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full protection of swine against foot-and-mouth disease by a bivalent b-cell epitope dendrimer peptide.foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv) causes a highly contagious disease of cloven-hoofed animals. we have reported (cubillos et al., 2008) that a synthetic dendrimeric peptide consisting of four copies of a b-cell epitope [vp1(136-154)] linked through thioether bonds to a t-cell epitope [3a(21-35)] of fmdv [b4t(thi)] elicits potent b- and t-cell specific responses and confers solid protection in pigs to type c fmdv challenge. herein we show that downsized versions of this peptide bearing two copi ...201626956030
role of a single amino acid substitution of vp3 h142d for increased acid resistance of foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype a.foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv) particles lose infectivity due to their dissociation into pentamers at ph value below 6.5. after the uptake of fmdv by receptor-mediated endocytosis, the acid-dependent dissociation process is required for the release of fmdv genome inside endosomes. nevertheless, dissociation of fmdv particles in mildly acidic conditions renders the inactivated fmd vaccine less effective. to improve the acid stability of inactivated fmd vaccine during the manufacturing proces ...201626873406
novel foot-and-mouth disease virus in korea, july-august 2014.despite nation-wide immunization with o, a, and asia 1 type vaccines in republic of korea, foot-and-mouth disease type o occurred again in july 2014 after three years and three months. this virus was a mya-98 strain of the southeast asian topotype and was most similar to the identified type that circulated in east asia in 2014. this was new virus with the deletion of 23 amino acids in 3a/3b1 region and low pathogenic property.201626866028
immunogenicity of a recombinant sendai virus expressing the capsid precursor polypeptide of foot-and-mouth disease virus.in this study, sev was used as a vector to express capsid precursor polypeptide (p1) of foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv) by using reverse genetics. the rescue recombinant sev (rsev-p1) can efficiently propagate and express p1 protein by western blot and ifa analysis. to evaluate the immunogenicity of rsev-p1, balb/c mice were divided into several groups and immunized intramuscularly with various doses of rsev-p1, rsev-egfp, pbs and commercial fmd vaccine, respectively, and then challenged wit ...201626850558
transmission of foot and mouth disease at the wildlife/livestock interface of the kruger national park, south africa: can the risk be mitigated?in southern africa, the african buffalo (syncerus caffer) is the natural reservoir of foot and mouth disease (fmd). contacts between this species and cattle are responsible for most of the fmd outbreaks in cattle at the edge of protected areas, which generate huge economic losses. during the late 1980's and 90's, the erection of veterinary cordon fences and the regular vaccination of cattle exposed to buffalo contact at the interface of the kruger national park (knp), proved to be efficient to c ...201626848115
correction: transgenic shrna pigs reduce susceptibility to foot and mouth disease virus infection. 201626840180
the vp3 structural protein of foot-and-mouth disease virus inhibits the ifn-β signaling pathway.foot-and-mouth disease is a frequently occurring disease of cloven-hoofed animals that is caused by infection with the foot-and-mouth virus (fmdv). fmdv circumvents the type-i ifn response by expressing proteins that antagonize cellular innate immunity, such as leader protease and 3c protease. we identified the fmdv structural protein vp3 as a negative regulator of the virus-triggered ifn-β signaling pathway. expression of fmdv vp3 inhibited the sendai virus-triggered activation of ifn regulator ...201626813975
effects of vaccination against foot-and-mouth disease virus on reproductive performance of beef cows.this study compared reproductive performance of cows vaccinated against the foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) virus before timed ai or during early pregnancy (exp. 1), as well as rectal temperature (rt) and plasma concentrations of the acute-phase protein haptoglobin in cattle vaccinated or not against the fmd virus (exp. 2). cattle utilized in exp. 1 and 2 originated from herds with no historical occurrences of fmd and that received vaccination against the fmd virus biannually. in exp. 1, 604 lactat ...201626812345
effect of storage conditions on subpopulations of peripheral blood t lymphocytes isolated from naïve cattle and cattle infected with foot-and-mouth disease virus.immunophenotyping of blood lymphocytes by flow cytometry is important in infectious disease research. in animal experiments and other longitudinal studies, the processing, prompt staining, and analysis of fresh samples is a logistical challenge and daily assay variation can confound data interpretation.201626802284
complete genome sequence of a serotype a foot-and-mouth disease virus from an outbreak in saudi arabia during 2015.the complete genome of a foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) type a virus isolated from cattle in saudi arabia in 2015 is described here. this virus belongs to an fmd virus lineage named genotype vii, which is normally endemic on the indian subcontinent.201626798100
swine trim21 restricts fmdv infection via an intracellular neutralization mechanism.the tripartite motif protein 21 (trim21) is a ubiquitously expressed e3 ubiquitin ligase and an intracellular antibody receptor. trim21 mediates antibody-dependent intracellular neutralization (adin) in cytosol and provides an intracellular immune response to protect host defense against pathogen infection. in this study, swine trim21 (strim21) was cloned and its role in adin was investigated. the expression of strim21 is induced by type i interferon in pk-15 cells. strim21 restricts fmdv infect ...201626777733
ires mediated expression of viral 3c protease for enhancing the yield of fmdv empty capsids using baculovirus system.for expression of fmdv empty capsids, high protease activity associated with 3c co-expressed with p1 polyprotein has been reported to adversely affect the yields of capsids. limiting the levels of 3cpro relative to p1-2a polypeptide is thus critical to enhance the yields. in this study, fmdv internal ribosome entry site (ires) sequence which serves as an alternative to the cap-dependent translation initiation mechanism, was used for controlled translation of 3c protease. baculovirus expressing b ...201626775685
the vp1 s154d mutation of type asia1 foot-and-mouth disease virus enhances viral replication and pathogenicity.one of the proteins encoded by the foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv), the vp1 protein, a capsid protein, plays an important role in integrin receptor attachment and humoral immunity-mediated host responses. the integrin receptor recognition motif and an important antigenic epitope exist within the g-h loop, which is comprised of amino acids 134-160 of the vp1 protein. fmdv strain, asia1/hn/cha/06, isolated from a pig, was passaged four times in suckling mice and sequenced. sequencing analyses ...201626792712
novel chimeric foot-and-mouth disease virus-like particles harboring serotype o vp1 protect guinea pigs against challenge.foot-and-mouth disease is a highly contagious, acute viral disease of cloven-hoofed animal species causing severe economic losses worldwide. among the seven serotypes of foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv), serotype o is predominant, but its viral capsid is more acid sensitive than other serotypes, making it more difficult to produce empty serotype o vlps in the low ph insect hemolymph. therefore, a novel chimeric virus-like particle (vlp)-based candidate vaccine for serotype o fmdv was develope ...201626790940
productive entry of foot-and-mouth disease virus via macropinocytosis independent of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase.virus entry is an attractive target for therapeutic intervention. here, using a combination of electron microscopy, immunofluorescence assay, sirna interference, specific pharmacological inhibitors, and dominant negative mutation, we demonstrated that the entry of foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv) triggered a substantial amount of plasma membrane ruffling. we also found that the internalization of fmdv induced a robust increase in fluid-phase uptake, and virions internalized within macropinoso ...201626757826
unrecognized circulation of sat 1 foot-and-mouth disease virus in cattle herds around queen elizabeth national park in uganda.foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) is endemic in uganda in spite of the control measures used. various aspects of the maintenance and circulation of fmd viruses (fmdv) in uganda are not well understood; these include the role of the african buffalo (syncerus caffer) as a reservoir for fmdv. to better understand the epidemiology of fmd at the livestock-wildlife-interface, samples were collected from young, unvaccinated cattle from 24 pastoral herds that closely interact with wildlife around queen eliza ...201626739166
evaluation of infectivity, virulence and transmission of fdmv field strains of serotypes o and a isolated in 2010 from outbreaks in the republic of korea.since the early 2000s outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) have been described in several previously fmd-free asian nations, including the republic of korea (south korea). one outbreak with fmd virus (fdmv) serotype a and two with serotype o occurred in south korea in 2010/2011. the causative viruses belonged to lineages that had been spreading in south east asia, far east and east asia since 2009 and presented a great threat to the countries in that region. most fmdv strains infect ruminan ...201626735130
efficient production of a bioactive bevacizumab monoclonal antibody using the 2a self-cleavage peptide in transgenic rice callus.bevacizumab, a humanized monoclonal antibody (mab) targeting to the vascular endothelial growth factor (vegf), has been widely used in clinical practice for the treatment of multiple cancers. bevacizumab was mostly produced by the mammalian cell expression system. we here reported the first plant-derived bevacizumab by using transgenic rice callus as an alternative gene expression system. codon-optimized bevacizumab light chain (blc) and bevacizumab heavy chain (bhc) genes were designed, synthes ...201627555853
the first identification and complete genome of senecavirus a affecting pig with idiopathic vesicular disease in china.senecavirus a (sva) infection was recently confirmed in pigs in brazil. in march, 2015, an outbreak of vesicular disease occurred in guangdong, china, characterized by vesicular lesions in sows and acute death of neonatal piglets. cumulative incidence of porcine idiopathic vesicular disease in farm a was 258, which had a total number of 5500 sows. sows in farm b displayed typical vesicular symptoms by may, 2015, which also had 5500 sows. a total of 278 and 142 of 5500 sows in farm b demonstrated ...201627539949
foot-and-mouth disease in a small sample of experimentally infected pronghorn (antilocapra americana).there is limited information on the pathogenesis and epidemiology of foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) in north american wildlife and none concerning pronghorn ( antilocapra americana ). in an experimental study of 13 pronghorn and six steers ( bos taurus ), we compared the susceptibility of pronghorn to fmd virus (fmdv) strain o, with that of cattle ( bos taurus ). we also determined the potential for intra- and interspecies transmission of fmdv strain o in pronghorn and cattle, assessed the applica ...201627525593
expanding specificity of class i restricted cd8(+) t cells for viral epitopes following multiple inoculations of swine with a human adenovirus vectored foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv) vaccine.the immune response to the highly acute foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv) is routinely reported as a measure of serum antibody. however, a critical effector function of immune responses combating viral infection of mammals is the cytotoxic t lymphocyte (ctl) response mediated by virus specific cd8 expressing t cells. this immune mechanism arrests viral spread by killing virus infected cells before new, mature virus can develop. we have previously shown that infection of swine by fmdv results i ...201627498407
a recombinant adenovirus expressing p12a and 3c protein of the type o foot-and-mouth disease virus stimulates systemic and mucosal immune responses in mice.foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) is a highly contagious livestock disease of cloven-hoofed animals which causes severe economic losses. the replication-deficient, human adenovirus-vectored fmd vaccine has been proven effective against fmd. however, the role of t-cell-mediated antiviral responses and the mucosae-mediated antiviral responses induced by the adenovirus-vectored fmd vaccine was rarely examined. here, the capsid protein precursor p1-2a and viral protease 3c of the type o fmdv were express ...201627478836
constitutively active irf7/irf3 fusion protein completely protects swine against foot-and-mouth disease.foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) remains one of the most devastating livestock diseases around the world. several serotype-specific vaccine formulations exist, but they require about 5 to 7 days to induce protective immunity. our previous studies have shown that a constitutively active fusion protein of porcine interferon (ifn) regulatory factors (irf) 7 and 3 [irf7/3(5d)] strongly induced type i ifn and antiviral genes in vitro and prevented mortality in an fmd mouse model when delivered with a rep ...201627466421
global foot-and-mouth disease research update and gap analysis: 4 - diagnostics.this study assessed knowledge gaps in foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) research in the field of diagnostics. the study took the form of a literature review (2011-15) combined with research updates collected in 2014 from 33 institutes from around the world. findings were used to identify priority areas for future fmd research. molecular and genetic technologies, including sequencing, are developing at an increasing rate both in terms of capability and affordability. these advances potentiate progress ...201627320165
truncated bovine integrin alpha-v/beta-6 as a universal capture ligand for fmd diagnosis.foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) is endemic in many regions of the world and is one of the most prevalent epizootic animal diseases. fmd affects livestock, such as cattle, sheep, goats and pigs, and causes enormous economic losses due to reduced productivity and trade restrictions. preparedness and early diagnosis are essential for effective control of fmd. many diagnostic assays are dependent on raising high-affinity, anti-fmd virus (fmdv) serotype-specific antibodies in small animals (rabbits and ...201627494135
genetic characterization of serotypes a and asia-1 foot-and-mouth disease viruses in balochistan, pakistan, in 2011.this study reports characterization of foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv) in samples collected from balochistan, pakistan. fmdv was detected by pan-fmdv real-time rt-pcr in 31 samples (epithelial and oral swabs) collected in 2011 from clinical suspect cases. of these, 29 samples were serotyped by serotype-specific real-time rt-pcr assays and were confirmed by sequencing the vp1 coding region. sixteen samples were found positive for serotype a and eight for serotype asia-1, whereas five samples ...201627484792
tracking the antigenic evolution of foot-and-mouth disease virus.quantifying and predicting the antigenic characteristics of a virus is something of a holy grail for infectious disease research because of its central importance to the emergence of new strains, the severity of outbreaks, and vaccine selection. however, these characteristics are defined by a complex interplay of viral and host factors so that phylogenetic measures of viral similarity are often poorly correlated to antigenic relationships. here, we generate antigenic phylogenies that track the p ...201627448206
proper timing of foot-and-mouth disease vaccination of piglets with maternally derived antibodies will maximize expected protection levels.we investigated to what extent maternally derived antibodies interfere with foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) vaccination in order to determine the factors that influence the correct vaccination for piglets. groups of piglets with maternally derived antibodies were vaccinated at different time points following birth, and the antibody titers to fmd virus (fmdv) were measured using virus neutralization tests (vnt). we used 50 piglets from 5 sows that had been vaccinated 3 times intramuscularly in the n ...201627446940
global foot-and-mouth disease research update and gap analysis: 5 - biotherapeutics and disinfectants.we assessed knowledge gaps in foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) research. findings are reported in a series of papers, and in this article, we consider biotherapeutics and disinfectants. the study took the form of a literature review (2011-2015) combined with research updates collected in 2014 from 33 institutes from across the world. findings were used to identify priority areas for future fmd research. while vaccines will remain the key immunological intervention used against fmd virus (fmdv) for t ...201627320166
identification of a conserved linear neutralizing epitope recognized by monoclonal antibody 9a9 against serotype a foot-and-mouth disease virus.foot-and-mouth disease (fmd), caused by foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv), is a highly contagious infectious disease that affects domestic and wild cloven-hoofed animals worldwide. in recent years, a series of outbreaks of serotype a fmd have occurred in many countries. high-affinity neutralizing antibodies against a conserved epitope have the potential to provide protective immunity against diverse subtypes of fmdv serotype a and to protect against future pandemics. in this study, we produced ...201627422396
investigating intra-host and intra-herd sequence diversity of foot-and-mouth disease virus.due to the poor-fidelity of the enzymes involved in rna genome replication, foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) virus samples comprise of unique polymorphic populations. in this study, deep sequencing was utilised to characterise the diversity of fmd virus (fmdv) populations in 6 infected cattle present on a single farm during the series of outbreaks in the uk in 2007. a novel rt-pcr method was developed to amplify a 7.6kb nucleotide fragment encompassing the polyprotein coding region of the fmdv genom ...201627421209
evaluation of antiviral activity of plant extracts against foot and mouth disease virus in vitro.the aim of this study was to evaluate antiviral activity of chloroformic leaves extracts of three plants: azadirachta indica, moringa oleifera and morus alba against foot and mouth disease virus using mtt assay (3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide). antiviral and cytotoxic activity of each extract was evaluated as cell survival percentage and results were expressed as means ± s.d. the concentrations which resulted in cell survival percentages of greater than 50% are co ...201627393440
a disposable, continuous-flow polymerase chain reaction device: design, fabrication and evaluation.polymerase chain reaction (pcr) is used to amplify a specific segment of dna through a thermal cycling protocol. the pcr industry is shifting its focus away from macro-scale systems and towards micro-scale devices because: micro-scale sample sizes require less blood from patients, total reaction times are on the order of minutes opposed to hours, and there are cost advantages as many microfluidic devices are manufactured from inexpensive polymers. some of the fastest pcr devices use continuous f ...201627393216
redefining the "carrier" state for foot-and-mouth disease from the dynamics of virus persistence in endemically affected cattle populations.the foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv) "carrier" state was defined by van bekkum in 1959. it was based on the recovery of infectious virus 28 days or more post infection and has been a useful construct for experimental studies. using historic data from 1,107 cattle, collected as part of a population based study of endemic fmd in 2000, we developed a mixed effects logistic regression model to predict the probability of recovering viable fmdv by probang and culture, conditional on the animal's ag ...201627381947
induction of systemic ifitm3 expression does not effectively control foot-and-mouth disease viral infection in transgenic pigs.foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) is a highly contagious disease of cloven-hoofed animals, and can cause severe economic loss. interferon-induced transmembrane (ifitm) proteins constitute a family of viral restriction factors that can inhibit the replication of several types of viruses. our previous study showed that overexpression of swine ifitm3 (sifitm3) impeded replication of the fmd virus (fmdv) in bhk-21 cells and mice. in this study, sifitm3-transgenic (tg) pigs were produced by handmade cloni ...201627374903
application of mouse model for effective evaluation of foot-and-mouth disease vaccine.efficacy evaluation of foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) vaccines has been conducted in target animals such as cows and pigs. in particular, handling fmd virus requires a high level of biosafety management and facilities to contain the virulent viruses. the lack of a laboratory animal model has resulted in inconvenience when it comes to using target animals for vaccine evaluation, bringing about increased cost, time and labor for the experiments. the fmd mouse model has been studied, but most fmd vir ...201627340094
biological function of foot-and-mouth disease virus non-structural proteins and non-coding elements.foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv) represses host translation machinery, blocks protein secretion, and cleaves cellular proteins associated with signal transduction and the innate immune response to infection. non-structural proteins (nsps) and non-coding elements (nces) of fmdv play a critical role in these biological processes. the fmdv virion consists of capsid and nucleic acid. the virus genome is a positive single stranded rna and encodes a single long open reading frame (orf) flanked by a ...201627334704
the b-cell response to foot-and-mouth-disease virus in cattle following vaccination and live-virus challenge.antibodies play a pivotal role against viral infection, and maintenance of protection is dependent on plasma and memory b-cells. understanding antigen-specific b-cell responses in cattle is essential to inform future vaccine design. we have previously defined t-cell-dependent and -independent b-cell responses in cattle, as a prelude to investigating foot-and-mouth-disease-virus (fmdv)-specific b-cell responses. in this study, we have used an fmdv o-serotype vaccination (o1-manisa or o skr) and l ...201627260141
global foot-and-mouth disease research update and gap analysis: 3 - vaccines.this study assessed research knowledge gaps in the field of fmdv (foot-and-mouth disease virus) vaccines. the study took the form of a literature review (2011-15) combined with research updates collected in 2014 from 33 institutes from across the world. findings were used to identify priority areas for future fmd vaccine research. vaccines play a vital role in fmd control, used both to limit the spread of the virus during epidemics in fmd-free countries and as the mainstay of disease management ...201627320164
establishment and validation of two duplex one-step real-time rt-pcr assays for diagnosis of foot-and-mouth disease.two duplex one-step taqman-based rt-pcr protocols for detection of foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv) were established and validated. each rt-pcr test consists of a ready-to-use master mix for simultaneous detection of the well established 3d or ires fmdv targets and incorporates the host β-actin mrna as an internal control target, in a single-tube assay. the two real-time rt-pcr 3d/β-actin and ires/β-actin tests are highly sensitive and able to detect up to 7tcid50/ml of fmdv and 10 copies/1μl ...201627317973
esterase d enhances type i interferon signal transduction to suppress foot-and-mouth disease virus replication.the enzymatic activities of esterase d (esd) are involved in many human diseases. however, no antiviral property of esd has been described to date. foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv) is the etiological agent of foot-and-mouth disease. in this study, we showed that fmdv infection triggered esd expression. overexpression of esd significantly suppressed fmdv replication and knockdown of esd expression enhanced virus replication, showing an essential antiviral role of esd. furthermore, we found tha ...201627267271
effect of the nucleotides surrounding the start codon on the translation of foot-and-mouth disease virus rna.as for the alternative augs in foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv), nucleotide bias of the context flanking the aug(2nd) could be used as a strong signal to initiate translation. to determine the role of the specific nucleotide context, dicistronic reporter constructs were engineered to contain different versions of nucleotide context linking between internal ribosome entry site (ires) and downstream gene. the results indicate that under fmdv ires-dependent mechanism, the nucleotide contexts fla ...201627265464
retraction notice to “sequence variability in the structural protein-encoding region of foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype a and o of ethiopian isolates” [res. vet. sci. volume 96, issue 3, june 2014, pages 558–566]. 201627263135
global foot-and-mouth disease research update and gap analysis: 7 - pathogenesis and molecular biology.we assessed research knowledge gaps in the fields of fmdv (foot-and-mouth disease virus) pathogenesis and molecular biology by performing a literature review (2011-15) and collecting research updates (2014) from 33 institutes from across the world. findings were used to identify priority areas for future research. there have been important advances in fmdv pathogenesis; fmdv remains in lymph nodes of many recovered animals that otherwise do not appear persistently infected, even in species previ ...201627320168
global foot-and-mouth disease research update and gap analysis: 6 - immunology.this study assessed gaps and priorities for fmdv (foot-and-mouth disease virus) research in the field of immunology. the study took the form of a literature review (2011-15) combined with research updates collected in 2014 from 33 institutes from across the world. findings were used to identify priority areas for future fmd research. improved understanding of fmdv immunology facilitates the development of vaccines, adjuvants and diagnostic tests, and will allow better assessment and prediction o ...201627320167
chimeric foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype o displaying a serotype asia1 antigenic epitope at the surface.to determine whether the g-h loop of foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv) serotype o can function as a target structure to harbour and display serotype asia1 antigenic epitope at the surface.201627160994
transmission of foot-and-mouth disease sat2 viruses at the wildlife-livestock interface of two major transfrontier conservation areas in southern africa.over a decade ago, foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) re-emerged in southern africa specifically in beef exporting countries that had successfully maintained disease-free areas in the past. fmd virus (fmdv) serotype sat2 has been responsible for a majority of these outbreaks. epidemiological studies have revealed the importance of the african buffalo as the major wildlife fmd reservoir in the region. we used phylogeographic analysis to study dynamics of fmd transmission between buffalo and domestic ca ...201627148217
aerosol transmission of foot-and-mouth disease virus asia-1 under experimental conditions.foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv) control measures rely on understanding of virus transmission mechanisms. direct contact between naïve and infected animals or spread by contaminated fomites is prevented by quarantines and rigorous decontamination procedures during outbreaks. transmission of fmdv by aerosol may not be prevented by these control measures and this route of transmission may allow infection of animals at distance from the infection source. understanding the potential for aerosol s ...201627259825
the critical role of vp1 in forming the necessary cavities for receptor-mediated entry of fmdv to the host cell.the antigenic inconsistency of the foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv) is very broad, such that a vaccine made from one isolate will not offer protection against infection with other isolates from the same serotype. viral particles (vps) or surface exposed capsid proteins, vp1-vp3, of fmdv determine both the antigenicity of the virus and its receptor-mediated entry into the host cell. therefore, modifications of these structural proteins may alter the properties of the virus. here we show putati ...201627249937
partial deletion of stem-loop 2 in the 3' untranslated region of foot-and-mouth disease virus identifies a region that is dispensable for virus replication.the 3' untranslated region (3' utr) of the foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv) genome plays an essential role in virus replication, but the properties of the 3' utr are not completely defined. in order to determine the role of different regions of the 3' utr in fmdv replication, we conducted site-directed mutagenesis of the 3' utr of fmdv serotype o ind r2/1975 using a cdna clone. through independent serial deletions in various regions of the 3' utr, we demonstrated that deletion of nucleotides ...201627233801
serological and molecular detection of senecavirus a associated with an outbreak of swine idiopathic vesicular disease and neonatal mortality.we performed a longitudinal field study in a swine breeding herd that presented with an outbreak of vesicular disease (vd) that was associated with an increase in neonatal mortality. initially, a usda foreign animal disease (fad) investigation confirmed the presence of senecavirus a (sva) and ruled out the presence of exotic agents that produce vesicular lesions, e.g., foot-and-mouth disease virus and others. subsequently, serum samples, tonsil swabs, and feces were collected from sows (n = 22) ...201627225408
genomics and outbreaks: foot and mouth disease.foot and mouth disease virus (fmdv) is an animal pathogen of global economic significance. identifying the sources of outbreaks plays an important role in disease control; however, this can be confounded by the ease with which fmdv can spread via movement of infected livestock and animal products, aerosols or fomites, e.g. contaminated persons and objects. as sequencing technologies have advanced, this review highlights the uses of viral genomic data in helping to understand the global distribut ...201627217177
both cis and trans activities of foot-and-mouth disease virus 3d polymerase are essential for viral rna replication.the picornaviridae is a large family of positive-sense rna viruses that contains numerous human and animal pathogens, including foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv). the picornavirus replication complex comprises a coordinated network of protein-protein and protein-rna interactions involving multiple viral and host-cellular factors. many of the proteins within the complex possess multiple roles in viral rna replication, some of which can be provided in trans (i.e., via expression from a separate ...201627194768
companion animals as a source of viruses for human beings and food production animals.companion animals comprise a wide variety of species, including dogs, cats, horses, ferrets, guinea pigs, reptiles, birds and ornamental fish, as well as food production animal species, such as domestic pigs, kept as companion animals. despite their prominent place in human society, little is known about the role of companion animals as sources of viruses for people and food production animals. therefore, we reviewed the literature for accounts of infections of companion animals by zoonotic viru ...201627522300
complexities in isolation and purification of multiple viruses from mixed viral infections: viral interference, persistence and exclusion.successful purification of multiple viruses from mixed infections remains a challenge. in this study, we investigated peste des petits ruminants virus (pprv) and foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv) mixed infection in goats. rather than in a single cell type, cytopathic effect (cpe) of the virus was observed in cocultured vero/bhk-21 cells at 6th blind passage (bp). pprv, but not fmdv could be purified from the virus mixture by plaque assay. viral rna (mixture) transfection in bhk-21 cells produc ...201627227480
rapid detection of highly pathogenic porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus by a fluorescent probe-based isothermal recombinase polymerase amplification assay.a novel fluorescent probe-based real-time reverse transcription recombinase polymerase amplification (real-time rt-rpa) assay was developed for rapid detection of highly pathogenic type 2 porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (hp-prrsv). the sensitivity analysis showed that the detection limit of rpa was 70 copies of hp-prrsv rna/reaction. the real-time rt-rpa highly specific amplified hp-prrsv with no cross-reaction with classic prrsv, classic swine fever virus, pseudorabies virus ...201627534870
rapid and specific detection of porcine parvovirus by isothermal recombinase polymerase amplification assays.porcine parvovirus (ppv) is a major cause of swine reproductive failure and reported in many countries worldwide. recombinase polymerase amplification (rpa) assays using a real-time fluorescent detection (ppv real-time rpa assay) and a lateral flow dipstick (ppv rpa lfd assay) were developed targeting ppv ns1 gene. the detection limit of ppv real-time rpa assay was 300 copies per reaction within 9 min at 38 °c, while the rpa lfd assay has a detection limit of 400 copies per reaction in less than ...201627593155
a promising trigene recombinant human adenovirus vaccine against classical swine fever virus.classical swine fever (csf) vaccine based on hadv-5 had achieved an efficient protection in swine. both classical swine fever virus (csfv) e0 glycoprotein and e2 glycoprotein were the targets for neutralizing antibodies and related to immune protection against csf. interleukin-2 (il2), as an adjuvant, also had been used in csf vaccine research. in this study, coexpression of the csfv e0, e2, and il2 genes by hadv-5 (radv-e0-e2-il2) was constructed and immunized to evaluate its efficacy. three ex ...201626918463
detection of multiple viral infections in cattle and buffalo with suspected vesicular disease in brazil.vesicular diseases are of high importance for livestock, primarily because of foot-and-mouth disease (fmd), which is a high-morbidity disease that generates direct losses caused by low milk production, weight loss, and indirect losses because of the need for sanitary barriers. other vesicular diseases are also of importance for livestock because of direct impacts or because their clinical signs may be confused with those of fmd. we report herein the detection of multiple infections in cattle wit ...201627154321
development of a new vector using soybean yellow common mosaic virus for gene function study or heterologous protein expression in soybeans.a new vector using soybean yellow common mosaic virus (sycmv) was constructed for gene function study or heterologous protein expression in soybeans. the in vitro transcript with a 5' cap analog m7gpppg from an sycmv full-length infectious vector driven by a t7 promoter infected soybeans (psycmvt7-full). the symptoms observed in the soybeans infected with either the sap from sycmv-infected leaves or psycmvt7-full were indistinguishable, suggesting that the vector exhibits equivalent biological a ...201626569351
foot-and-mouth disease virus viroporin 2b antagonizes rig-i-mediated antiviral effects by inhibition of its protein expression.the role of retinoic acid-inducible gene i (rig-i) in foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv)-infected cells remains unknown. here, we showed that rig-i inhibits fmdv replication in host cells. fmdv infection increased the transcription of rig-i, while it decreased rig-i protein expression. a detailed analysis revealed that fmdv leader proteinase (l(pro)), as well as 3c proteinase (3c(pro)) and 2b protein, decreased rig-i protein expression. l(pro) and 3c(pro) are viral proteinases that can cleave v ...201627707918
equine rhinitis a virus mutants with altered acid resistance unveil a key role of vp3 and intrasubunit interactions in the control of the ph stability of the aphthovirus capsid.equine rhinitis a virus (erav) is a picornavirus associated with respiratory disease in horses and is genetically closely related to foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv), the prototype aphthovirus. erav has recently gained interest as an fmdv alternative for the study of aphthovirus biology, including cell entry and uncoating or antiviral testing. as described for fmdv, current data support that acidic ph inside cellular endosomes triggers erav uncoating. in order to provide further insights into ...201627535044
foot-and-mouth disease virus-like particles as integrin-based drug delivery system achieve targeting anti-tumor efficacy.the surface of foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv)-like particles (vlps) contains a conserved arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (rgd) motif. natural fmdv specifically attaches to overexpressed integrin receptors in several cancer cells. the fmdv vlps produced in escherichia coli were used for the first time as a delivery system of anti-tumor drug doxorubicin (dox). the dox-loaded vlps exhibited a distinct release profile in different physiological conditions. the effects of fmdv-vlps-dox on cellula ...201627993721
large-scale production of foot-and-mouth disease virus (serotype asia1) vlp vaccine in escherichia coli and protection potency evaluation in cattle.foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) is an acute, highly contagious disease that infects cloven-hoofed animals. vaccination is an effective means of preventing and controlling fmd. compared to conventional inactivated fmdv vaccines, the format of fmdv virus-like particles (vlps) as a non-replicating particulate vaccine candidate is a promising alternative.201627371162
alkaline hydrolysis to remove potentially infectious viral rna contaminants from dna.diagnostics and research of high-consequence animal disease agents is often limited to laboratories with a high level of biosecurity that restrict the transport of biological material. often, sharing of dna with external partners is needed to support diagnostics, forensics, or research. even in the absence of virus, rna from positive-sense single stranded rna (+ssrna) viruses that may contaminate otherwise purified dna preparations continues to pose a threat due to its potential to be infectious ...201627260412
diagnostic application of recombinant non-structural protein 3a to detect antibodies induced by foot-and-mouth disease virus infection.detection of antibodies to the non-structural proteins (nsps) of fmd virus (fmdv) is the preferred differential diagnostic method for identification of fmd-infected animals in the vaccinated population. nevertheless, due to the observed variability in the antibody response to nsps, the likelihood of screening or confirming the fmd infection status in animals is increased if an antibody profile to multiple nsps is considered for diagnosis. in order to develop and evaluate an additional nsp-based ...201626995490
development of high-affinity single chain fv against foot-and-mouth disease virus.foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) is caused by the fmd virus (fmdv) and results in severe economic losses in livestock farming. for rapid fmd diagnostic and therapeutic purposes, an effective antibody against fmdv is needed. here, we developed a high-affinity antibody against fmdv by facs-based high throughput screening of a random library. with the fitc-conjugated vp1 epitope of fmdv and high-speed facs sorting, we screened the synthetic antibody (scfv) library in which antibody variants are display ...201626827774
foot-and-mouth disease vaccines.foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) is a highly contagious disease of cloven-hoofed animals. the disease affects many areas of the world, often causing extensive epizootics in livestock, mostly farmed cattle and swine, although sheep, goats and many wild species are also susceptible. in countries where food and farm animals are essential for subsistence agriculture, outbreaks of fmd seriously impact food security and development. in highly industrialized developed nations, fmd endemics cause economic a ...201628040311
coordinated protein co-expression in plants by harnessing the synergy between an intein and a viral 2a peptide.a novel approach is developed for coordinated expression of multiple proteins from a single transgene in plants. an ssp dnae mini-intein variant engineered for hyper-n-terminal autocleavage is covalently linked to the foot-and-mouth disease virus 2a (f2a) peptide with unique ribosome skipping property, via a peptide linker, to create an 'intf2a' self-excising fusion protein domain. this intf2a domain acts, in cis, to direct highly effective release of its flanking proteins of interest (pois) fro ...201627879048
generation of mabs to foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype a and application in a competitive elisa for serodiagnosis.foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) is an economically devastating disease that severely limits international trade of animals. of the seven fmd virus (fmdv) serotypes, serotype a is one of the most widespread cross the world. currently antibodies to fmdv are detected in animals using the virus neutralization test (vnt) and the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (elisa). the vnt is laborious, time-consuming and reliant on live virus and cell cultures, while elisa has the advantage of using inactivated a ...201627894355
evolutionary phylodynamics of foot-and-mouth disease virus serotypes o and a circulating in vietnam.foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv) is one of the highest risk factors that affects the animal industry of the country. the virus causes production loss and high ratio mortality in young cloven-hoofed animals in vietnam. the vp1 coding gene of 80 fmdv samples (66 samples of the serotype o and 14 samples of the serotype a) collected from endemic outbreaks during 2006-2014 were analyzed to investigate their phylogeny and genetic relationship with other available fmdvs globally.201627894299
foot-and-mouth disease virus-associated abortion and vertical transmission following acute infection in cattle under natural conditions.foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) is a highly contagious and economically important viral disease of cloven-hoofed animals, including domestic and wild host species. during recent fmd outbreaks in india, spontaneous abortions were reported amongst fmd-affected and asymptomatic cows. the current study was an opportunistic investigation of these naturally occurring bovine abortions to assess causality of abortion and vertical transmission of fmdv from infected cows to fetuses. for this purpose, fetal t ...201627977708
challenges of generating and maintaining protective vaccine-induced immune responses for foot-and-mouth disease virus in pigs.vaccination can play a central role in the control of outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) by reducing both the impact of clinical disease and the extent of virus transmission between susceptible animals. recent incursions of exotic fmd virus lineages into several east asian countries have highlighted the difficulties of generating and maintaining an adequate immune response in vaccinated pigs. factors that impact vaccine performance include (i) the potency, antigenic payload, and formulati ...201627965966
complete genome sequence of pig-originated foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype o from bangladesh.in this article, we document the first pig-isolated complete genome sequence of foot-and-mouth disease virus type o in bangladesh. the complete viral genome revealed a potential serotypic recombination at the 5' untranslated region (utr). conventional amino acid deletion was lacking in 3a region, and antigenic heterogeneity to circulatory type o existed within the vp1 region.201627789636
infection dynamics of foot-and-mouth disease virus in cattle following intranasopharyngeal inoculation or contact exposure.for the purpose of developing an improved experimental model for studies of foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv) infection in cattle, three different experimental systems based on natural or simulated natural virus exposure were compared under standardized experimental conditions. ante-mortem infection dynamics were characterized in cattle exposed to fmdv through a novel, simulated natural intranasopharyngeal (inp) inoculation system or through standardized and controlled systems of within- or be ...201627697284
molecular epidemiology of senecavirus a associated with vesicular disease in pigs in brazil.senecavirus a (sv-a) may cause vesicular disease and neonatal mortality in pigs, and was first detected in brazil in 2015. samples including tissues and serum from pigs with suspected vesicular diseases were collected from january to august in 2015 from farms in the states of minas gerais, santa catarina, goiás and rio grande do sul, brazil, and tested for the presence of sv-a by reverse transcriptase pcr. all samples were negative for foot and mouth disease virus, as well as 13 other infectious ...201627687954
characterization of foot-and-mouth disease viruses collected in nigeria between 2007 and 2014: evidence for epidemiological links between west and east africa.this study describes the molecular characterization of 47 foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) viruses recovered from field outbreaks in nigeria between 2007 and 2014. antigen elisa of viral isolates was used to identify fmd virus serotypes o, a and sat 2. phylogenetic analyses of vp1 nucleotide sequences provide evidence for the presence of multiple sublineages of serotype sat 2, and o/east africa 3 (ea-3) and o/west africa topotypes in the country. in contrast, for serotype a, a single monophyletic cl ...201627718336
field-deployable reverse transcription-insulated isothermal pcr (rt-iipcr) assay for rapid and sensitive detection of foot-and-mouth disease virus.foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) is a highly contagious viral disease of cloven-hoofed animals, which can decimate the livestock industry and economy of countries previously free of this disease. rapid detection of foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv) is critical to containing an fmd outbreak. availability of a rapid, highly sensitive and specific, yet simple and field-deployable assay would support local decision-making during an fmdv outbreak. here we report validation of a novel reverse transcript ...201627589902
evaluation of the flinders technology associates cards for storage and temperature challenges in field conditions for foot-and-mouth disease virus surveillance.foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv) samples transported to the laboratory from far and inaccessible areas for diagnosis and identification of fmdv pose a major problem in a tropical country like india, where wide fluctuation of temperature over a large geographical area is common. inadequate storage methods lead to spoilage of fmdv samples collected from clinically positive animals in the field. such samples are declared as non-typeable by the typing laboratories with the consequent loss of valu ...201625598192
the serological response against foot and mouth disease virus elicited by repeated vaccination of dairy cattle.in israel, cattle are annually vaccinated against foot and mouth disease (fmd). if infections with fmd virus occur in dairy farms it mainly involves heifers and calves, while older dairy cows seldom become infected. we hypothesized that this difference in susceptibility between adult cows and the young heifers and calves is due to stronger and more stable immune response elicited by multiple vaccinations. in order to test this hypothesis, 99 dairy cattle, divided into six groups according to num ...201627576078
a tale of tails: dissecting the enhancing effect of tailed primers in real-time pcr.non-specific tail sequences are often added to the 5'-terminus of primers to improve the robustness and overall performance of diagnostic assays. despite the widespread use of tailed primers, the underlying working mechanism is not well understood. to address this problem, we conducted a detailed in vitro and in silico analysis of the enhancing effect of primer tailing on 2 well-established foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv) rt-qpcr assays using an fmdv reference panel. tailing of the panfmdv-5 ...201627723800
scotti: efficient reconstruction of transmission within outbreaks with the structured coalescent.exploiting pathogen genomes to reconstruct transmission represents a powerful tool in the fight against infectious disease. however, their interpretation rests on a number of simplifying assumptions that regularly ignore important complexities of real data, in particular within-host evolution and non-sampled patients. here we propose a new approach to transmission inference called scotti (structured coalescent transmission tree inference). this method is based on a statistical framework that mod ...201627681228
protection of a novel epitope-rna vlp double-effective vlp vaccine for foot-and-mouth disease.foot and mouth disease (fmd) is a highly contagious viral disease of cloven-hoofed animals. previously, we found that the epitope peptide ep141-160 displayed on virus-like particles (vlp) for use as a vaccine showed high immunoreactivity and conferred partially effective protection to animals. in this study, we first combined antisense rna with vlp as a vaccine against the foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv) by using a prokaryotic co-expression system. the antisense rna against the 3d genes of f ...201627565990
complete genome sequence of foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype sat3 zimbabwe/4/81.the complete genome sequence of a foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) serotype sat3 virus zim/4/81, which belongs to a topotype 1 (sez), is reported here.201627563037
systemic immune response and virus persistence after foot-and-mouth disease virus infection of naïve cattle and cattle vaccinated with a homologous adenovirus-vectored vaccine.in order to investigate host factors associated with the establishment of persistent foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv) infection, the systemic response to vaccination and challenge was studied in 47 steers. eighteen steers that had received a recombinant fmdv a vaccine 2 weeks earlier and 29 non-vaccinated steers were challenged by intra-nasopharyngeal deposition of fmdv a24. for up to 35 days after challenge, host factors including complete blood counts with t lymphocyte subsets, type i/iii i ...201627634113
transmission of foot-and-mouth disease virus during the incubation period in pigs.understanding the quantitative characteristics of a pathogen's capability to transmit during distinct phases of infection is important to enable accurate predictions of the spread and impact of a disease outbreak. in the current investigation, the potential for transmission of foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv) during the incubation (preclinical) period of infection was investigated in seven groups of pigs that were sequentially exposed to a group of donor pigs that were infected by simulated-n ...201627917386
in-cell shape uncovers dynamic interactions between the untranslated regions of the foot-and-mouth disease virus rna.the genome of rna viruses folds into 3d structures that include long-range rna-rna interactions relevant to control critical steps of the viral cycle. in particular, initiation of translation driven by the ires element of foot-and-mouth disease virus is stimulated by the 3'utr. here we sought to investigate the rna local flexibility of the ires element and the 3'utr in living cells. the shape reactivity observed in vivo showed statistically significant differences compared to the free rna, revea ...201627608725
dna vaccine (p1-2a-3c-pcdna) co-administered with bovine il-18 gives protective immune response against foot and mouth disease in cattle.foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) is a highly contagious disease of cloven-hoofed animals causing considerable economic loss in the affected countries. presently used tissue culture inactivated vaccine protects the vaccinated animals for a short duration. dna vaccines along with appropriate adjutants is one of the approach for the development of alternative vaccine. in the present study, we constructed p1-2a-3cpcdna (containing p1-2a-3c coding sequences of fmdv asia-1 ind 63/72) and bovine il-18 pcdn ...201627599937
inhibition of ehmt2 induces a robust antiviral response against foot-and-mouth disease and vesicular stomatitis virus infections in bovine cells.the genetic regulatory network controlling the innate immune system is well understood in many species. however, the role of the epigenetic mechanisms underlying the expression of immunoregulatory genes is less clear, especially in livestock species. histone h3 lysine 9 dimethylation (h3k9me2) is an epigenetic modification associated with transcriptional silencing within the euchromatin regions. euchromatic histone-lysine n-methyltransferase 2 (ehmt2; also known as g9a) is a crucial enzyme respo ...201626418342
outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease in libya and saudi arabia during 2013 due to an exotic o/me-sa/ind-2001 lineage virus.foot-and-mouth disease viruses are often restricted to specific geographical regions and spread to new areas may lead to significant epidemics. phylogenetic analysis of sequences of the vp1 genome region of recent outbreak viruses from libya and saudi arabia has revealed a lineage, o-ind-2001, normally found in the indian subcontinent. this paper describes the characterization of field viruses collected from these cases and provides information about a new real-time rt-pcr assay that can be used ...201625483996
an integrative analysis of foot-and-mouth disease virus carriers in vietnam achieved through targeted surveillance and molecular epidemiology.foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) is a major constraint to transboundary trade in animal products, yet much of its natural ecology and epidemiology in endemic regions is still poorly understood. to address this gap, a multidisciplinary, molecular and conventional epidemiological approach was applied to an investigation of endemic fmd in vietnam. within the study space, it was found that 22.3% of sampled ruminants had previously been infected with fmd virus (fmdv), of which 10.8% were persistent, asym ...201726301461
review of the global distribution of foot-and-mouth disease virus from 2007 to 2014.foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) virus affects livestock worldwide. there are seven different serotypes, each with a diversity of topotypes, genetic lineages and strains. some lineages have different properties that may contribute to sporadic spread beyond their recognized endemic areas. the objective of this study was to review the most significant fmd epidemiological events that took place worldwide between 2007 and 2014. severe epidemics were caused by fmd virus (fmdv) lineage o/asia/mya-98 in ja ...201725996568
foot-and-mouth disease in red deer - experimental infection and test methods performance.the aim of this study was to evaluate a number of foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) test methods for use in red deer. ten animals were intranasally inoculated with the fmd virus (fmdv) o ukg 11/2001, monitored for clinical signs, and samples taken regularly (blood, serum, oral swabs, nasal swabs, probang samples and lesion swabs, if present) over a 4-week period. only one animal, deer 1103, developed clinical signs (lesions under the tongue and at the coronary band of the right hind hoof). it tested ...201725907028
eradication of transboundary animal diseases: can the rinderpest success story be repeated?a matrix system was developed to aid in the evaluation of the technical amenability to eradication, through mass vaccination, of transboundary animal diseases (tads). the system involved evaluation of three basic criteria - disease management efficiency, surveillance and epidemiological factors - each in turn comprised of a number of elements (17 in all). on that basis, 25 tads that have occurred or do occur in southern africa and for which vaccines are available, in addition to rinderpest (inco ...201726104982
development of real-time and lateral flow strip reverse transcription recombinase polymerase amplification assays for rapid detection of peste des petits ruminants virus.peste des petits ruminants (ppr) is an economically important, office international des epizooties (oie) notifiable, transboundary viral disease of small ruminants such as sheep and goat. ppr virus (pprv), a negative-sense single-stranded rna virus, is the causal agent of ppr. therefore, sensitive, specific and rapid diagnostic assay for the detection of pprv are necessary to accurately and promptly diagnose suspected case of ppr.201728173845
rational design and efficacy of a multi-epitope recombinant protein vaccine against foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype a in pigs.foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) is a highly contagious disease of cloven-hoofed animals, and outbreaks of this disease are often economically catastrophic. recently, a series of outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv) serotype a occurred in many countries, including china. therefore, it is necessary to develop safe and effective vaccines. we designed multi-epitope recombinant proteins a6, a7, and a8 with different three-dimensional structures and compared their immunogenicity in pigs. the ...201728161579
host microrna-203a is antagonistic to the progression of foot-and-mouth disease virus infection.sam68 was previously shown to be a critical host factor for foot-and-mouth disease virus (fmdv) replication. microrna (mir) mir-203a is reportedly a negative regulator of sam68 expression both in vitro and in vivo. here, transfection of mir-203a-3p and mir-203a-5p mimics separately and in combination in a porcine cell line followed by fmdv infection resulted in diminished viral protein synthesis and a 4 and 6log reduction in virus titers relative to negative controls, respectively. unexpectedly, ...201728152384
in-cell shape uncovers dynamic interactions between the untranslated regions of the foot-and-mouth disease virus rna. 201728180318
exploiting serological data to understand the epidemiology of foot-and-mouth disease virus serotypes circulating in libya.sporadic outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease (fmd) have occurred in libya for almost fifty years. during the spring of 2013, a countrywide serosurvey was undertaken to assess the level of fmd virus circulation and identify fmd virus serotypes in the country. a total of 4221 sera were collected, comprising samples from large ruminants (lr; n=1428 samples from 357 farms) and small ruminants (sr; n=2793 samples from 141 farms). fmd sero-prevalence of nsp antibodies determined by elisa were 19.0% (2 ...201728180094
a versatile 2a peptide-based bicistronic protein expressing platform for the industrial cellulase producing fungus, trichoderma reesei.the industrial workhorse fungus, trichoderma reesei, is typically exploited for its ability to produce cellulase enzymes, whereas use of this fungus for over-expression of other proteins (homologous and heterologous) is still very limited. identifying transformants expressing target protein is a tedious task due to low transformation efficiency, combined with highly variable expression levels between transformants. routine methods for identification include pcr-based analysis, western blotting, ...201728184247
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