the contamination in fish was quantitatively analyzed. washing fish in the seawater contaminated with v. parahaemolyticus ...201323292104
changes of ultrastructure and stress tolerance of vibrio parahaemolyticus upon entering viable but nonculturable state.this study examined the change of ultrastructure and stress tolerance of the marine foodborne pathogen, vibrio parahaemolyticus 1137, when incubated under viable but nonculturable (vbnc) state induction conditions for different time intervals. the rod-shaped v. parahaemolyticus cells in the exponential phase became coccoid cells in the vbnc state, with aberrantly shaped cells formed in the initial stage. in the aberrantly shaped cells, the cell wall was loosened, flexible and allowed the cell to ...201323290246
prevalence of vibrio parahaemolyticus in oyster and clam culturing environments in taiwan.vibrio parahaemolyticus is the most prevalent gastroenteritis pathogen in taiwan and some other asian countries, and it frequently occurs in oysters and other seafood. this study monitors changes in the density of v. parahaemolyticus and environmental parameters in oyster and hard clam aquacultural environments in taiwan. water, sediment and shellfish samples were collected from five sampling sites in 2008-2010, and analyzed for environmental physiochemical parameters, numbers of indicator bacte ...201323290223
vibrio parahaemolyticus induced necrotizing fasciitis: an atypical organism causing an unusual presentation.background necrotizing fasciitis (nf) represents a life-threatening bacterial infection characterized by a rapid necrosis of deep subcutaneous tissue and facia underlying the skin. despite its lethal nature, nf occurs infrequently, leaving many physicians unfamiliar with the disease process, common pathogens, and treatment strategies. here we present a case of nf caused by an unlikely organism, vibrio parahaemolyticus. we highlight the innocuous nature of initial presentation and the potentially ...201324455339
contamination by vibrio parahaemolyticus and its virulent strains in seafood marketed in thailand, vietnam, malaysia, and indonesia.infections by virulent strains of vibrio parahaemolyticus are frequently reported in southeast asia. this is due to the frequent seafood contamination by virulent strains. in this study conducted from 2008 to 2011, seafood like fish, shrimp, squid, crab, and molluscan shellfish were purchased from provinces in thailand and three southeast asian countries and examined for the prevalence of three genetic markers of v. parahaemolyticus (species-specific gene: toxr gene, virulence genes: tdh and trh ...201324155650
molecular characterisation of a multidrug resistance conjugative plasmid from vibrio parahaemolyticus.vibrio parahaemolyticus is a major causative agent of gastroenteritis and is the leading cause of food-borne illness in hong kong. recent studies of resistance to extended-spectrum β-lactams and fluoroquinolones in v. parahaemolyticus have caused huge concern. this work reports the characterisation of a multidrug resistance conjugative plasmid in v. parahaemolyticus isolated from shrimp samples from hong kong. the plasmid is ca. 200 kb and carries multidrug resistance genes, including a novel pl ...201324139885
a dual-color flow cytometry protocol for the simultaneous detection of vibrio parahaemolyticus and salmonella typhimurium using aptamer conjugated quantum dots as labels.a sensitive, specific method for the collection and detection of pathogenic bacteria was demonstrated using quantum dots (qds) as a fluorescence marker coupled with aptamers as the molecular recognition element by flow cytometry. the aptamer sequences were selected using a bacterium-based selex strategy in our laboratory for vibrio parahaemolyticus and salmonella typhimurium that, when applied in this method, allows for the specific recognition of the bacteria from complex mixtures including shr ...201324267076
genome anatomy of the gastrointestinal pathogen, vibrio parahaemolyticus of crustacean origin.vibrio parahaemolyticus, an important human pathogen, is associated with gastroenteritis and transmitted through partially cooked seafood. it has become a major concern in the production and trade of marine food products. the prevalence of potentially virulent and pathogenic v. parahaemolyticus in raw seafood is of public health significance. here we describe the genome sequence of a v. parahaemolyticus isolate of crustacean origin which was cultured from prawns in 2008 in selangor, malaysia (is ...201324330647
genetic characterization of trh positive vibrio spp. isolated from norway.the thermostable direct hemolysin (tdh) and/or tdh-related hemolysin (trh) genes are carried by most virulent vibrio parahaemolyticus serovars. in norway, trh+ v. parahaemolyticus constitute 4.4 and 4.5% of the total number of v. parahaemolyticus isolated from blue mussel (mytilus edulis) and water, respectively. the trh gene is located in a region close to the gene cluster for urease production (ure). this region was characterized in v. parahaemolyticus strain th3996 and it was found that a nic ...201324400227
[antimicrobial resistance and virulence characteristics of vibrio parahaemolyticus].to explore drug resistance and virulence characteristics of clinically isolated vibrio parahaemolyticus (vp).201324360109
distribution and dynamics of epidemic and pandemic vibrio parahaemolyticus virulence factors.vibrio parahaemolyticus, autochthonous to estuarine, marine, and coastal environments throughout the world, is the causative agent of food-borne gastroenteritis. more than 80 serotypes have been described worldwide, based on antigenic properties of the somatic (o) and capsular (k) antigens. serovar o3:k6 emerged in india in 1996 and subsequently was isolated worldwide, leading to the conclusion that the first v. parahaemolyticus pandemic had taken place. most strains of v. parahaemolyticus isola ...201324377090
cell-free synthesis of functional thermostable direct hemolysins of vibrio parahaemolyticus.vibrio parahaemolyticus is a recognized enteropathogen causing diarrhea in humans and is one of the major causes of seafoodborne gastroenteritis. an important virulence factor is thermostable direct hemolysin (tdh), a pore-forming toxin, which is able to lyse eukaryotic cells. the active toxin is a tetramer of four identical protein subunits, which is secreted by the pathogen after cleavage of a signal peptide. to establish diagnostic detection systems for tdh we expressed the hemolysin with and ...201324060377
zebrafish as a model for vibrio parahaemolyticus virulence.vibrio parahaemolyticus is a gram-negative, naturally occurring marine bacterium. subpopulations of strains belonging to this species cause an acute self-limiting gastroenteritis in humans and, less commonly, wound infections. in vivo models to differentiate avirulent and virulent strains and evaluate the pathogenic potential of strains of this species have been largely focused on the presence of known virulence factors such as the thermostable direct haemolysin (tdh), the tdh-related haemolysin ...201324056807
association of a d-alanyl-d-alanine carboxypeptidase gene with the formation of aberrantly shaped cells during the induction of viable but nonculturable vibrio parahaemolyticus.vibrio parahaemolyticus is a halophilic gram-negative bacterium that causes human gastroenteritis. when the viable but nonculturable (vbnc) state of this bacterium was induced by incubation at 4°c in morita minimal salt solution containing 0.5% nacl, the rod-shaped cells became coccoid, and various aberrantly shaped intermediates were formed in the initial stage. this study examined the factors that influence the formation of these aberrantly shaped cells. the proportion of aberrantly shaped cel ...201324056454
quorum sensing modulates transcription of cpsq-mfpabc and mfpabc in vibrio parahaemolyticus.vibrio parahaemolyticus apha and opar are the two master regulators of quorum sensing (qs) that are abundantly produced and operate at low cell density (lcd) and high cell density (hcd), respectively, with an outcome of reciprocally gradient production of these two proteins with transition between lcd and hcd. the cpsq-mfpabc gene cluster is transcribed as two operons cpsq-mfpabc and mfpabc in v. parahaemolyticus. mfpabc is a putative membrane fusion transporter that contributes to biofilm devel ...201324036587
[study on the serotype, virulence genes and pulsed field gel electrophoresis molecular typing of vibrio parahaemolyticus isolated from clinical patients].to investigate the serotype virulence genes and molecular typing characteristics of vibrio parahaemolyticus isolated from diarrhea samples among 2007 -2012.201324024376
evidences of snps in the variable region of hemocyanin ig-like domain in shrimp litopenaeus vannamei.single nucleotide polymorphisms (snps) are the commonest mode of genetic variation in invertebrate immune-related genes. hemocyanin presents in the hemolymph of both mollusks and arthropods and functions as an important antigen non-specific immune protein. but people know very little about its gene polymorphism so far. in current study, bioinformatics, molecular biology and environmental challenge approaches were used to identify the snps within hemocyanin ig-like domain in shrimp litopenaeus va ...201324012752
heterogeneous interactome between litopenaeus vannamei plasma proteins and vibrio parahaemolyticus outer membrane proteins.a great loss has been suffered by microbial infectious diseases under intensive shrimp farming in recent years. in this background, the understanding of shrimp innate immunity becomes an importantly scientific issue, but little is known about the heterogeneous protein-protein interaction between pathogenic cells and hosts, which is a key step for the invading microbes to infect internet organs through bloodstream. in the present study, bacterial outer membrane (om) protein array and pull-down ap ...201323099052
the role of catalase in the immune response to oxidative stress and pathogen challenge in the clam meretrix meretrix.catalase (cat) can effectively eliminate h(2)o(2) and maintain the redox balance of immune system, which is essential for innate immunity. a catalase gene was cloned and its potential role in immune system was investigated in the clam, meretrix meretrix. the catalase (mmecat) gene had an open reading frame of 1533 bp encoding 511 amino acids which showed high identity with that of molluscs. the distribution of mmecat in clam tissues was examined and the mrna, protein expression and cat activity ...201323079536
transcriptional response of lysozyme, metallothionein, and superoxide dismutase to combined exposure to heavy metals and bacteria in mactra veneriformis.the response of the defense components lysozyme (lyz), metallothionein (mt), and superoxide dismutase (sod) to combined exposure to heavy metals and bacteria was assessed at transcriptional level in the surf clam mactra veneriformis. first, the full-length lyz cdna containing 808 nucleotides and encoding 194 deduced amino acids was identified from the clam. multiple alignments revealed that mvlyz had a high identity with invertebrate-type lyzs from other mollusks. next, clams were exposed to vib ...201323058986
rise and fall of pandemic vibrio parahaemolyticus serotype o3:k6 in southern chile.seafood consumption-related diarrhoea increased drastically in chile when the pandemic strain of vibrio parahaemolyticus serotype o3:k6 reached region de los lagos, where most of chile's seafood is produced. outbreaks peaked in 2005 with 3725 clinical cases in this region and gradually decreased to fewer than 10 cases in 2010 and 2011. we show here that the pandemic strain concurrently vanished from mussels; we also report further environmental data. integration of the 2010/2011 data with those ...201323051148
prevalence and distribution of vibrio parahaemolyticus in finfish from cochin (south india).finfish samples obtained from four retail outlets in cochin between june 2009 and june 2010 were investigated for the occurrence of vibrio parahaemolyticus. a total of 182 samples were collected and suspect isolates were identified using standard biochemical tests and were further confirmed by a species-specific tlh gene. v. parahaemolyticus was detected in 45.1% of samples, with demersal fish being more affected than pelagic species. the bacterium was isolated more frequently from the skin and ...201323038073
a predictive model for assessment of decontamination effects of lactic acid and chitosan used in combination on vibrio parahaemolyticus in shrimps.vibrio parahaemolyticus is a major causative agent of human gastroenteritis in seafood products including shrimps. lactic acid and chitosan are natural antimicrobials for food decontamination in the washing process of seafood. in this research, a 4-factor response surface model based on the box-behnken experimental design was developed to evaluate the effects of lactic acid (1%, 2%, and 3%, v/v), chitosan (0.4%, 1%, and 1.6%, w/v), rotational rate (90, 110, and 130 rpm) and washing time (10, 20, ...201324135668
spread of pacific northwest vibrio parahaemolyticus strain. 201324131194
[molecular characterization of vibrio parahaemolyticus collected from human infections in shenzhen, between 2002 and 2008].to determine the occurrence and distribution of specific clones of pathogenic vibrio parahaemolyticus(vp)isolated in shenzhen and to assess the relationship between serotype o3:k6 and the globally distributed pandemic clone.201324125615
the bacterial effector vopl organizes actin into filament-like structures.vopl is an effector protein from vibrio parahaemolyticus that nucleates actin filaments. vopl consists of a vopl c-terminal domain (vcd) and an array of three wasp homology 2 (wh2) motifs. here, we report the crystal structure of the vcd dimer bound to actin. the vcd organizes three actin monomers in a spatial arrangement close to that found in the canonical actin filament. in this arrangement, wh2 motifs can be modeled into the binding site of each actin without steric clashes. the data suggest ...201324120140
modeling the thermoultrasound inactivation of vibrio parahaemolyticus in raw peeled shrimps.vibrio parahaemolyticus has been identified as a causative agent for seafoodborne diseases worldwide. the effect of thermoultrasound treatment on the survival of v. parahaemolyticus in raw peeled shrimps was investigated in this study as an alternative bacterial inactivation method in seafood as part of the postharvest washing process. raw peeled shrimps inoculated with v. parahaemolyticus were treated with mild heat (47, 50, and 53°c) combined with ultrasound (0, 96, 150, and 204 w) based on a ...201324112570
characteristic and functional analysis of toll-like receptors (tlrs) in the lophotrocozoan, crassostrea gigas, reveals ancient origin of tlr-mediated innate immunity.the evolution of tlr-mediated innate immunity is a fundamental question in immunology. here, we report the characterization and functional analysis of four tlr members in the lophotrochozoans crassostreagigas (cgtlrs). all cgtlrs bear a conserved domain organization and have a close relationship with tlrs in ancient non-vertebrate chordates. in hek293 cells, every cgtlr could constitutively activate nf-κb responsive reporter, but none of the pamps tested could stimulate cgtlr-activated nf-κb ind ...201324098508
the syp enhancer sequence plays a key role in transcriptional activation by the σ54-dependent response regulator sypg and in biofilm formation and host colonization by vibrio fischeri.biofilm formation by vibrio fischeri is a complex process that requires multiple regulators. one such regulator, the ntrc-like response regulator sypg, controls biofilm formation and host colonization by v. fischeri via its impact on transcription of the symbiosis polysaccharide (syp) locus. sypg is predicted to activate syp transcription by binding to the syp enhancer (se), a conserved sequence located upstream of four syp promoters. in this study, we performed an in-depth analysis of the seque ...201324097942
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