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help in the choice of automated or semiautomated immunoassays for serological diagnosis of toxoplasmosis: evaluation of nine immunoassays by the french national reference center for toxoplasmosis.toxoplasmosis, a benign infection, is asymptomatic or paucisymptomatic in over 80% of cases, except in immunocompetent patients suffering from ocular toxoplasmosis or in immunocompromised patients with opportunistic or congenital toxoplasmosis. diagnosis is based mainly on serology testing. thus, we compared the performance of the nine most commonly used commercial automated or semiautomated immunoassays for igg and igm toxoplasma gondii antibody detection, that is, the advia centaur, architect, ...201627733631
high frequency detection of toxoplasma gondii dna in human neonatal tissue from libya.toxoplasma gondii is a parasite that causes significant disease in humans. toxoplasmosis is normally asymptomatic, unless associated with congenital transmission, or in immunocompromised people. congenital transmission generally occurs at low frequencies. in this study, we use pcr to investigate possible congenital transmission of t. gondii during pregnancy in a cohort of mothers from libya.201627794096
toxoplasma gondii-a gastrointestinal pathogen associated with human brain diseases.serious psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depression are important causes of mortality and morbidity worldwide. while these are primarily diseases involving altered brain functioning, numerous studies have documented increased rates of gastrointestinal inflammation and dysfunction in many individuals with these disorders. toxoplasma gondii is an apicomplexan protozoan intracellular parasite with a widespread distribution in both developed and developing cou ...201627793216
cross-protection induced by toxoplasma gondii virus-like particle vaccine upon intraperitoneal route challenge.the inner membrane complex sub-compartment has a critical role in toxoplasma gondii endodyogeny. in this study, we investigated the protection upon intraperitoneal route (ip) challenge induced by the virus-like particles (vlps) vaccine containing toxoplasma gondii imc isp (rh strain) (type i). intranasal immunization with the vlps in mice elicited enhanced systemic and mucosal toxoplasma gondii-specific igg, igg1, igg2a and iga antibody responses, and cd4+ and cd8+ responses. immunized mice sign ...201627586039
comparison of indirect fluorescent antibody test and the modified agglutination test for the detection of toxoplasma gondii antibodies in stray dogs from southern brazil.the aim of the present study was to determine the prevalence of antibodies to toxoplasma gondii by two serological techniques in sera of 364 stray dogs from brazil by immunofluorescence antibody test (ifat, cut off point 1:16) and to the modified agglutination test (mat, cut-off points 1:25 and 1:50). a total of 175/364 (48.07%) sera were positive by ifat, and 108/364 (29.67%) and 85/364 (23.35%) were positive by mat with cutoff points 1:25 and 1:50, respectively were positive by mat. cohen's ka ...201627787201
no association between current depression and latent toxoplasmosis in adults.changes in behaviour and cognition have been associated with latent infection from the apicomplexan protozoan toxoplasma gondii (nicolle et manceaux, 1908) in both animal and human studies. further, neuropsychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia have also been associated with latent toxoplasmosis. previously, we found no association between t. gondii immunoglobulin g antibody (igg) seropositivity and depression in human adults between the ages of 20 and 39 years (n = 1 846) in a sample represe ...201627827340
no association between latent toxoplasmosis and multiple body measures in u.s. adults.toxoplasma gondii (nicolle et manceaux, 1908) is an intracellular parasite that can cause ongoing latent infection persisting for the duration of a non-definitive host's life. affecting approximately one-third of the world's population, latent toxoplasmosis has been associated with neuropsychological outcomes and a previous report suggested an association between latent toxoplasmosis and adult height. given the large number of people with latent toxoplasmosis and its potential associations with ...201627827337
genotyping of toxoplasma gondii and sarcocystis spp. in road-killed wild mammals from the central western region of the state of são paulo, brazil.road-killed wild animals host zoonotic pathogens such as toxoplasma gondii, offering a new opportunity for the epidemiological study of these infectious organisms.201627812655
monitoring of dynamin during the toxoplasma gondii cell cycle.the obligate intracellular protozoan parasite toxoplasma gondii actively invades virtually all warm-blooded nucleated cells. this process results in a non-fusogenic vacuole, inside which the parasites replicate continuously until egress signaling is triggered. in this work, we investigated the role of the large gtpase dynamin in the interaction of t. gondii with the host cell by using laser and electron microscopy during three key stages: invasion, development and egress. the detection of dynami ...201627811048
seroepidemiologic study on the prevalence of toxoplasma gondii and trichinella spp. infections in black bears (ursus americanus) in pennsylvania, usa.the protozoan toxoplasma gondii and the metazoan trichinella spp. infect virtually all warm-blooded animals, including birds, humans, livestock, and marine mammals. both parasitic infections can cause serious illness in human beings and can be acquired by ingesting under-cooked meat harboring infective stages. approximately 3500 black bears (ursus americanus) are legally-harvested each year in pennsylvania, usa during the november hunting season. among animals found infected with t. gondii, the ...201627809983
seroprevalence and parasite load of toxoplasma gondii in mexican hairless pig (sus scrofa) tissues from the southeast of mexico.this study aimed to estimate the seroprevalence and determine the parasite load of toxoplasma gondii (t. gondii) in the heart and tongue tissues and the semimembranosus/gracilis muscles in a population of mexican hairless pig (mhp). a cross-sectional study was conducted in 81 mhp, 9-12 weeks of age, from 10 municipalities in yucatan, mexico. the prevalence was estimated by the detection of t. gondii igg antibodies via an indirect elisa assay. the parasite burden was also determined by testing ge ...201627809977
prevalence of toxoplasma gondii in pet dogs in mainland china: a meta-analysis.toxoplasmosis, caused by toxoplasma gondii, is one of the most common zoonosis in the world, and can cause severe adverse consequences in pregnant women and immunosuppressed people. throughout the world dogs are popular companion animals, however they are also important intermediate host of t. gondii and may play an instrumental role in mechanically transmitting toxoplasma infection to humans. therefore, an assessment of the level of t. gondii infection in pet dogs is of public health importance ...201627809967
molecular detection and genetic characterization of toxoplasma gondii in farmed minks (neovison vison) in northern china by pcr-rflp.toxoplasma gondii is a worldwide prevalent parasite, affecting a wide range of mammals and human beings. little information is available about the distribution of genetic diversity of t. gondii infection in minks (neovison vison). this study was conducted to estimate the prevalence and genetic characterization of t. gondii isolates from minks in china. a total of 418 minks brain tissue samples were collected from jilin and hebei provinces, northern china. genomic dna were extracted and assayed f ...201627806069
assessing the archaeoparasitological potential of quids as a source material for immunodiagnostic analyses.in the present study, quids from la cueva de los muertos chiquitos (cmc) were subjected to elisa tests for 2 protozoan parasites, toxoplasma gondii (n=45) and trypanosoma cruzi (n=43). the people who occupied cmc, the loma san gabriel, lived throughout much of present-day durango and zacatecas in mexico. the known pathoecology of these people puts them into at-risk categories for the transmission of t. gondii and t. cruzi. human antibodies created in response to these 2 parasites can be detected ...201627853117
systemic toxoplasma infection triggers a long-term defect in the generation and function of naive t lymphocytes.because antigen-stimulated naive t cells either die as effectors or enter the activated/memory pool, continuous egress of new t lymphocytes from thymus is essential for maintenance of peripheral immune homeostasis. unexpectedly, we found that systemic infection with the protozoan toxoplasma gondii triggers not only a transient increase in activated cd4(+) th1 cells but also a persistent decrease in the size of the naive cd4(+) t lymphocyte pool. this immune defect is associated with decreased th ...201627849554
reactivation of latent toxoplasmosis following dexamethasone implant injection.a 74-year-old man presented with right eye pain, swelling, photophobia, and vision loss 1 month following placement of an intravitreal dexamethasone implant (ozurdex; allergan, irvine, ca) for intraocular inflammation refractory to topical therapy. clinical examination showed visual acuity of 20/400, anterior chamber cell, vitritis, retinal vasculitis, and extensive retinitis. a vitreous biopsy was performed followed by intravitreal injections of vancomycin, ceftazidime, ganciclovir, and clindam ...201627842200
stat1 signaling in astrocytes is essential for control of infection in the central nervous system.the local production of gamma interferon (ifn-γ) is important to control toxoplasma gondii in the brain, but the basis for these protective effects is not fully understood. the studies presented here reveal that the ability of ifn-γ to inhibit parasite replication in astrocytes in vitro is dependent on signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (stat1) and that mice that specifically lack stat1 in astrocytes are unable to limit parasite replication in the central nervous system (cns). th ...201627834206
increased cerebral tff1 expression in two murine models of neuroinflammation.the trefoil factor family (tff) peptide tff1 is a typical secretory product of the gastric mucosa and a very low level of expression occurs in nearly all regions of the murine brain. tff1 possesses a lectin activity and binding to a plethora of transmembrane glycoproteins could explain the diverse biological effects of tff1 (e.g., anti-apoptotic effect). it was the aim to test whether tff expression is changed during neuroinflammation.201627832633
k63-linked ubiquitination targets toxoplasma gondii for endo-lysosomal destruction in ifnγ-stimulated human cells.toxoplasma gondii is the most common protozoan parasitic infection in man. gamma interferon (ifnγ) activates haematopoietic and non-haematopoietic cells to kill the parasite and mediate host resistance. ifnγ-driven host resistance pathways and parasitic virulence factors are well described in mice, but a detailed understanding of pathways that kill toxoplasma in human cells is lacking. here we show, that contrary to the widely held belief that the toxoplasma vacuole is non-fusogenic, in an immun ...201627875583
prenatal toxoplasmosis antibody and childhood autism.there is evidence that some maternal infections during the prenatal period are associated with neurodevelopmental disorders, such as childhood autism. however, the association between autism and toxoplasma gondii (t. gondii), an intracellular parasite, remains unclear. the authors examined whether serologically confirmed maternal antibodies to t. gondii are associated with odds of childhood autism in offspring. the study is based on a nested case-control design of a large national birth cohort ( ...201627874276
[gestational and congenital toxoplasmosis: a practical approach to disease notification].to demonstrate the experience of implanting toxoplasmosis notification during pregnancy and congenital toxoplasmosis in a sentinel unit (su) and describe reported cases.201627861692
rab22a controls mhc-i intracellular trafficking and antigen cross-presentation by dendritic cells.cross-presentation by mhc class i molecules allows the detection of exogenous antigens by cd8(+) t lymphocytes. this process is crucial to initiate cytotoxic immune responses against many pathogens (i.e., toxoplasma gondii) and tumors. to achieve efficient cross-presentation, dendritic cells (dcs) have specialized endocytic pathways; however, the molecular effectors involved are poorly understood. in this work, we identify the small gtpase rab22a as a key regulator of mhc-i trafficking and antig ...201627861124
toxoplasma gondii in stranded marine mammals from the north sea and eastern atlantic ocean: findings and diagnostic difficulties.the occurrence of the zoonotic protozoan parasite toxoplasma gondii in marine mammals remains a poorly understood phenomenon. in this study, samples from 589 marine mammal species and 34 european otters (lutra lutra), stranded on the coasts of scotland, belgium, france, the netherlands and germany, were tested for the presence of t. gondii. brain samples were analysed by polymerase chain reaction (pcr) for detection of parasite dna. blood and muscle fluid samples were tested for specific antibod ...201627884438
seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii infection and risk factors in domestic sheep in henan province, central china.sheep are highly susceptible to infections with toxoplasma gondii and play a major role in the transmission of toxoplasmosis to humans. in the present study, 779 serum samples from sheep were collected from henan province, central china from march 2015 to may 2016, and antibodies to t. gondii were detected by modified agglutination test (mat). the overall seroprevalence of t. gondii in sheep was 12.71% (99/779). the risk factors significantly associated with t. gondii seroprevalence were the geo ...201627882868
peripheral self-reactivity regulates antigen-specific cd8 t-cell responses and cell division under physiological conditions.t-cell identity is established by the expression of a clonotypic t-cell receptor (tcr), generated by somatic rearrangement of tcrα and β genes. the properties of the tcr determine both the degree of self-reactivity and the repertoire of antigens that can be recognized. for cd8 t cells, the relationship between tcr identity-hence reactivity to self-and effector function(s) remains to be fully understood and has rarely been explored outside of the h-2(b) haplotype. we measured the affinity of thre ...201627881740
psychiatric aspects of toxoplasmosis: an indian perspective.toxoplasma gondii is one of the well-studied parasites because of its medical and veterinary importance, and its suitability as a model for cell biology and molecular studies. latent toxoplasmosis in an immunocompetent host was considered benign until recently. the importance of this parasite has been steadily rising in the field of psychiatry and neurology as it has been implicated in numerous neuropsychiatric disorders. researchers in india have unfortunately restricted themselves to finding t ...201627877000
seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in diabetic pregnant women in southwestern of iran.to investigate anti-toxoplasma gondii igg and igm antibodies in diabetic pregnant women in ahvaz, southwest of iran this experiment was performed. in current study the sera of 110 diabetic pregnant women as well as 110 non diabetic pregnant women referred to the hospitals affiliated with the ahvaz jundishapur university of medical sciences were assessed for anti-t. gondii igg and igm antibodies by elisa and ifa methods. the elisa assessments showed that 47 (42.7 %) and 3 (2.7 %) of diabetic wome ...201627876989
seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii infection among childbearing age women in kerman city, southeastern iran.this cross-sectional study aims to determine the prevalence of igm and igg anti-t. gondii antibodies and the associated risk factors among childbearing age women referring to counseling centers before marriage in kerman city, southeast of iran. totally, 300 serum samples were collected from women referred to central laboratory for marriage consultation in kerman city were screened for igg and igm anti-t. gondii antibodies by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (elisa). out of the 300 serum samples ...201627876979
detection of toxoplasma gondii in small ruminants in chennai using pcr and modified direct agglutination test.a total of 193 sera samples, along with tissues (lung, heart, and brain) collected from 136 sheep and 57 goats from the corporation slaughter house, madras veterinary college teaching hospital, and private mutton shops from chennai were tested for toxoplasma gondii. all the sera samples were tested using modified direct agglutination test. of the 193 sera samples, 57 (29.5 %) had a minimum titre of 1:20, with 30.14 % (41/136) of sheep and 28.07 % (16/57) of goats being seropositive. tissue sampl ...201627876968
in vivo effect of anti-tnf agent (etanercept) in reactivation of latent toxoplasmosis.toxoplasma gondii (t. gondii), an intracellular parasite, establishes a chronic infection by forming cysts preferentially in the brain. tnf-α plays an important role in controlling the infection caused by this protozoan. thus, the blockade of tnf-α could cause reactivation of latent toxoplasmosis infection as well as increase the risk of acute toxoplasmosis. this study evaluated the effect of etanercept, a tnf-α antagonist in reactivation of latent toxoplasmosis compared to the therapeutic effec ...201627876967
molecular detection of toxoplasma gondii in house sparrow (passer domesticus) by lamp and pcr methods in tehran, iran.toxoplasma gondii is one of the most common zoonotic parasitic diseases in human and warm-blooded animals worldwide. birds are one of important intermediate hosts of t. gondii. the aim of this study is molecular detection of t. gondii in the house sparrow by lamp and pcr methods in tehran, iran. a total 200 sparrows were captured in different regions of tehran. dna was extracted from tissue samples of each sparrow. lamp and conventional pcr assays were carried out with a set of primers to detect ...201627876939
seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii infection in domestic dogs in an area from northwest of iran: a cross-sectional study using immunodominant surface antigen 1 (sag1).toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite that infects humans and animals. t. gondii surface antigen 1 (sag1) is an appropriate antigen with high specificity and sensitivity for the detection of t. gondii infection in humans and animal hosts. the aim of this study was to determine the seroprevalence of t. gondii infection using sag1 antigen (p30) in ownership dogs in meshkin-shahr district in the northwestern iran. the sera samples were collected from 171 domestic dogs an ...201627876930
use of chicken embryonated eggs for evaluating the virulence of toxoplasma gondii.the objective of the present study was to examine the virulence of toxoplasma gondii rh strain tachyzoites in embryonated eggs after continuous passage in vero cell line. the first t. gondii tachyzoites was considered low passage (no passage) and then passaged for 80 times on vero as high passage. groups of 9-day-old embryonated eggs with ten eggs in each group were inoculated with 10(2),10(3) and 10(4) of low or high-passage t. gondii tachyzoites, and any mortality was recorded. suitable sample ...201627876920
activity of fluorine-containing analogues of wc-9 and structurally related analogues against two intracellular parasites: trypanosoma cruzi and toxoplasma gondii.two obligate intracellular parasites, trypanosoma cruzi, the agent of chagas disease, and toxoplasma gondii, an agent of toxoplasmosis, upregulate the mevalonate pathway of their host cells upon infection, which suggests that this host pathway could be a potential drug target. in this work, a number of compounds structurally related to wc-9 (4-phenoxyphenoxyethyl thiocyanate), a known squalene synthase inhibitor, were designed, synthesized, and evaluated for their effect on t. cruzi and t. gondi ...201627886451
disseminated toxoplasmosis toxoplasma gondii in a wild florida manatee trichechus manatus latirostris and seroprevalence in two wild populations.marine mammals are important indicators for ecosystem health and serve as sentinel species for infectious agents including zoonoses. histological examination of tissues from a stranded florida manatee trichechus manatus latirostris revealed protozoal cysts in the cerebrum and intrahistiocytic tachyzoites in the liver and caudal mesenteric lymph node. disseminated toxoplasma gondii infection was confirmed by immunohistochemistry and sequencing of the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer ...201627901507
evaluation of anti-toxoplasma gondii antibodies in hemodialysis patients with chronic kidney disease in sari, iran.toxoplasma gondii has worldwide distribution and is one of the most prevalent infectious agents in humans.201627896240
activation of chronic toxoplasmosis by transportation stress in a mouse model.toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite infecting 25% of the world population and enormous number of animals. it can exist in two forms in intermediate hosts: the fast replicating tachyzoites responsible for acute infection and the slowly replicating bradyzoites responsible for life-long chronic infection. the interconversion between tachyzoites and bradyzoites plays critical roles in the transmission and pathogenesis of t. gondii. however, the molecular mechanisms that govern th ...201627895319
chicken line-dependent mortality after experimental infection with three type iixiii recombinant toxoplasma gondii clones.three genetically different clones of toxoplasma gondii, also different in mouse virulence, were studied by experimental infection in chickens. for the experiments, four chicken lines were used, which differed in phylogenetic origin and performance level: two white egg layer lines, one with high laying performance (wla), one with low (r11) and two brown layer lines, also displaying high (bla) and low (l68) egg number. chickens were intraperitoneally infected with three different t. gondii isolat ...201627913108
dna microarray detection of 18 important human blood protozoan species.accurate detection of blood protozoa from clinical samples is important for diagnosis, treatment and control of related diseases. in this preliminary study, a novel dna microarray system was assessed for the detection of plasmodium, leishmania, trypanosoma, toxoplasma gondii and babesia in humans, animals, and vectors, in comparison with microscopy and pcr data. developing a rapid, simple, and convenient detection method for protozoan detection is an urgent need.201627911895
negative serosurvey of toxoplasma gondii antibodies in golden-headed lion tamarin (leontopithecus chrysomelas) from niterói/rj, brazil.new world nonhuman primates are highly susceptible to clinical toxoplasmosis. serum samples from 126 recently captured leontopithecus chrysomelas, from an exotic and invasive population, were tested for toxoplasma gondii antibodies by the modified agglutination test (mat, cut-off 1:25); all were seronegative. the mat is highly specific and is not species-specific. this is the first report of t. gondii survey in this tamarin in the wild. this result is consistent with prior reports that showed th ...201627925063
seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii in dogs of riverside communities of mato grosso pantanal, brazil.toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular protozoan with worldwide distribution and dogs act as sentinels of human infection. this search aimed to determine the occurrence of antibodies against t. gondii in dogs of the communities on the cuiabá river, mato grosso and variables associated with infection. the dogs of the riverside communities in cuiabá river, which includes barranco alto, praia do poço, engenho velho, varginha, bom sucesso, passagem da conceição and são gonçalo beira rio, were evaluat ...201627925062
application of stereotactic biopsy for diagnosing intracranial lesions in patients with aids in china: report of 7 cases.the aim of the study was to evaluate stereotactic biopsy for diagnosing intracranial lesions in patients with aids.201627930545
seroepidemiology and associated risk factors of toxoplasma gondii in sheep and goats in southwestern ethiopia.t.gondii is a global zoonotic disease and is considered as the most neglected tropical disease in sub-saharan countries. the exact seroepidemiological distribution and risk factors for the infection of food animals and humans in ethiopia was less studied although, such studies are important. the objective of the current study was to determine the seroprevalence and potential risk factors of t. gondii infection in sheep and goats in southwestern ethiopia.201627938354
lectins from synadenium carinatum (scll) and artocarpus heterophyllus (artinm) are able to induce beneficial immunomodulatory effects in a murine model for treatment of toxoplasma gondii infection.infection by toxoplasma gondii affects around one-third of world population and the treatment for patients presenting toxoplasmosis clinically manifested disease is mainly based by a combination of sulfadiazine, pyrimethamine, and folinic acid. however, this therapeutic protocol is significantly toxic, causing relevant dose-related bone marrow damage. thus, it is necessary to improve new approaches to investigate the usefulness of more effective and non-toxic agents for treatment of patients wit ...201627933277
design of indigenous elisa using tachyzoites from the rh strain of toxoplasma gondii and comparison with commercial kits in ahvaz, southwest of iran, 2015.toxoplasma gondii is one of the most common causes of latent infections in humans worldwide. detecting anti-toxoplasma antibodies in serum using serological tests is a common method to diagnose toxoplasmosis.201627942363
infection with toxoplasma gondii in a red kangaroo (macropus rufus) and a patagonian mara (dolichotis patagonum) in captivity.toxoplasmosis is an infectious, zoonotic and parasitic disease, caused by toxoplasma gondii. in this manucript, two cases of infection with t. gondii in captive animals from a zoological park in the central region of chile are described. one case was a red kangaroo (macropus rufus), which is highly susceptible to the infection, and the other was a patagonian mara (dolichotis patagonum), a rodent in which there is no previous report of the infection. both animals had myocarditis, with the presenc ...201627982295
detection of natural toxoplasma gondii infection in chicken in thika region of kenya using nested polymerase chain reaction.the detection of toxoplasma gondii in free-range chickens is a good indicator of possible risk to human beings. the aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence of t. gondii in free-range chicken using polymerase chain reaction (pcr). brain samples from 105 free-range chickens from three administrative areas in thika region, kenya, were collected, dna-extracted, and analyzed using pcr to detect presence of t. gondii. the overall prevalence of t. gondii in all the three areas was 79.0% (95 ...201627981052
influence of toxoplasma gondii infection on symptoms and signs of premenstrual syndrome: a cross-sectional study.infection with toxoplasma gondii in brain may cause some symptoms that resemble those in women with premenstrual syndrome. to determine the association of t. gondii infection with symptoms and signs of premenstrual syndrome, we examined 489 women aged 30-40 years old. sera of participants were analyzed for the presence of anti-toxoplasma igg and igm antibodies using enzyme-linked immunoassays (eia) and t. gondii dna by polymerase chain reaction (pcr). anti-t. gondii igg antibodies were found in ...201627980858
a critical role for toxoplasma gondii vacuolar protein sorting vps9 in secretory organelle biogenesis and host infection.accurate sorting of proteins to the three types of parasite-specific secretory organelles namely rhoptry, microneme and dense granule in toxoplasma gondii is crucial for successful host cell invasion by this obligate intracellular parasite. despite its tiny body architecture and limited trafficking machinery, t. gondii relies heavily on transport of vesicles containing proteins, lipids and important virulence-like factors that are delivered to these secretory organelles. however, our understandi ...201627966671
identification of a tnf-α inducer mic3 originating from the microneme of non-cystogenic, virulent toxoplasma gondii.toxoplasma gondii is an opportunistic parasite with avirulent cystogenic and highly virulent non-cystogenic isolates. although non-cystogenic strains are considered the most virulent, there are also marked genetic and virulence differences among these strains. excretory-secretory antigens (esas) of t. gondii are critical for the invasion process and the immune response of the host. to better understand the differences in virulence between non-cystogenic t. gondii isolates, we studied esas of the ...201628000706
toxoplasmosis in iran: a guide for general physicians working in the iranian health network setting: a systematic review.human toxoplasmosis is an important zoonotic infection worldwide which is caused by the intracellular parasite toxoplasma gondii (t.gondii). the aim of this study was to review briefly the general aspects of toxoplasma infection in in iranian health system network.201627999640
discovery of potent and selective leads against toxoplasma gondii dihydrofolate reductase via structure-based design.current treatment of toxoplasmosis targets the parasite's folate metabolism through inhibition of dihydrofolate reductase (dhfr). the most widely used dhfr antagonist, pyrimethamine, was introduced over 60 years ago and is associated with toxicity that can be largely attributed to a similar affinity for parasite and human dhfr. computational analysis of biochemical differences between toxoplasma gondii and human dhfr enabled the design of inhibitors with both improved potency and selectivity. th ...201627994750
toxoplasma gondii autophagy-related protein atg9 is crucial for the survival of parasites in their host.autophagy is a conserved, life-promoting, catabolic process involved in the recycling of nonessential cellular components in response to stress. the parasite toxoplasma gondii is an early-diverging eukaryote in which part of the autophagy machinery is not exclusively involved in a catabolic process but instead has been repurposed for an original function in organelle inheritance during cell division. this function, depending essentially on protein tgatg8 and its membrane conjugation system, is c ...201627992947
comparison of the efficiency of two commercial kits - elfa and western blot in estimating the phase of toxoplasma gondii infection in pregnant women.sera of 89 pregnant women were selected according to the results of elfa igm, igg and avidity igg, and tested with commercial tests igm, igg and avidity igg western blot (wb) to compare the efficacy of both techniques in determining the phase of t. gondii infection. in total, 81 of 89 tested sera (91.0%) were classified as positive, both in the elfa and wb tests for the presence of anti-toxoplasma antibodies of class igg, indicating a past infection, while the prevalence of anti-toxoplasma posit ...201628030925
strength and aerobic physical exercises are able to increase survival of toxoplasma gondii-infected c57bl/6 mice by interfering in the ifn-γ expression.physical exercise has been implicated in several immunophysiological improvements, particularly during the aging process, when an immunocompromised status could be established. toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite that causes a widespread opportunistic infection, which may present severe consequences, mainly to the fetus and immunocompromised patients. it is estimated that one-third of the human population worldwide has been infected by this parasite, being the reactivation during immunesen ...201628066269
optogenetic monitoring identifies phosphatidylthreonine-regulated calcium homeostasis in toxoplasma gondii.toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite, which inflicts acute as well as chronic infections in a wide range of warm-blooded vertebrates. our recent work has demonstrated the natural occurrence and autonomous synthesis of an exclusive lipid phosphatidylthreonine in t. gondii. targeted gene disruption of phosphatidylthreonine synthase impairs the parasite virulence due to unforeseen attenuation of the consecutive events of motility, egress and invasion. however, the underlying basi ...201628357357
phosphatidylthreonine: an exclusive phospholipid regulating calcium homeostasis and virulence in a parasitic protest. 201628357353
production of il-1β and inflammasome with up-regulated expressions of nod-like receptor related genes in toxoplasma gondii-infected thp-1 macrophages.toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite that stimulates production of high levels of proinflammatory cytokines, which are important for innate immunity. nlrs, i.e., nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (nod)-like receptors, play a crucial role as innate immune sensors and form multiprotein complexes called inflammasomes, which mediate caspase-1-dependent processing of pro-il-1β. to elucidate the role of inflammasome components in t. gondii-infected thp-1 macrophages, we exam ...201628095655
mental health disorders associated with foodborne pathogens.human infections with foodborne pathogenic organisms are relatively well described in terms of their overt physical symptoms, such as diarrhea, abdominal cramps, vomiting, fever, and associated sequelae. indeed, some of these are key for diagnosis and treatment, although it should be noted that, for some foodborne pathogens, the physical symptoms might be more diffuse, particularly those associated with some of the foodborne parasites. in contrast, the impact of these pathogens on mental health ...201628221900
toxoplasma gondii gra15ii effector-induced m1 cells ameliorate liver fibrosis in mice infected with schistosomiasis japonica.recent studies indicated that type ii toxoplasma gondii (tg) gra15ii favored the generation of classically activated macrophages (m1), whereas type i/iii tgrop16i/iii promoted the polarization of alternatively activated macrophages (m2). a number of studies have demonstrated that m2 cells are involved in the pathogenesis of the liver fibrogenesis caused by schistosoma japonicum. the purpose of the present study was to explore the inhibitory effect of toxoplasma-derived tggra15ii on mouse hepatic ...201627157496
a prevalence study of salmonella spp., yersinia spp., toxoplasma gondii and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus in uk pigs at slaughter.an abattoir-based study was undertaken between january and may 2013 to estimate the prevalence of salmonella spp. and yersinia spp. carriage and seroprevalence of antibodies to toxoplasma gondii and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (prrsv) in uk pigs at slaughter. in total, 626 pigs were sampled at 14 abattoirs that together process 80% of the annual uk pig slaughter throughput. sampling was weighted by abattoir throughput and sampling dates and pig carcasses were randomly sel ...201626586451
epithelial sel1l is required for the maintenance of intestinal homeostasis.inflammatory bowel disease (ibd) is an incurable chronic idiopathic disease that drastically decreases quality of life. endoplasmic reticulum (er)-associated degradation (erad) is responsible for the clearance of misfolded proteins; however, its role in disease pathogenesis remains largely unexplored. here we show that the expression of sel1l and hrd1, the most conserved branch of mammalian erad, is significantly reduced in ileal crohn's disease (cd). consistent with this observation, laboratory ...201626631554
detection of zoonotic protozoa toxoplasma gondii and sarcocystis suihominis in wild boars from spain.food safety regulations require the control of the presence of protozoa in meats destined for human consumption. wild boar (sus scrofa) meat may constitute a source of zoonoses. a 23.8% (688/2881) seroprevalence of anti-toxoplasma gondii antibodies and 72.2% (662/910) sarcocystis sarcocysts prevalence were detected among wild boars hunted in southwestern areas of spain. identity of sarcocystis spp. was performed by rflp-pcr and sequencing, detecting s. miescheriana (7/8) and the zoonotic s. suih ...201626604045
selective inhibition of sarcocystis neurona calcium-dependent protein kinase 1 for equine protozoal myeloencephalitis therapy.sarcocystis neurona is the most frequent cause of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis, a debilitating neurological disease of horses that can be difficult to treat. we identified sncdpk1, the s. neurona homologue of calcium-dependent protein kinase 1 (cdpk1), a validated drug target in toxoplasma gondii. sncdpk1 shares the glycine "gatekeeper" residue of the well-characterized t. gondii enzyme, which allows the latter to be targeted by bumped kinase inhibitors. this study presents detailed molecu ...201627729271
seroepidemiology of sarcocystis neurona, toxoplasma gondii and neospora spp. among horses in the south of the state of minas gerais, brazil.the present study used the indirect fluorescent antibody test (ifat) to determine the seroprevalence of sarcocystis neurona, toxoplasma gondii and neospora spp., and evaluated the variables associated with these infections among 506 apparently healthy horses, reared in the south of the state of minas gerais, brazil. this study was conducted between april 2012 and october 2013. among the horses, the true prevalence of s. neurona was 26% (95% ci: 22.0-30.4%), t. gondii 19.9% (95% ci: 15.5-24.8%) a ...201627334814
seroepidemiology of sarcocystis neurona, toxoplasma gondii and neospora spp. among horses in the south of the state of minas gerais, brazil.the present study used the indirect fluorescent antibody test (ifat) to determine the seroprevalence of sarcocystis neurona, toxoplasma gondii and neospora spp., and evaluated the variables associated with these infections among 506 apparently healthy horses, reared in the south of the state of minas gerais, brazil. this study was conducted between april 2012 and october 2013. among the horses, the true prevalence of s. neurona was 26% (95% ci: 22.0-30.4%), t. gondii 19.9% (95% ci: 15.5-24.8%) a ...201627276662
chagas disease in a texan horse with neurologic deficits.a 10-year-old quarter horse gelding presented to the texas a&m university veterinary teaching hospital with a six month-history of ataxia and lameness in the hind limbs. the horse was treated presumptively for equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (epm) based on clinical signs but was ultimately euthanized after its condition worsened. gross lesions were limited to a small area of reddening in the gray matter of the thoracic spinal cord. histologically, trypanosome amastigotes morphologically simil ...201626801589
dual congenital transmission of toxoplasma gondii and sarcocystis neurona in a late-term aborted pup from a chronically infected southern sea otter (enhydra lutris nereis).toxoplasma gondii and sarcocystis neurona are protozoan parasites with terrestrial definitive hosts, and both pathogens can cause fatal disease in a wide range of marine animals. close monitoring of threatened southern sea otters (enhydra lutris nereis) in california allowed for the diagnosis of dual transplacental transmission of t. gondii and s. neurona in a wild female otter that was chronically infected with both parasites. congenital infection resulted in late-term abortion due to dissemina ...201626494610
reexamining chronic toxoplasma gondii infection: surprising activity for a "dormant" parasite.despite over a third of the world's population being chronically infected with toxoplasma gondii, little is known about this largely asymptomatic phase of infection. this stage is mediated in vivo by bradyzoites within tissue cysts. the absence of overt symptoms has been attributed to the dormancy of bradyzoites. in this review, we reexamine the conventional view of chronic toxoplasmosis in light of emerging evidence challenging both the nature of dormancy and the consequences of infection in th ...201628191447
the import of proteins into the mitochondrion of toxoplasma gondii.outside of well characterized model eukaryotes, relatively little is known about the translocons that transport proteins across the two membranes that surround the mitochondrion. apicomplexans are a phylum of intracellular parasites that cause major diseases in humans and animals and are evolutionarily distant from model eukaryotes such as yeast. apicomplexans harbor a mitochondrion that is essential for parasite survival and is a validated drug target. here, we demonstrate that the apicomplexan ...201627458014
the knowns unknowns: exploring the homologous recombination repair pathway in toxoplasma gondii.toxoplasma gondii is an apicomplexan parasite of medical and veterinary importance which causes toxoplasmosis in humans. great effort is currently being devoted toward the identification of novel drugs capable of targeting such illness. in this context, we believe that the thorough understanding of the life cycle of this model parasite will facilitate the identification of new druggable targets in t. gondii. it is important to exploit the available knowledge of pathways which could modulate the ...201627199954
identification of host proteins, spata3 and dkk2, interacting with toxoplasma gondii micronemal protein mic3.as an obligate intracellular protozoan, toxoplasma gondii is a successful pathogen infecting a variety of animals, including humans. as an adhesin involving in host invasion, the micronemal protein mic3 plays important roles in host cell attachment, as well as modulation of host egfr signaling cascade. however, the specific host proteins that interact with mic3 are unknown and the identification of such proteins will increase our understanding of how mic3 exerts its functions. this study was des ...201627053129
a morn1-associated had phosphatase in the basal complex is essential for toxoplasma gondii daughter budding.apicomplexan parasites replicate by several budding mechanisms with two well-characterized examples being toxoplasma endodyogeny and plasmodium schizogony. completion of budding requires the tapering of the nascent daughter buds toward the basal end, driven by contraction of the basal complex. this contraction is not executed by any of the known cell division associated contractile mechanisms and in order to reveal new components of the unusual basal complex we performed a yeast two-hybrid scree ...201626840427
toxoplasmosis may lead to road kills of persian leopards ( panthera pardus saxicolor) in golestan national park, iran.three persian leopards ( panthera pardus saxicolor) that died from car accidents in golestan national park, iran, were tested for toxoplasma gondii and rabies virus infection. acute t. gondii infection was diagnosed in two persian leopards; no rabies virus was detected. acute toxoplasmosis may be a factor in persian leopard road kills.201626981691
zika virus - reigniting the torch.the recent association between zika virus (zikv) infection during pregnancy and fetal microcephaly has led to a renewed interest in the mechanisms by which vertically transmitted microorganisms reach the fetus and cause congenital disease. in this opinion article, we provide an overview of the structure and cellular composition of the human placenta and of the mechanisms by which traditional 'torch' pathogens (toxoplasma gondii, other, rubella virus, cytomegalovirus and herpes simplex virus) acc ...201627573577
infectious agents in congenital cataract in a tertiary care referral center in north india.congenital cataract has the potential for inhibiting early visual development. intrauterine infections with rubella virus, herpes simplex virus (hsv) and toxoplasma gondii plays an important role in the development of congenital cataract. the study included 120 children under the age of 6 years presenting with congenital cataract and diagnosed using serology and polymerase chain reaction (pcr). the igm positivity for rubella, hsv, t. gondii was found to be 5.8%, 1.6% and 8.3% respectively. the o ...201627236713
innovative molecular diagnosis of trichinella species based on β-carbonic anhydrase genomic sequence.trichinellosis is a helminthic infection where different species of trichinella nematodes are the causative agents. several molecular assays have been designed to aid diagnostics of trichinellosis. these assays are mostly complex and expensive. the genomes of trichinella species contain certain parasite-specific genes, which can be detected by polymerase chain reaction (pcr) methods. we selected β-carbonic anhydrase (β-ca) gene as a target, because it is present in many parasites genomes but abs ...201626639312
alternative splicing mechanisms orchestrating post-transcriptional gene expression: intron retention and the intron-rich genome of apicomplexan parasites.apicomplexan parasites including toxoplasma gondii and plasmodium species have complex life cycles that include multiple hosts and differentiation through several morphologically distinct stages requiring marked changes in gene expression. this review highlights emerging evidence implicating regulation of mrna splicing as a mechanism to prime these parasites for rapid gene expression upon differentiation. we summarize the most important insights in alternative splicing including its role in regu ...201626194054
recent advances in understanding apicomplexan parasites.intracellular single-celled parasites belonging to the large phylum apicomplexa are amongst the most prevalent and morbidity-causing pathogens worldwide. in this review, we highlight a few of the many recent advances in the field that helped to clarify some important aspects of their fascinating biology and interaction with their hosts. plasmodium falciparum causes malaria, and thus the recent emergence of resistance against the currently used drug combinations based on artemisinin has been of m ...201627347391
integration of multiplex bead assays for parasitic diseases into a national, population-based serosurvey of women 15-39 years of age in cambodia.collection of surveillance data is essential for monitoring and evaluation of public health programs. integrated collection of household-based health data, now routinely carried out in many countries through demographic health surveys and multiple indicator surveys, provides critical measures of progress in health delivery. in contrast, biomarker surveys typically focus on single or related measures of malaria infection, hiv status, vaccination coverage, or immunity status for vaccine-preventabl ...201627136913
role of the er and golgi in protein export by apicomplexa.apicomplexan parasites cause diseases of medical and agricultural importance linked to dramatic changes they impart upon infected host cells. following invasion, the malaria parasite plasmodium falciparum renovates the host erythrocyte using mechanisms previously believed to be malaria-specific. this involves proteolytic cleavage of effectors in the endoplasmic reticulum that licences proteins for translocation into the host cell. recently, it was demonstrated that the related parasite toxoplasm ...201627019341
using a genetically encoded sensor to identify inhibitors of toxoplasma gondii ca2+ signaling.the life cycles of apicomplexan parasites progress in accordance with fluxes in cytosolic ca(2+) such fluxes are necessary for events like motility and egress from host cells. we used genetically encoded ca(2+) indicators (gcamps) to develop a cell-based phenotypic screen for compounds that modulate ca(2+) signaling in the model apicomplexan toxoplasma gondii in doing so, we took advantage of the phosphodiesterase inhibitor zaprinast, which we show acts in part through cgmp-dependent protein kin ...201626933036
the conserved apicomplexan aurora kinase tgark3 is involved in endodyogeny, duplication rate and parasite virulence.aurora kinases are eukaryotic serine/threonine protein kinases that regulate key events associated with chromatin condensation, centrosome and spindle function and cytokinesis. elucidating the roles of aurora kinases in apicomplexan parasites is crucial to understand the cell cycle control during plasmodium schizogony or toxoplasma endodyogeny. here, we report on the localization of two previously uncharacterized toxoplasma aurora-related kinases (ark2 and ark3) in tachyzoites and of the unchara ...201626833682
structural and functional dissection of toxoplasma gondii armadillo repeats only protein.rhoptries are club-shaped, regulated secretory organelles that cluster at the apical pole of apicomplexan parasites. their discharge is essential for invasion and the establishment of an intracellular lifestyle. little is known about rhoptry biogenesis and recycling during parasite division. in toxoplasma gondii, positioning of rhoptries involves the armadillo repeats only protein (aro) and myosin f (myof). here, we show that two aro partners, aro-interacting protein (aip) and adenylate cyclase ...201626769898
dissecting the interface between apicomplexan parasite and host cell: insights from a divergent ama-ron2 pair.plasmodium falciparum and toxoplasma gondii are widely studied parasites in phylum apicomplexa and the etiological agents of severe human malaria and toxoplasmosis, respectively. these intracellular pathogens have evolved a sophisticated invasion strategy that relies on delivery of proteins into the host cell, where parasite-derived rhoptry neck protein 2 (ron2) family members localize to the host outer membrane and serve as ligands for apical membrane antigen (ama) family surface proteins displ ...201626712012
a genome-wide crispr screen in toxoplasma identifies essential apicomplexan genes.apicomplexan parasites are leading causes of human and livestock diseases such as malaria and toxoplasmosis, yet most of their genes remain uncharacterized. here, we present the first genome-wide genetic screen of an apicomplexan. we adapted crispr/cas9 to assess the contribution of each gene from the parasite toxoplasma gondii during infection of human fibroblasts. our analysis defines ∼200 previously uncharacterized, fitness-conferring genes unique to the phylum, from which 16 were investigate ...201627594426
translation in organelles of apicomplexan parasites.the protein translation machineries of the apicoplast and mitochondrion-the two actively translating organelles of apicomplexan parasites-have potential sites for drug intervention against diseases caused by these organisms. work in the past few years, particularly on plasmodium falciparum and toxoplasma gondii, has shown that a reduced machinery of enzymes and factors is sufficient for organellar translation, which is also supported by components shared with the cytosolic translation system. th ...201627527393
characterization of a toxoplasma gondii calcium calmodulin-dependent protein kinase homolog.toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite of the phylum apicomplexa and a major pathogen of animals and immunocompromised humans, in whom it causes encephalitis. understanding the mechanism of tachyzoite invasion is important for the discovery of new drug targets and may serve as a model for the study of other apicomplexan parasites. we previously showed that plasmodium falciparum expresses a homolog of human calcium calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (camk) that is important for ...201627444499
new paradigms for understanding and step changes in treating active and chronic, persistent apicomplexan infections.toxoplasma gondii, the most common parasitic infection of human brain and eye, persists across lifetimes, can progressively damage sight, and is currently incurable. new, curative medicines are needed urgently. herein, we develop novel models to facilitate drug development: egs strain t. gondii forms cysts in vitro that induce oocysts in cats, the gold standard criterion for cysts. these cysts highly express cytochrome b. using these models, we envisioned, and then created, novel 4-(1h)-quinolon ...201627412848
an apicomplexan actin-binding protein serves as a connector and lipid sensor to coordinate motility and invasion.apicomplexa exhibit a unique form of substrate-dependent gliding motility central for host cell invasion and parasite dissemination. gliding is powered by rearward translocation of apically secreted transmembrane adhesins via their interaction with the parasite actomyosin system. we report a conserved armadillo and pleckstrin homology (ph) domain-containing protein, termed glideosome-associated connector (gac), that mediates apicomplexan gliding motility, invasion, and egress by connecting the m ...201627978434
identifying antimalarial compounds targeting dihydrofolate reductase-thymidylate synthase (dhfr-ts) by chemogenomic profiling.the mode of action of many antimalarial drugs is unknown. chemogenomic profiling is a powerful method to address this issue. this experimental approach entails disruption of gene function and phenotypic screening for changes in sensitivity to bioactive compounds. here, we describe the application of reverse genetics for chemogenomic profiling in plasmodium. plasmodium falciparum parasites harbouring a transgenic insertion of the glms ribozyme downstream of the dihydrofolate reductase-thymidylate ...201627150044
the fikk kinase of toxoplasma gondii is not essential for the parasite's lytic cycle.fikk kinases are a novel family of kinases unique to the apicomplexa. while most apicomplexans encode a single fikk kinase, plasmodium falciparum expresses 21 and piroplasms do not encode a fikk kinase. fikk kinases share a conserved c-terminal catalytic domain, but the n-terminal region is highly variable and contains no known functional domains. to date, fikk kinases have been primarily studied in p. falciparum and plasmodium berghei. those that have been studied are exported from the parasite ...201626859096
seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii and neospora caninum in red deer from central italy.neospora caninum and toxoplasma gondii are cosmopolite protozoan parasites impacting on human and animal health. in particular, t. gondii commonly infects human beings and all warm-blooded animals, while n. caninum is responsible for bovine abortion and neuromuscular disease in dogs. the aim of the presented survey was to evaluate the occurrence and prevalence of these parasites in the most numerous italian red deer population. the sera of 60 red deer (cervus elaphus) inhabiting central italy (4 ...201628030947
seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii and neospora caninum in goats from north-western spain.toxoplasma gondii and neospora caninum are protozoans involved in reproductive failure especially in ruminant livestock. the objective was to estimate the seroprevalence of both parasites in goats from north-western spain and to study the influence of some factors on seropositivity.201628030928
occurrence of neospora caninum and toxoplasma gondii antibodies in dogs from rural properties surrounding a biological reserve, espirito santo, brasil.the aim of this study was to determine the presence of antibodies to neospora caninum and toxoplasma gondii in serum samples of 187 dogs from 30 rural properties surrounding córrego do veado biological reserve, espírito santo state, brazil. the reserve is one of the last lowland atlantic forest remnants of the region, surrounded by agriculture farms and cattle pastures. the presence of igg antibodies was determined by the indirect fluorescent antibody test for t. gondii (cut-off 1:16) and n. can ...201627925068
serosurvey for leishmania spp., toxoplasma gondii, trypanosoma cruzi and neospora caninum in neighborhood dogs in curitiba-paraná, brazil.neighborhood dogs may act as reservoirs for several zoonotic protozoan infections, particularly in urban areas, thus constituting a potential public health threat. accordingly, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the exposure of neighborhood dogs to four protozoan pathogens in public areas with high levels of human movement in curitiba, southern brazil. blood samples from 26 neighborhood dogs were screened by means of the indirect immunofluorescent antibody test (ifat) for leishmania sp ...201627925057
the common zoonotic protozoal diseases causing abortion.toxoplasmosis, neosporosis, sarcosporidiosis (sarcocystosis) and trypanosomiasis are the common zoonotic protozoal diseases causing abortion which caused by single-celled protozoan parasites; toxoplasma gondii, neospora caninum, sarcocystis spp and trypanosoma evansi, respectively. toxoplasmosis is generally considered the most important disease that causing abortion of both pregnant women and different female animals throughout the world, about third of human being population had antibodies aga ...201627876900
prevalence of toxoplasma gondii and neospora caninum in red foxes in slovakia.sera or meat juices of 177 red foxes (vulpes vulpes) originated from the localities of a human-influenced landscape (group 1) and 126 foxes from the protected mountain region (group 2) of slovakia, collected during 2010-2014 were tested for the presence of antibodies against toxoplasma gondii using indirect elisa and neospora caninum by competitive elisa. the tissue and uncoagulated blood samples were examined for the presence of the parasite's dna. the total seropositivity to t. gondii was 62.7 ...201627787208
the tandemly repeated ntpase (ntpdase) from neospora caninum is a canonical dense granule protein whose rna expression, protein secretion and phosphorylation coincides with the tachyzoite egress.ntpases (also ntpdases) are enzymes with apyrase activity. they are widely distributed among eukaryotes, and also among members of the family sarcocystidae. in toxoplasma gondii, the tgntpase accumulates in the dense granules, and has been commonly associated with the strain virulence. in the closely related neospora caninum, the ncntpase lacks nucleoside diphosphate hydrolase activity and appears to be more abundant in virulent isolates, indicating that it may contribute to the pathogenicity of ...201627329357
toxoplasma gondii and neospora caninum in free-range chickens in henan province of china.background. chickens serve as an intermediate host for toxoplasma gondii and neospora caninum; infection of free-range (fr) chickens with these organisms is a useful indicator of soil and environmental contamination with oocysts. a total of 700 fr chicken serum samples and 300 heart samples were collected from henan province from march to july 2015. antibodies to t. gondii were found in 18.86% (132/700) of the chickens by modified agglutination test (cut-off 1 : 25), while 23.14% (162/700) were ...201627274992
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