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reptilian heart development and the molecular basis of cardiac chamber evolution.the emergence of terrestrial life witnessed the need for more sophisticated circulatory systems. this has evolved in birds, mammals and crocodilians into complete septation of the heart into left and right sides, allowing separate pulmonary and systemic circulatory systems, a key requirement for the evolution of endothermy. however, the evolution of the amniote heart is poorly understood. reptilian hearts have been the subject of debate in the context of the evolution of cardiac septation: do th ...200919727199
a comparison of reptilian and avian olfactory receptor gene repertoires: species-specific expansion of group gamma genes in birds.the detection of odorants is mediated by olfactory receptors (ors). ors are g-protein coupled receptors that form a remarkably large protein superfamily in vertebrate genomes. we used data that became available through recent sequencing efforts of reptilian and avian genomes to identify the complete or gene repertoires in a lizard, the green anole (anolis carolinensis), and in two birds, the chicken (gallus gallus) and the zebra finch (taeniopygia guttata).200919772566
comparison of arginine vasotocin immunoreactivity differences in dominant and subordinate green anole lizards.the neuropeptide arginine vasotocin (avt) and its mammalian homologue arginine vasopressin (avp) are believed to be involved in many social behaviors including territorial aggression. testosterone (t) is also important for controlling territorial aggression, and it is believed to be involved in modulating avt/avp levels in the brain. in this study, male anolis carolinensis were paired (n=11 pairs) in a neutral cage and were allowed to establish a dominant-subordinate relationship for 10 days (ex ...200918835286
the influence of metabolic heat production on body temperature of a small lizard, anolis carolinensis.little is known about the impact of increased metabolism on body temperatures of small ectotherms. we found that postprandial metabolic rates of 5 g anolis carolinensis lizards were elevated by factorial increases of 2.3+/-1.0 (mean+/-s.e.) at 26 degrees c and 3.8+/-2.1 at 30 degrees c over their fasting rates. cloacal body temperatures exceeded environmental temperatures by a small amount in fasted individuals (26 degrees c: 0.3+/-0.02 degrees c, 30 degrees c: 0.3+/-0.02 degrees c), and by a si ...200919535028
the evolutionary dynamics of autonomous non-ltr retrotransposons in the lizard anolis carolinensis shows more similarity to fish than mammals.the genome of the lizard anolis carolinensis (the green anole) is the first nonavian reptilian genome sequenced. it offers a unique opportunity to comparatively examine the evolution of amniote genomes. we analyzed the abundance and diversity of non-ltr (long terminal repeat) retrotransposons in the anole using the genome parsing suite. we found that the anole genome contains an extraordinary diversity of elements. we identified 46 families of elements representing five clades (l1, l2, cr1, rte, ...200919420048
effects of estradiol, sex, and season on estrogen receptor alpha mrna expression and forebrain morphology in adult green anole lizards.steroid hormones, especially estradiol, facilitate reproductive behaviors in male and female rodents and birds. in green anole lizards estradiol facilitates receptivity in females but, unlike in some other species, is not the activating hormone for courtship and copulatory behavior in males. instead, testicular androgens directly facilitate male courtship and copulation. yet, activity of the estradiol synthesizing enzyme aromatase is higher in the brain of male than female green anoles, and it i ...200919272420
locomotor-feeding coupling during prey capture in a lizard (gerrhosaurus major): effects of prehension mode.in tetrapods, feeding behaviour in general, and prey capture in particular, involves two anatomical systems: the feeding system and the locomotor system. although the kinematics associated with the movements of each system have been investigated in detail independently, the actual integration between the two systems has received less attention. recently, the independence of the movements of the jaw and locomotor systems was reported during tongue-based prey capture in an iguanian lizard (anolis ...200919251991
atypical relaxation of structural constraints in hox gene clusters of the green anole lizard.hox genes control many aspects of embryonic development in metazoans. previous analyses of this gene family revealed a surprising diversity in terms of gene number and organization between various animal species. in vertebrates, hox genes are grouped into tightly organized clusters, claimed to be devoid of repetitive sequences. here, we report the genomic organization of the four hox loci present in the green anole lizard and show that they have massively accumulated retrotransposons, leading to ...200919228589
losing stability: tail loss and jumping in the arboreal lizard anolis carolinensis.voluntary loss of an appendage, or autotomy, is a remarkable behavior that is widespread among many arthropods and lower vertebrates. its immediate benefit, generally escape from a predator, is balanced by various costs, including impaired locomotor performance, reproductive success and long-term survival. among vertebrates, autotomy is most widespread in lizards, in which tail loss has been documented in close to 100 species. despite numerous studies of the potential costs of tail autotomy in l ...200919218510
the evolution of two partner line/sine families and a full-length chromodomain-containing ty3/gypsy ltr element in the first reptilian genome of anolis carolinensis.transposable elements have been characterized in a number of vertebrates, including whole genomes of mammals, birds, and fishes. the anolis carolinensis draft assembly provides the first opportunity to study retroposons in a reptilian genome. here, we identified and reconstructed a number of retroposons based on database searches: five sauria short interspersed element (sine) subfamilies, 5s-sauria sine chimeras, anolis bov-b long interspersed element (line), anolis sine 2, anolis line 2, anolis ...200919118606
social status differentiates rapid neuroendocrine responses to restraint stress.male anolis carolinensis that win aggressive interactions mobilize neuroendocrine responses to social stress more rapidly than defeated lizards. we initially examined temporal patterns of neuroendocrine response to restraint stress in lizards of unknown status, and then investigated whether winning males respond more rapidly to this non-social stressor. size-matched male pairs interacted to establish social status, and then were returned to individual home cages for 3 days. plasma and brains wer ...200918957299
cell biology of adhesive setae in gecko lizards.adhesive devices of digital pads of gecko lizards are formed by microscopic hair-like structures termed setae that derive from the interaction between the oberhautchen and the clear layer of the epidermis. the two layers form the shedding complex and permit skin shedding in lizards. setae consist of a resistant but flexible corneous material largely made of keratin-associated beta-proteins (ka beta ps, formerly called beta-keratins) of 8-22 kda and of alpha-keratins of 45-60 kda. in gekko gecko, ...200919782546
identification and comparative analysis of the protocadherin cluster in a reptile, the green anole lizard.the vertebrate protocadherins are a subfamily of cell adhesion molecules that are predominantly expressed in the nervous system and are believed to play an important role in establishing the complex neural network during animal development. genes encoding these molecules are organized into a cluster in the genome. comparative analysis of the protocadherin subcluster organization and gene arrangements in different vertebrates has provided interesting insights into the history of vertebrate genome ...200919898614
the auditory brainstem response in two lizard species.although lizards have highly sensitive ears, it is difficult to condition them to sound, making standard psychophysical assays of hearing sensitivity impractical. this paper describes non-invasive measurements of the auditory brainstem response (abr) in both tokay geckos (gekko gecko; nocturnal animals, known for their loud vocalizations) and the green anole (anolis carolinensis, diurnal, non-vocal animals). hearing sensitivity was measured in 5 geckos and 7 anoles. the lizards were sedated with ...201020707448
independent and parallel lateral transfer of dna transposons in tetrapod genomes.in animals, the mode of transmission of transposable elements is generally vertical. however, recent studies have suggested that lateral transfer has occurred repeatedly in several distantly related tetrapod lineages, including mammals. using transposons extracted from the genome of the lizard anolis carolinensis as probes, we identified four novel families of hat transposons that share extremely high similarity with elements in other genomes including several mammalian lineages (primates, chiro ...201019747963
distribution of two isozymes of 5α-reductase in the brains of adult male and female green anole lizards.the 5α-reductase (5αr) enzyme converts testosterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone. this local metabolism within the brain is important for the full expression of male sexual behavior in many species, including green anole lizards. two isozymes of 5αr exist and little is known about their specific distributions. we conducted in situ hybridization for both isozymes in intact male and female green anole brains during the breeding (bs) and non-breeding (nbs) seasons. 5αr1 mrna was only detected in the b ...201021116109
temperature-induced plasticity at cellular and organismal levels in the lizard anolis carolinensis.among ectotherms, individuals raised in cooler temperatures often have larger body size and/or larger cell size. the current study tested whether geographic variation in cell size and plasticity for cell size exist in a terrestrial, ectothermic vertebrate, anolis carolinensis voigt, 1832. we demonstrated temperature-induced plasticity in erythrocytes and epithelial cells of hatchlings lizards derived from the eggs of females sampled from four populations and incubated at multiple temperatures. l ...201021392339
newly deposited maternal hormones can be detected in the yolks of oviductal eggs in the green anole lizard.studies often examine egg yolks after oviposition with the goal of drawing conclusions about maternal allocation of gonadal steroid hormones and how it may affect offspring development. however, these hormones might originate from a few sources, including the ovary, blood plasma, or the embryo itself. the goal of this study was to investigate whether maternal steroids can enter oviductal eggs. in experiment 1, gravid female green anole lizards were injected with 1 microci 3h-t. plasma, ovarian f ...201020336789
opponent recognition and social status differentiate rapid neuroendocrine responses to social challenge.individual social status discriminates rapid neuroendocrine responses to non-social stress in male anolis carolinensis, but whether such status-influenced reactions are retained in response to subsequent social stress is unknown. dominant and subordinate males modify their behavioral responses to social challenge according to familiarity of the opponent, suggesting that accompanying neuroendocrine responses may differ according to opponent recognition despite social rank. we examined endocrine a ...201020138068
social influences on female choice in green anole lizards (anolis carolinensis).we conducted an experiment on female anolis carolinensis lizards to investigate whether social factors influenced their selection of an end-chamber in a test arena. we tested (1) whether characteristics of males previously seen in the end-chambers would influence female choice and (2) whether the presence of other females simultaneously choosing would influence choice. in experiment one, females observed a large and a small male in the end-chambers prior to choosing. females were tested individu ...201020083170
phylogeny, genomic organization and expression of lambda and kappa immunoglobulin light chain genes in a reptile, anolis carolinensis.the reptiles are the last major taxon of jawed vertebrates in which immunoglobulin light chain isotypes have not been well characterized. using the recently released genome sequencing data, we show in this study that the reptile anolis carolinensis expresses both lambda and kappa light chain genes. the genomic organization of both gene loci is structurally similar to their respective counterparts in mammals. the identified lambda locus contains three constant region genes each preceded by a join ...201020056120
testosterone selectively affects aromatase and 5alpha-reductase activities in the green anole lizard brain.testosterone (t) and its metabolites are important in the regulation of reproductive behavior in males of a variety of vertebrate species. aromatase converts t to estradiol and 5alpha-reductase converts t to 5alpha-dihydrotestosterone (dht). male green anole reproduction depends on androgens, yet 5alpha-reductase in the brain is not sexually dimorphic and does not vary with season. in contrast, aromatase activity in the male brain is increased during the breeding compared to non-breeding season, ...201019917285
estradiol facilitates mounting behavior in male green anole lizards.steroid hormones activate sexual behaviors across vertebrate species. in green anole lizards, testosterone is particularly important for the display of courtship and copulation by adult males. however, unlike a variety of other species, the role of its metabolite, estradiol, has been unclear. to evaluate its function and potential interaction with testosterone in the facilitation of reproductive behaviors, adult males were gonadectomized and given two treatments. the first consisted of either es ...201019879887
forty keratin-associated beta-proteins (beta-keratins) form the hard layers of scales, claws, and adhesive pads in the green anole lizard, anolis carolinensis.using bioinformatic methods we have detected the genes of 40 keratin-associated beta-proteins (kabetaps) (beta-keratins) from the first available draft genome sequence of a reptile, the lizard anolis carolinensis (broad institute, boston). all genes are clustered in a single but not yet identified chromosomal locus, and contain a single intron of variable length. 5'-race and rt-pcr analyses using rna from different epidermal regions show tissue-specific expression of different transcripts. these ...201019593748
lineage-specific patterns of functional diversification in the alpha- and beta-globin gene families of tetrapod vertebrates.the alpha- and beta-globin gene families of jawed vertebrates have diversified with respect to both gene function and the developmental timing of gene expression. phylogenetic reconstructions of globin gene family evolution have provided suggestive evidence that the developmental regulation of hemoglobin synthesis has evolved independently in multiple vertebrate lineages. for example, the embryonic beta-like globin genes of birds and placental mammals are not 1:1 orthologs. despite the similarit ...201020047955
secretion by the nasal salt glands of two insectivorous lizard species is initiated by an ecologically relevant dietary ion, chloride.salt glands are used by some vertebrates to excrete hyperosmotic nacl or kcl solutions in response to dietary salt loads. control of secretion varies across taxa; some secrete in response to osmotic challenges while others secrete in response to specific dietary ions. we hypothesized that differences in control could be related to different diet-related selective pressures on herbivorous, marine, and insectivorous species. we studied control of secretion and flexibility of cation (sodium or pota ...201020623801
cytochrome p450 cyp2 genes in the common cormorant: evolutionary relationships with 130 diapsid cyp2 clan sequences and chemical effects on their expression.cytochrome p450 cyp2 family enzymes are important in a variety of physiological and toxicological processes. cyp2 genes are highly diverse and orthologous relationships remain clouded among cyp2s in different taxa. sequence and expression analyses of cyp2 genes in diapsids including birds and reptiles may improve understanding of this cyp family. we sought cyp2 genes in a liver cdna library of the common cormorant (phalacrocorax carbo), and in the genomes of other diapsids, chicken (gallus gallu ...201021130899
reptiles and mammals have differentially retained long conserved noncoding sequences from the amniote ancestor.many noncoding regions of genomes appear to be essential to genome function. conservation of large numbers of noncoding sequences has been reported repeatedly among mammals but not thus far among birds and reptiles. by searching genomes of chicken (gallus gallus), zebra finch (taeniopygia guttata), and green anole (anolis carolinensis), we quantified the conservation among birds and reptiles and across amniotes of long, conserved noncoding sequences (lcns), which we define as sequences ≥500 bp i ...201021183607
calcium-dependent irreversible effect of ionophore a23187 on melanophores.the calcium ionophore, a231187, induces a ca2+ -dependent movement (dispersion) of melanosomes within skin melanophores of the lizard, anolis carolinensis, in vitro. the effects of a23187 are irreversible, since after repeated rinsing of the skins in the absence of the ionophore they will always darken in ringer containing ca2+ but will immediately lighten when transferred to ca2+ -free ringer. these results suggest that the ionophore is irreversibly localized to the melanophore membrane and tha ...20102853342
detection of prodynorphin end products in lizard, turtle, and alligator brain extracts.heterologous radioimmunoassays (rias) for the mammalian prodynorphin end products, alpha-neo-endorphin, dynorphin a(1-17), dynorphin a(1-8), and dynorphin b(1-13) were used to screen brain extracts obtained from representatives of the major surviving orders of reptiles: chelonia (pseudemys scripta), squamata (anolis carolinensis), and crocodylia (alligator mississippiensis). methanol/acid extracts of whole brains obtained from each species were separately fractionated by gel filtration chromatog ...20101355904
detection of a novel sequence change in the major form of alpha-msh isolated from the intermediate pituitary of the reptile, anolis carolinensis.intermediate pituitaries of the reptile, anolis carolinensis, were separately pulse labeled with [3h]trp and [3h]tyr. the major form of alpha-msh was purified by immunoprecipitation and isolated by reverse phase hplc. tryptic peptide analysis indicated that the [3h]trp-labeled c-terminal fragment of anolis alpha-msh had the same retention time as mammalian acth(9-13) amide; however, the [3h]tyr-labeled n-terminal fragment did not coelute with either mammalian acth(1-8) or n-acetyl-acth(1-8). pur ...20101667689
deleterious mutations of a claw keratin in multiple taxa of reptiles.we have recently shown that homologs of mammalian hair keratins are expressed in the claws of the green anole lizard, anolis carolinensis. to test whether reptilian hair keratin homologs are functionally associated with claws, we investigated the conservation of the prototypical reptilian hair keratin homolog, hard acidic keratin 1 (ha1), in representative species from all main clades of reptiles. a complete cdna of ha1 was cloned from the claw-forming epidermis of the lacertid lizard podarcis s ...201121181402
gonadotropin-induced ovulation in a reptile (anolis carolinensis): histological observations.although much is known about morphological changes in the apex of the mammalian ovarian follicle prior to its rupture (ovulation), information about this process in nonmammalian vertebrates is limited to only a few species. we describe here the histological changes in the stigma of the lizard (anolis carolinensis) ovarian follicle preceding fsh-induced ovulation. females with a large vitellogenic follicle received two injections, separated by 7 hr, of either porcine fsh (25 micrograms) or saline ...20113143617
a novel disulfide-rich protein motif from avian eggshell membranes.under the shell of a chicken egg are two opposed proteinaceous disulfide-rich membranes. they are fabricated in the avian oviduct using fibers formed from proteins that are extensively coupled by irreversible lysine-derived crosslinks. the intractability of these eggshell membranes (esm) has slowed their characterization and their protein composition remains uncertain. in this work, reductive alkylation of esm followed by proteolytic digestion led to the identification of a cysteine rich esm pro ...201121479176
elevated evolutionary rates among functionally diverged reproductive genes across deep vertebrate lineages.among closely related taxa, proteins involved in reproduction generally evolve more rapidly than other proteins. here, we apply a functional and comparative genomics approach to compare functional divergence across a deep phylogenetic array of egg-laying and live-bearing vertebrate taxa. we aligned and annotated a set of 4,986 1 : 1 : 1 : 1 : 1 orthologs in anolis carolinensis (green lizard), danio rerio (zebrafish), xenopus tropicalis (frog), gallus gallus (chicken), and mus musculus (mouse) ac ...201121811675
the anolis lizard genome: an amniote genome without isochores.isochores are large regions of relatively homogeneous nucleotide composition and are present in the genomes of all mammals and birds that have been sequenced to date. the newly sequenced genome of anolis carolinensis provides the first opportunity to quantify isochore structure in a non-avian reptile. we find anolis to have the most compositionally homogeneous genome of all amniotes sequenced thus far, a homogeneity exceeding that for the frogxenopus. based on a bayesian algorithm, anolis has sm ...201121795750
the genome of the green anole lizard and a comparative analysis with birds and mammals.the evolution of the amniotic egg was one of the great evolutionary innovations in the history of life, freeing vertebrates from an obligatory connection to water and thus permitting the conquest of terrestrial environments. among amniotes, genome sequences are available for mammals and birds, but not for non-avian reptiles. here we report the genome sequence of the north american green anole lizard, anolis carolinensis. we find that a. carolinensis microchromosomes are highly syntenic with chic ...201121881562
somitogenesis in the anole lizard and alligator reveals evolutionary convergence and divergence in the amniote segmentation clock.the axial skeleton is a defining feature of vertebrates and is patterned during somitogenesis. cyclically expressed members of the notch and other signaling pathways, described as the 'segmentation clock', regulate the formation of somite boundaries. comparisons among vertebrate model systems have revealed fundamental shifts in the regulation of expression among critical genes in the notch pathway. however, insights into the evolution of these expression differences have been limited by the lack ...201122178152
aerial righting reflexes in flightless animals.animals that fall upside down typically engage in an aerial righting response so as to reorient dorsoventrally. this behavior can be preparatory to gliding or other controlled aerial behaviors and is ultimately necessary for a successful landing. aerial righting reflexes have been described historically in various mammals such as cats, guinea pigs, rabbits, rats, and primates. the mechanisms whereby such righting can be accomplished depend on the size of the animal and on anatomical features ass ...201121930662
Evolutionary genomics implies a specific function of Ant4 in mammalian and anole lizard male germ cells.Most vertebrates have three paralogous genes with identical intron-exon structures and a high degree of sequence identity that encode mitochondrial adenine nucleotide translocase (Ant) proteins, Ant1 (Slc25a4), Ant2 (Slc25a5) and Ant3 (Slc25a6). Recently, we and others identified a fourth mammalian Ant paralog, Ant4 (Slc25a31), with a distinct intron-exon structure and a lower degree of sequence identity. Ant4 was expressed selectively in testis and sperm in adult mammals and was indeed essentia ...201121858006
aromatase mrna in the brain of adult green anole lizards: effects of sex and season.neural testosterone metabolism, particularly the synthesis of oestradiol (e(2)) via the aromatase enzyme, is important for sexual behaviours in many vertebrates. in green anole lizards, e(2) metabolised from testosterone facilitates female receptivity and increases sexual motivation in males. testosterone treatment increases aromatase activity in the whole brain homogenates of gonadectomised male, but not female, anoles, which is an effect limited to the breeding season (bs). to investigate the ...201121121975
ultrastructural localization of hair keratin homologs in the claw of the lizard anolis carolinensis.the claw of lizards is largely composed of beta-keratins, also referred to as keratin-associated beta-proteins. recently, we have reported that the genome of the lizard anolis carolinensis contains alpha keratin genes homologous to hair keratins typical of hairs and claws of mammals. molecular and immunohistochemical studies demonstrated that two hair keratin homologs named hard acid keratin 1 (ha1) and hard basic keratin 1 (hb1) are expressed in keratinocytes forming the claws of a. carolinensi ...201121312232
developmental regulation of hemoglobin synthesis in the green anole lizard anolis carolinensis.tetrapod vertebrates possess multiple α- and β-like globin genes that are ontogenetically regulated, such that functionally distinct hemoglobin (hb) isoforms are synthesized during different stages of development. the α- and β-like globin genes of amphibians, birds and mammals are differentially expressed during embryonic development and postnatal life, but little is known about the developmental regulation of globin gene expression in non-avian reptiles. here we report an investigation into the ...201121270305
the evolution and diversity of dna transposons in the genome of the lizard anolis carolinensis.dna transposons have considerably affected the size and structure of eukaryotic genomes and have been an important source of evolutionary novelties. in vertebrates, dna transposons are discontinuously distributed due to the frequent extinction and recolonization of these genomes by active elements. we performed a detailed analysis of the dna transposons in the genome of the lizard anolis carolinensis, the first non-avian reptile to have its genome sequenced. elements belonging to six of the prev ...201121127169
developing a community-based genetic nomenclature for anole lizards.comparative studies of amniotes have been hindered by a dearth of reptilian molecular sequences. with the genomic assembly of the green anole, anolis carolinensis available, non-avian reptilian genes can now be compared to mammalian, avian, and amphibian homologs. furthermore, with more than 350 extant species in the genus anolis, anoles are an unparalleled example of tetrapod genetic diversity and divergence. as an important ecological, genetic and now genomic reference, it is imperative to dev ...201122077994
the effect of light on melatonin secretion in the cultured pineal glands of anolis lizards.melatonin, a hormone produced by the pineal gland, is important for regulating circadian rhythms in many animals. light at night causes an acute suppression of melatonin in nearly all vertebrate species. a previous study found that light failed to suppress melatonin in the lizard anolis carolinensis. this is a surprising result given that the anolis pineal gland is intrinsically photosensitive, is a key pacemaker controlling locomotor activity, and can be directly entrained to a light-dark cycle ...201121757022
evolution of leptin structure and function.leptin, the protein product of the obese(ob or lep) gene, is a hormone synthesized by adipocytes that signals available energy reserves to the brain, and thereby influences development, growth, metabolism and reproduction. in mammals, leptin functions as an adiposity signal: circulating leptin fluctuates in proportion to fat mass, and it acts on the hypothalamus to suppress food intake. orthologs of mammalian lep genes were recently isolated from several fish and two amphibian species, and here ...201121677426
loading effects on jump performance in green anole lizards, anolis carolinensis.locomotor performance is a crucial determinant of organismal fitness but is often impaired in certain circumstances, such as increased mass (loading) resulting from feeding or gravidity. although the effects of loading have been studied extensively for striding locomotion, its effects on jumping are poorly understood. jumping is a mode of locomotion that is widely used across animal taxa. it demands large amounts of power over a short time interval and, consequently, may be affected by loading t ...201121613524
relationships among reproductive morphology, behavior, and testosterone in a natural population of green anole lizards.laboratory studies of reproductive systems have long supported the idea that neural and/or muscular structures used frequently are often enhanced in size. however, field studies integrating behavioral, morphological, and hormonal data are needed to better understand relationships in natural environments. we examined a natural population of green anole lizards (anolis carolinensis) to determine whether variation in reproductive morphology both within and between the sexes paralleled differences i ...201121600228
mining online genomic resources in anolis carolinensis facilitates rapid and inexpensive development of cross-species microsatellite markers for the anolis lizard genus.online sequence databases can provide valuable resources for the development of cross-species genetic markers. in particular, mining expressed tag sequences (est) for microsatellites and developing conserved cross-species microsatellite markers can provide a rapid and relatively inexpensive method to develop new markers for a range of species. here, we adopt this approach to develop cross-species microsatellite markers in anolis lizards, which is a model genus in evolutionary biology and ecology ...201121429109
relationships among hormones, brain and motivated behaviors in lizards.lizards provide a rich opportunity for investigating the mechanisms associated with arousal and the display of motivated behaviors. they exhibit diverse mating strategies and modes of conspecific communication. this review focuses on anole lizards, of which green anoles (anolis carolinensis) have been most extensively studied. research from other species is discussed in that context. by considering mechanisms collectively, we can begin to piece together neural and endocrine factors mediating the ...201120816970
histochemical and ultrastructural analyses of adhesive setae of lizards indicate that they contain lipids in addition to keratins.we studied the distribution of lipid material and organelles in the epidermal layers of toe pads from two species of lizards representing the two main lizard families in which adhesive scansors are found (gekkonids and polychrotids), the dull day gecko, phelsuma dubia and the green anole, anolis carolinensis. although lipids are a conspicuous component of the mesos layer of squamate reptiles and function in reducing cutaneous water loss, their distribution has not been specifically studied in th ...201121472767
bioinformatic and molecular characterization of beta-defensins-like peptides isolated from the green lizard anolis carolinensis.the high resistance of lizards to infections indicates that anti-microbial peptides may be involved. through the analysis of the green lizard (anolis carolinensis) genome and the expressed sequence tag (est) libraries 32 beta-defensin-like-peptides have been identified. the level of expression of some of these genes in different tissues has been determined by semi-quantitative rt-pcr. gene expression and structure analysis suggest the presence of alternative splicing mechanisms, with a number of ...201221663758
wounding in lizards results in the release of beta-defensins at the wound site and formation of an antimicrobial barrier.after tail loss in lizards no infections occur indicating the presence of an effective anti-microbial barrier in the exposed tissues of the tail stump. previous molecular studies on the lizard anolis carolinensis have identified some beta-defensin-like genes and the deduced peptides that may be involved in anti-infective protection. the present study has analyzed the tissues of wounded and normal tails in lizards in order to immune-localize one of the beta-defensins previously found (acbd15) and ...201222001772
accumulation and effects of octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (hmx) exposure in the green anole (anolis carolinensis).environmental contamination by energetic compounds is an increasing international concern, although little is known of their accumulation in and affect on wildlife. reptiles are often good models for contaminants studies due to natural history traits that increase their potential for exposure. we report a study to assess accumulation and effects of octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (hmx, high melting explosive) in green anoles (anolis carolinensis). acute oral toxicity (ld(50)) wa ...201221947615
out of florida: mtdna reveals patterns of migration and pleistocene range expansion of the green anole lizard (anolis carolinensis).anolis carolinensis is an emerging model species and the sole member of its genus native to the united states. considerable morphological and physiological variation has been described in the species, and the recent sequencing of its genome makes it an attractive system for studies of genome variation. to inform future studies of molecular and phenotypic variation within a. carolinensis, a rigorous account of intraspecific population structure and relatedness is needed. here, we present the most ...201223139885
a histological comparison of the original and regenerated tail in the green anole, anolis carolinensis.this study provides a histological comparison of the mature regenerated and original tail of the lizard anolis carolinensis. these data will provide a framework for future studies of this emerging model organism whose genome was recently published. this study demonstrated that the cartilage skeleton of the regenerated tail enclosed a spinal cord with an ependymal core, but there was no evidence that dorsal root ganglia or peripheral nerves are regenerated. the cartilage tube contained foramina t ...201222933242
immunolocalization of keratin-associated beta-proteins (beta-keratins) in the regenerating lizard epidermis indicates a new process for the differentiation of the epidermis in lepidosaurians.the process of keratinocyte differentiation was analyzed in the regenerating epidermis of the lizard anolis carolinensis, where the genes coding for beta-proteins (beta-keratins) are known. the regenerating epidermis forms all epidermal layers found in normal scales (oberhäutchen-, beta-, mesos-, and alpha-layer). three specific proteins representing the larger families of beta-proteins, glycine-rich (hgg5, 28% glycine, 3.6% cysteine), glycine-cysteine medium-rich (hggc10, 13% glycine, 14.5% cys ...201222807268
analysis of transient receptor potential ankyrin 1 (trpa1) in frogs and lizards illuminates both nociceptive heat and chemical sensitivities and coexpression with trp vanilloid 1 (trpv1) in ancestral vertebrates.transient receptor potential ankyrin 1 (trpa1) and trp vanilloid 1 (v1) perceive noxious temperatures and chemical stimuli and are involved in pain sensation in mammals. thus, these two channels provide a model for understanding how different genes with similar biological roles may influence the function of one another during the course of evolution. however, the temperature sensitivity of trpa1 in ancestral vertebrates and its evolutionary path are unknown as its temperature sensitivities vary ...201222791718
the gross anatomy of the original and regenerated tail in the green anole (anolis carolinensis).this study investigates the gross anatomy of the original and the regenerated tail in the green anole (anolis carolinensis). dissections were conducted on 24 original and 13 regenerated tails. while the extrinsic muscles of the original tail in a. carolinensis are similar to those in other known anolis lizard species, the extent of the origins of m. caudofemoralis longus and m. caudofemoralis brevis is more restricted. these differences may underlie variation in locomotor performance among anole ...201222753107
distribution of specific keratin-associated beta-proteins (beta-keratins) in the epidermis of the lizard anolis carolinensis helps to clarify the process of cornification in lepidosaurians.the epidermis of different scales in the lizard anolis carolinensis expresses specific keratin-associated beta-proteins (beta-keratins). in order to localize the sites of accumulation of different beta-proteins, we have utilized antibodies directed against representative members of the main families of beta-proteins, the glycine-rich (hgg5), glycine-cysteine rich (hggc3), glycine-cysteine medium-rich (hggc10), and cysteine-rich (hgc1) beta-proteins. immunoblotting and immunocytochemical controls ...201222711570
multi-locus phylogeographic and population genetic analysis of anolis carolinensis: historical demography of a genomic model species.the green anole (anolis carolinensis) has been widely used as an animal model in physiology and neurobiology but has recently emerged as an important genomic model. the recent sequencing of its genome has shed new light on the evolution of vertebrate genomes and on the process that govern species diversification. surprisingly, the patterns of genetic diversity within natural populations of this widespread and abundant north american lizard remain relatively unknown. in the present study, we use ...201222685573
how forelimb and hindlimb function changes with incline and perch diameter in the green anole, anolis carolinensis.the range of inclines and perch diameters in arboreal habitats poses a number of functional challenges for locomotion. to effectively overcome these challenges, arboreal lizards execute complex locomotor behaviors involving both the forelimbs and the hindlimbs. however, few studies have examined the role of forelimbs in lizard locomotion. to characterize how the forelimbs and hindlimbs differentially respond to changes in substrate diameter and incline, we obtained three-dimensional high-speed v ...201222675190
expression of aromatase and two isozymes of 5α-reductase in the developing green anole forebrain.neural steroids, as well as the enzymes that produce these hormones, are important for sexual differentiation of the brain during development. aromatase converts testosterone into oestradiol. 5α-reductase converts testosterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone and occurs in two isozymes: type 1 (5αr1) and type 2 (5αr2). each of these enzymes is present in the developing brain in many species, although no work has been carried out examining the expression of all three enzymes in non-avian reptiles with g ...201222487458
a performance-based cost to honest signalling in male green anole lizards (anolis carolinensis).sexual signals are considered costly to produce and maintain under the handicap paradigm, and the reliability of signals is in turn thought to be maintained by these costs. although previous studies have investigated the costly nature of signal production, few have considered whether honesty might be maintained not by the costliness of the signal itself, but by the costs involved in producing the signalled trait. if such a trait is itself costly to produce, then the burden of energetic investmen ...201222418258
assessment of xylazine for euthanasia of anoles (anolis carolinensis and anolis distichus).intracoelomic (ic) injection of xylazine was evaluated as a chemical euthanasia method for anolis lizards (anolis carolinensis or anolis distichus). lizards were allocated into 5 groups of 10 animals each. each group was euthanized by one of these methods: 10 mg xylazine (100 mg/ml) ic; 10 mg xylazine and 0.5 mg acepromazine (10 mg/ml) ic; 10 mg xylazine ic followed by intracardiac injection of 0.1 meq kcl (2 meq/ml) once heart beats were no longer discernable by doppler; 500 mg/kg 1% naco(3)-b ...201222330873
aromatase and 5α-reductase type 2 mrna in the green anole forebrain: an investigation of the effects of sex, season and testosterone manipulation.aromatase and 5α-reductase (5αr) catalyze the synthesis of testosterone (t) metabolites: estradiol and 5α-dihydrotestosterone, respectively. these enzymes are important in controlling sexual behaviors in male and female vertebrates. to investigate factors contributing to their regulation in reptiles, male and female green anole lizards were gonadectomized during the breeding and non-breeding seasons and treated with a t-filled or blank capsule. in situ hybridization was used to examine main effe ...201222326351
sculpting reproductive circuits: relationships among hormones, morphology and behavior in anole lizards.morphology parallels function on a variety of levels in reproductive circuits in anole lizards, as in many vertebrate groups. for example, across species within the anole genus the muscle fibers regulating extension of a throat fan used in courtship are larger in males than females. endocrine factors controlling behavior and morphology have been studied in detail in one species, the green anole (anolis carolinensis). this review briefly describes the results that have been obtained and highlight ...201222202602
total recoil: perch compliance alters jumping performance and kinematics in green anole lizards (anolis carolinensis).jumping is a common form of locomotion for many arboreal animals. many species of the arboreal lizard genus anolis occupy habitats in which they must jump to and from unsteady perches, e.g. narrow branches, vines, grass and leaves. anoles therefore often use compliant perches that could alter jump performance. in this study we conducted a small survey of the compliance of perches used by the arboreal green anole anolis carolinensis in the wild (n=54 perches) and then, using perches within the ra ...201222189765
the distribution of estrogen receptor β mrna in male and female green anole lizards.estrogens are critical for a variety of aspects of brain development and adult processes. these steroids act via receptors within specific tissues. several estrogen receptors (er) are thought to exist, including erα and erβ, which function via classical, genomic mechanisms. these two ers are found in a variety of species and are critical to diverse functions, including reproductive behaviors. erβ was discovered more recently than erα, and very little work has been done on this receptor in reptil ...201222119399
assessment of the mass, length, center of mass, and principal moment of inertia of body segments in adult males of the brown anole (anolis sagrei) and green, or carolina, anole (anolis carolinensis).this study provides a morphometric data set of body segments that are biomechanically relevant for locomotion in two ecomorphs of adult male anoles, namely, the trunk-ground anolis sagrei and the trunk-crown anolis carolinensis. for each species, 10 segments were characterized, and for each segment, length, mass, location of the center of mass, and radius of gyration were measured or calculated, respectively. the radii of gyration were computed from the moments of inertia by using the double swi ...201222461036
characterization of squamate olfactory receptor genes and their transcripts by the high-throughput sequencing approach.the olfactory receptor (or) genes represent the largest multigene family in the genome of terrestrial vertebrates. here, the high-throughput next-generation sequencing (ngs) approach was applied to characterization of or gene repertoires in the green anole lizard anolis carolinensis and the japanese four-lined ratsnake elaphe quadrivirgata. tagged polymerase chain reaction (pcr) products amplified from either genomic dna or cdna of the two species were used for parallel pyrosequencing, assemblin ...201222511035
snakes antibodies.immunoglobulins are basic molecules of the immune system of vertebrates. in previous studies we described the immunoglobulins found in two squamata reptiles, anolis carolinensis and eublepharis macularius. snakes are squamata reptiles too but they have undergone an extreme evolutionary process. we therefore wanted to know how these changes affected their immunoglobulin coding genes. to perform this analysis we studied five snake transcriptomes and two genome draft sequences. sequences coding for ...201222426516
slow dna loss in the gigantic genomes of salamanders.evolutionary changes in genome size result from the combined effects of mutation, natural selection, and genetic drift. insertion and deletion mutations (indels) directly impact genome size by adding or removing sequences. most species lose more dna through small indels (i.e., ~1-30 bp) than they gain, which can result in genome reduction over time. because this rate of dna loss varies across species, small indel dynamics have been suggested to contribute to genome size evolution. species with e ...201223175715
identifying the evolutionary building blocks of the cardiac conduction system.the endothermic state of mammals and birds requires high heart rates to accommodate the high rates of oxygen consumption. these high heart rates are driven by very similar conduction systems consisting of an atrioventricular node that slows the electrical impulse and a his-purkinje system that efficiently activates the ventricular chambers. while ectothermic vertebrates have similar contraction patterns, they do not possess anatomical evidence for a conduction system. this lack amongst extant ec ...201222984480
de novo sequence assembly and characterisation of a partial transcriptome for an evolutionarily distinct reptile, the tuatara (sphenodon punctatus).the tuatara (sphenodon punctatus) is a species of extraordinary zoological interest, being the only surviving member of an entire order of reptiles which diverged early in amniote evolution. in addition to their unique phylogenetic placement, many aspects of tuatara biology, including temperature-dependent sex determination, cold adaptation and extreme longevity have the potential to inform studies of genome evolution and development. despite increasing interest in the tuatara genome, genomic re ...201222938396
first draft of the genomic organization of a piii-svmp gene.the evolutionary pathway of highly toxic proteins expressed in snake venom glands from proteins without toxic function and expressed in non-parotid tissues remains poorly understood. here we examine gene structure of a representative of a venom protein with an adams metalloproteinase evolutionary origin. the structure of the 15,652 bp echis ocellatus pre-pro eoc00089-like piii-svmp gene was assembled from pcr-amplified sequences of overlapping genomic fragments. the gene comprises 12 exons inter ...201222543188
the role of 5alpha-reductase activity in sexual behaviors of the green anole lizard.both testosterone (t) and its metabolite, 5alpha-dihydrotestosterone (dht), can facilitate male sexual behavior in the lizard anolis carolinensis. the present study addresses the role of dht synthesis in regulating male sexual behavior by inhibiting 5alpha-reductase, the enzyme that converts t into dht. in two separate experiments (one replacement and one maintenance paradigm), breeding adult males were castrated and implanted with capsules of t, dht, or a control capsule (blank, bl). the animal ...201310913788
effects of melatonin administration on the circadian activity rhythm of the lizard anolis carolinensis.the green anole, anolis carolinensis, is the most thoroughly studied north american lizard species, yet little is known about the circadian system of this species. studies in several lizard species, including anolis, support the hypothesis that the pineal organ is the site of a major circadian pacemaker that controls the phasing and frequency of circadian clocks located elsewhere. we examined the effects of exogenous administration of the pineal hormone, melatonin, to determine if the pineal sec ...201311134700
the role of calcium in msh stimulated melanosome dispersion.we have examined the role of the calcium ion in the response of the melanophores of the lizard, anolis carolinensis to alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (alpha-msh) by a rate method which allows kinetic analysis of melanosome dispersion. dose-response curves to alpha-msh were compared in the presence of different calcium concentrations, and schild regression plots were constructed. an avidly binding analogue of alpha-msh, nle4-d-phe7-alpha-msh, was used to demonstrate kinetically the involvem ...20132831522
neurotransmitter-specific identification and characterization of neurons in the all-cone retina of anolis carolinensis. ii: glutamate and aspartate.immunocytochemical and autoradiographic methods were used to identify neurons in the pure cone retina of the lizard (anolis carolinensis) that are likely to employ glutamate (glu) or aspartate (asp) as a neurotransmitter. glu immunocytochemistry demonstrated high levels of endogenous glu in all cone types and numerous bipolar cells. moderate glu levels were found in horizontal and ganglion cells. müller cells and most amacrine cells had very low glu levels. glu immunoreactivity (glu-ir) in the c ...20131356423
evidence for a common precursor for alpha msh and beta-endorphin in the intermediate lobe of the pituitary of the reptile anolis carolinensis.in order to investigate the biosynthesis of alpha msh and beta-endorphin in a non-mammalian vertebrate, individual lizard intermediate pituitaries were incubated in complete medium containing a radioactive amino acid, using either a steady label or a pulse/chase protocol. following incubation, acid extracts of the tissue were immunoprecipitated with either an nh2-terminal acth antiserum or a beta-endorphin antiserum and analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. after ...20136300808
diversity of aulacidae (hymenoptera: evanioidea) in the oceanic ogasawara islands (japan), with description of a new species from anijima island.in the context of the biodiversity conservation of the oceanic ogasawara islands, the parasitoid species of aulacidae are reviewed. we examined material from eight islands with or without invasion of the introduced lizard anolis carolinensis (voigt 1832) (green anoles): two species of pristaulacus kieffer 1900, p. boninensis konishi, 1989, and p. anijimensis sp. nov., are recognized. the former species is widely distributed in the islands, whereas the latter species is found from a single island ...201325112622
using genes as characters and a parsimony analysis to explore the phylogenetic position of turtles.the phylogenetic position of turtles within the vertebrate tree of life remains controversial. conflicting conclusions from different studies are likely a consequence of systematic error in the tree construction process, rather than random error from small amounts of data. using genomic data, we evaluate the phylogenetic position of turtles with both conventional concatenated data analysis and a "genes as characters" approach. two datasets were constructed, one with seven species (human, opossum ...201324278129
molecular evolution and expression of archosaurian β-keratins: diversification and expansion of archosaurian β-keratins and the origin of feather β-keratins.the archosauria consist of two living groups, crocodilians, and birds. here we compare the structure, expression, and phylogeny of the beta (β)-keratins in two crocodilian genomes and two avian genomes to gain a better understanding of the evolutionary origin of the feather β-keratins. unlike squamates such as the green anole with 40 β-keratins in its genome, the chicken and zebra finch genomes have over 100 β-keratin genes in their genomes, while the american alligator has 20 β-keratin genes, a ...201323744807
molecular cytogenetic map of the central bearded dragon, pogona vitticeps (squamata: agamidae).reptiles, as the sister group to birds and mammals, are particularly valuable for comparative genomic studies among amniotes. the australian central bearded dragon (pogona vitticeps) is being developed as a reptilian model for such comparisons, with whole-genome sequencing near completion. the karyotype consists of 6 pairs of macrochromosomes and 10 pairs microchromosomes (2n = 32), including a female heterogametic zw sex microchromosome pair. here, we present a molecular cytogenetic map for p. ...201323703235
evolution of the melanocortin-2 receptor in tetrapods: studies on xenopus tropicalis mc2r and anolis carolinensis mc2r.the tetrapods are a diverse assemblage of vertebrates, and that diversity is reflected in the sequences of tetrapod melanocortin-2 receptors (mc2rs). in this review, the features common to human (mammal), gallus gallus (bird), anolis carolinensis (reptile), and xenopus tropicalis (amphibian) mc2rs in terms of ligand selectivity, requirements for interaction with mrap1, and the effects of alanine substitutions to three amino acid motifs in the ligand hacth(1-24) are discussed. analysis of the eff ...201323639234
the value of comparative approaches to our understanding of puberty as illustrated by investigations in birds and reptiles.this article is part of a special issue "puberty and adolescence". studies of birds and reptiles have provided many basic insights into the neuroendocrine control of reproductive processes. this research has elucidated mechanisms regulating both early development, including sexual differentiation, and adult neuroendocrine function and behavior. however, phenomena associated with the transition into sexual maturation (puberty) have not been a focus of investigators working on species in these tax ...201323998665
expressed sequence tag analysis of the emu (dromaius novaehollandiae) pituitary by 454 gs junior pyrosequencing.emus (dromaius novaehollandiae) are farmed for their oil for pharmaceutical and cosmetic uses. this emu pituitary expressed sequence tag study was undertaken to identify novel transcripts in the emu pituitary to propel their identification and functional studies. by mapping reads derived from the roche 454 gs junior pyrosequencer to 8 reference species (human, mouse, chicken, zebra finch, fruit fly, turkey, round worm, and carolina anole lizard) from the unigene database, a total of 81,788 reads ...201323243234
transmission, host specificity, and seasonal occurrence of cyrtosomum penneri (nematoda: atractidae) in lizards from florida.experimental infections and field-collected lizards were used to investigate issues of transmission, host specificity, and seasonal occurrence in the nematode cyrtosomum penneri (cosmocercoidea: atractidae). anolis sagrei (87 males, 42 females) were captured from the florida southern college campus, polk county, florida, from october 2010 to september 2011, and 8,803 c. penneri were collected from their intestines. during the breeding season all sexually mature (svl ≥ 34 mm) a. sagrei were infec ...201323020090
close association between paralogous multiple isomirs and paralogous/orthologues mirna sequences implicates dominant sequence selection across various animal species.micrornas (mirnas) are crucial negative regulators of gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. next-generation sequencing technologies have identified a series of mirna variants (named isomirs). in this study, paralogous isomir assemblies (from the mirna locus) were systematically analyzed based on data acquired from deep sequencing data sets. evolutionary analysis of paralogous (members in mirna gene family in a specific species) and orthologues (across different animal species) mirna ...201323856130
salmonella infection in green anoles (anolis carolinensis), an invasive alien species on chichi island of the ogasawara archipelago in japan.we investigated the presence of salmonella in the green anole (anolis carolinensis), an invasive alien species on chichi island, japan. samples were also collected from feral goats and public toilets on the island to examine infectious routes. salmonellae were isolated from 27.1% of 199 samples; 32.6% of 141 cloacal samples from anoles, 62.5% of 8 intestinal samples from anole carcasses, 16.7% of 12 fecal samples from goats and 2.6% of 38 toilet bowl swabs. the serotype of most isolates was salm ...201324270852
ranavirus infections associated with skin lesions in lizards.ranaviral disease in amphibians has been studied intensely during the last decade, as associated mass-mortality events are considered to be a global threat to wild animal populations. several studies have also included other susceptible ectothermic vertebrates (fish and reptiles), but only very few cases of ranavirus infections in lizards have been previously detected. in this study, we focused on clinically suspicious lizards and tested these animals for the presence of ranaviruses. virological ...201324073785
ultrastructural immunolocalization of beta-defensin-27 in granulocytes of the dermis and wound epidermis of lizard suggests they contribute to the anti-microbial skin barrier.the high resistance to infections in lizard wounds suggests that these reptiles possess effective antimicrobial peptides in their tissues. the present immunocytochemical study shows the cellular localization of beta-defensin 27 in tail tissues and in the blood, a defensin previously identified in the lizard anolis carolinensis through biomolecular methods. beta-defensin-27 immunoreactivity is only observed in some large granules mainly contained in heterophilic granulocytes that are sparse withi ...201324386597
differential inhibition of line1 and line2 retrotransposition by vertebrate aid/apobec proteins.the role of aid/apobec proteins in the mammalian immune response against retroviruses and retrotransposons is well established. g to a hypermutations, the hallmark of their cytidine deaminase activity, are present in several mammalian retrotransposons. however, the role of aid/apobec proteins in non-mammalian retroelement restriction is not completely understood.201324344916
the impact of tail loss on stability during jumping in green anoles (anolis carolinensis).lizards that undergo caudal autotomy experience a variety of consequences, including decreased locomotor performance in a number of cases. one mode of locomotion common to many arboreal lizard species is jumping, and yet little is known about the effects of autotomy on this locomotor mode. in this article we review recent literature demonstrating the importance of the lizard tail as an in-air stabilizer. first, we review work highlighting how a variety of lizards from diverse families can use th ...201324241065
lizards and lines: selection and demography affect the fate of l1 retrotransposons in the genome of the green anole (anolis carolinensis).autonomous retrotransposons lacking long terminal repeats (ltr) account for much of the variation in genome size and structure among vertebrates. mammalian genomes contain hundreds of thousands of non-ltr retrotransposon copies, mostly resulting from the amplification of a single clade known as l1. the genomes of teleost fish and squamate reptiles contain a much more diverse array of non-ltr retrotransposon families, whereas copy number is relatively low. the majority of non-ltr retrotransposon ...201324013105
seasonal and sexual dimorphisms in expression of androgen receptor and its coactivators in brain and peripheral copulatory tissues of the green anole.green anoles are seasonally breeding lizards, with an annual rise in testosterone (t) being the primary activator of male sexual behaviors. responsiveness to t is decreased in the non-breeding season (nbs) compared to breeding season (bs) on a variety of levels, including displays of reproductive behavior and the morphology and biochemistry of associated tissues. to evaluate the possibility that seasonal changes in responsiveness to t are regulated by androgen receptors (ar) and/or two of its co ...201323892016
ifn-γ and its receptors in a reptile reveal the evolutionary conservation of type ii ifns in vertebrates.in this study, interferon gamma (ifn-γ) and interferon gamma receptor (ifn-γr) genes have been identified in non-avian reptile, the north american green anole lizard (anolis carolinensis). like their counterparts from other jawed vertebrates, lizard ifn-γ, ifn-γr1 and ifn-γr2 show conserved features in genomic organizations, gene loci and protein sequences. the ifn-γ gene has the full cdna sequence of 936 bp, with 522 bp open reading frame (orf) encoding 174 amino acids, and has the genomic orga ...201323850722
classification and evolutionary analysis of the basic helix-loop-helix gene family in the green anole lizard, anolis carolinensis.helix-loop-helix (bhlh) proteins play essential regulatory roles in a variety of biological processes. these highly conserved proteins form a large transcription factor superfamily, and are commonly identified in large numbers within animal, plant, and fungal genomes. the bhlh domain has been well studied in many animal species, but has not yet been characterized in non-avian reptiles. in this study, we identified 102 putative bhlh genes in the genome of the green anole lizard, anolis carolinens ...201323756994
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