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metagenomic analysis of medicinal cannabis samples; pathogenic bacteria, toxigenic fungi, and beneficial microbes grow in culture-based yeast and mold tests.background: the presence of bacteria and fungi in medicinal or recreational cannabis poses a potential threat to consumers if those microbes include pathogenic or toxigenic species. this study evaluated two widely used culture-based platforms for total yeast and mold (tym) testing marketed by 3m corporation and biomérieux, in comparison with a quantitative pcr (qpcr) approach marketed by medicinal genomics corporation. methods: a set of 15 medicinal cannabis samples were analyzed using 3m and bi ...201627853518
pore-forming activity of clostridial binary toxins.clostridial binary toxins (clostridium perfringens iota toxin, clostridium difficile transferase, clostridium spiroforme toxin, clostridium botulinum c2 toxin) as bacillus binary toxins, including bacillus anthracis toxins consist of two independent proteins, one being the binding component which mediates the internalization into cell of the intracellularly active component. clostridial binary toxins induce actin cytoskeleton disorganization through mono-adp-ribosylation of globular actin and ar ...201626278641
systematic assessment of nonproteolytic clostridium botulinum spores for heat resistance.heat treatment is an important controlling factor that, in combination with other hurdles (e.g., ph, aw), is used to reduce numbers and prevent the growth of and associated neurotoxin formation by nonproteolytic c. botulinum in chilled foods. it is generally agreed that a heating process that reduces the spore concentration by a factor of 10(6) is an acceptable barrier in relation to this hazard. the purposes of the present study were to review the available data relating to heat resistance prop ...201627474721
molecular mimicry and autoimmune thyroid disease.hypothesized 40 years ago, molecular mimicry has been thereafter demonstrated as an extremely common mechanism by which microbes elude immune response and modulate biosynthetic/metabolic pathways of the host. in genetically predisposed persons and under particular conditions, molecular mimicry between microbial and human antigens can turn a defensive immune response into autoimmunity. such triggering role and its pathogenetic importance have been investigated and demonstrated for many autoimmune ...201627307072
investigation of a mortality cluster in wild adult yellow-eyed penguins (megadyptes antipodes) at otago peninsula, new zealand.we investigated an epidemic mortality cluster of yellow-eyed penguins (megadyptes antipodes) that involved 67 moribund or dead birds found on various beaches of the otago peninsula, new zealand, between january 21 and march 20, 2013. twenty-four carcases were examined postmortem. histological lesions of pulmonary, hepatic and splenic erythrophagocytosis and haemosiderosis were found in 23 of 24 birds. fifteen birds also had haemoglobin-like protein droplets within renal tubular epithelial cells. ...201627919180
a roadmap for gene system development in clostridium.clostridium species are both heroes and villains. some cause serious human and animal diseases, those present in the gut microbiota generally contribute to health and wellbeing, while others represent useful industrial chassis for the production of chemicals and fuels. to understand, counter or exploit, there is a fundamental requirement for effective systems that may be used for directed or random genome modifications. we have formulated a simple roadmap whereby the necessary gene systems maybe ...201627234263
ega protects mammalian cells from clostridium difficile cdt, clostridium perfringens iota toxin and clostridium botulinum c2 toxin.the pathogenic bacteria clostridium difficile, clostridium perfringens and clostridium botulinum produce the binary actin adp-ribosylating toxins cdt, iota and c2, respectively. these toxins are composed of a transport component (b) and a separate enzyme component (a). when both components assemble on the surface of mammalian target cells, the b components mediate the entry of the a components via endosomes into the cytosol. here, the a components adp-ribosylate g-actin, resulting in depolymeriz ...201627043629
molecular diversity of clostridium botulinum and phenotypically similar strains.this study was undertaken to examine phenotypic and genetic features of strains preliminary classified as clostridium botulinum species. the phenotypic characteristics were assessed with different culture media and biochemical tests. the genetic characterization included detection of botulinum toxin genes by pcr and macrorestriction analysis with smai, xhoi and sacii by pfge (pulsed-field gel electrophoresis). despite similar biochemical properties of all analysed strains, only 47% of them conta ...201628092605
impact of clostridium botulinum genomic diversity on food safety.the deadly botulinum neurotoxin formed by clostridium botulinum is the causative agent of foodborne botulism. the increasing availability of c. botulinum genome sequences is starting to allow the genomic diversity of c. botulinum groups i and ii and their neurotoxins to be characterised. this information will impact on microbiological food safety through improved surveillance and tracing/tracking during outbreaks, and a better characterisation of c. botulinum groups i and ii, including the risk ...201628058209
anti-botulism single-shot vaccine using chitosan for protein encapsulation by simple coacervation.the aim of the present study was to compare the potency and safety of vaccines against clostridium botulinum (c. botulinum) type c and d formulated with chitosan as controlled release matrix and vaccines formulated in conventional manner using aluminum hydroxide. parameters were established for the development of chitosan microspheres, using simple coacervation to standardize the use of this polymer in protein encapsulation for vaccine formulation. to formulate a single shot vaccine inactivated ...201627989928
solubility of the catalytic domains of botulinum neurotoxin serotype e subtypes.the clostridium botulinum neurotoxins (bonts) are the most potent protein toxins known to humans. there are seven serotypes of the bonts (a-g), among which serotypes a, b, e and f are known to cause natural human intoxication. to date, eleven subtypes of lc/e, termed e1∼e11, have been identified. the lcs of bont/e were insoluble, prohibiting studies towards understanding the mechanisms of toxin action and substrate recognition. in this work, the molecular basis of insolubility of the recombinant ...201626477500
livers provide a reliable matrix for real-time pcr confirmation of avian botulism.diagnosis of avian botulism is based on clinical symptoms, which are indicative but not specific. laboratory investigations are therefore required to confirm clinical suspicions and establish a definitive diagnosis. real-time pcr methods have recently been developed for the detection of clostridium botulinum group iii producing type c, d, c/d or d/c toxins. however, no study has been conducted to determine which types of matrices should be analyzed for laboratory confirmation using this approach ...201626545739
hydrolysis of synthetic polyesters by clostridium botulinum esterases.two novel esterases from the anaerobe clostridium botulinum atcc 3502 (cbotu_esta and cbotu_estb) were expressed in escherichia coli bl21-gold(de3) and were found to hydrolyze the polyester poly(butylene adipate-co-butylene terephthalate) (pbat). the active site residues (triad ser, asp, his) are present in both enzymes at the same location only with some amino acid variations near the active site at the surrounding of aspartate. yet, cbotu_esta showed higher kcat values on para-nitrophenyl buty ...201626524601
a study on the toxigenesis by clostridium botulinum in nitrate and nitrite-reduced dry fermented sausages.nitrite has been traditionally used to control clostridium botulinum in cured meat products. however, in the case of dry fermented sausages, environmental factors such as ph, aw and the competitive microbiota may exert a more relevant role than nitrite in the inhibition of the growth and toxin production by c. botulinum. in this challenge test study, two varieties of mediterranean dry sausages (salchichón and fuet) were inoculated with spores of c. botulinum group i (proteolytic) and c. botulinu ...201626619314
detection of toxigenic clostridium perfringens and clostridium botulinum from food sold in lagos, nigeria.food-borne diseases contribute to the huge burden of sickness and death globally and in the last decade, have become more frequently reported in africa. in line with this, food safety is becoming a significant and growing public health problem in nigeria. diarrhoea is a common problem in nigeria and has been reported but there has been little data on the possibility of clostridia as aetiological agents. clostridium species are ubiquitous in the environment and in the gastrointestinal tract of ma ...201627789246
multiple-locus variable number of tandem repeat analysis as a tool for molecular epidemiology of botulism: the italian experience.clostridium botulinum is the bacterial agent of botulism, a rare but severe neuro-paralytic disease. because of its high impact, in italy botulism is monitored by an ad hoc surveillance system. the national reference centre for botulism, as part of this system, collects and analyzes all demographic, epidemiologic, microbiological, and molecular data recovered during cases and/or outbreaks occurred in italy. a panel of 312 c. botulinum strains belonging to group i were submitted to mlva sub-typin ...201627771520
early diagnosis and treatment in a child with foodborne botulism.foodborne botulism is a neuroparalytic disease caused by ingestion of food contaminated with botulinum toxins. despite rare the mortality rate is high if untreated. diagnosis of botulism is still a challenge for clinician, due to the variability of clinical manifestations and disease course. we report on a child with type b botulin intoxication who was early diagnosed and treated underlining that clinical suspicion is crucial to start prompt treatment.201626688278
equine grass sickness, but not botulism, causes autonomic and enteric neurodegeneration and increases soluble n-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment receptor protein expression within neuronal perikarya.equine grass sickness (egs) is of unknown aetiology. despite some evidence suggesting that it represents a toxico-infection with clostridium botulinum types c and/or d, the effect of egs on the functional targets of botulinum neurotoxins, namely the soluble n-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment receptor (snare) proteins, is unknown. further, while it is commonly stated that, unlike egs, equine botulism is not associated with autonomic and enteric neurodegeneration, this has not been defin ...201626640078
structural and functional interactions between transient receptor potential vanilloid subfamily 1 and botulinum neurotoxin serotype a.botulinum neurotoxins are produced by clostridium botulinum bacteria. there are eight serologically distinct botulinum neurotoxin isoforms (serotypes a-h). currently, botulinum neurotoxin serotype a (bont⁄a) is commonly used for the treatment of many disorders, such as hyperactive musculoskeletal disorders, dystonia, and pain. however, the effectiveness of bont⁄a for pain alleviation and the mechanisms that mediate the analgesic effects of bont⁄a remain unclear. to define the antinociceptive mec ...201626745805
quantification of nonproteolytic clostridium botulinum spore loads in food materials.we have produced data and developed analysis to build representations for the concentration of spores of nonproteolytic clostridium botulinum in materials that are used during the manufacture of minimally processed chilled foods in the united kingdom. food materials are categorized into homogenous groups which include meat, fish, shellfish, cereals, fresh plant material, dairy liquid, dairy nonliquid, mushroom and fungi, and dried herbs and spices. models are constructed in a bayesian framework ...201626729721
diversity of group i and ii clostridium botulinum strains from france including recently identified subtypes.in france, human botulism is mainly food-borne intoxication, whereas infant botulism is rare. a total of 99 group i and ii clostridium botulinum strains including 59 type a (12 historical isolates [1947-1961], 43 from france [1986-2013], 3 from other countries, and 1 collection strain), 31 type b (3 historical, 23 recent isolates, 4 from other countries, and 1 collection strain), and 9 type e (5 historical, 3 isolates, and 1 collection strain) were investigated by botulinum locus gene sequencing ...201627189984
clostridium botulinum type d/c intoxication in a dairy cow stock in saxony-anhalt (germany)--report on an innovative diagnostic approach.botulism in cattle is a rare but serious disease. in germany there is no obligation to report botulism in animals and therefore a precise morbidity rate is not available. in this manuscript we describe an outbreak of clostridium (c.) botulinum neurotoxin (bont) intoxication in a saxony-anhalt dairy cow stock of 286 holstein-friesian cows and offspring in spring/summer 2009 and its diagnostic approach. 122 animals showed clinical signs of bont intoxication. 115 of the affected animals (40.2% of t ...201627169148
intraprostatic botulinum neurotoxin type a injection for benign prostatic hyperplasia-a spotlight in reality.botulinum toxin is a neurotoxin produced by the bacterium clostridium botulinum. it inhibits the release of acetylcholine and other neurotransmitters from the nerve terminal. botulinum toxin, specifically toxin type a (bont-a) has been used since the 1970s to reduce the muscular hypercontraction disorders. the application of bont-a in urology field started from intra-bladder injection for overactive bladder, which has been recognized as third line therapy in many countries. since prostate gland ...201627128942
data describing inhibitory profiles of sugars against hemagglutination by the botulinum toxin complex of clostridium botulinum serotypes c and d.serotype c and d of clostridium botulinum produce botulinum toxin complex (tc), which is comprised of botulinum neurotoxin, nontoxic nonhemagglutinin, and hemagglutinins (has). the tc is capable of aggregating equine erythrocytes via interaction between one of the has, namely ha-33, and sugar chains on the cell surface. this hemagglutination is inhibited by specific sugars. in this data article, we used four tcs from serotype c and d strains. the hemagglutination-inhibiting effects of 18 sugars ...201627699192
polyester hydrolysis is enhanced by a truncated esterase: less is more.an esterase from clostridium botulinum (cbotu_esta) previously reported to hydrolyze the biodegradable polyester poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) was redesigned to improve the hydrolysis of synthetic polyesters. increased activity was indeed observed for del71cbotu_esta variant, which performed activity on the widespread polyester polyethylene terephthalate, which was not able to be attacked by the wild-type enzyme cbotu_esta. analysis of the 3d structure of the enzyme showed that removin ...201627687520
new insights into the genetic diversity of clostridium botulinum group iii through extensive genome exploration.animal botulism is caused by group iii clostridium botulinum strains producing type c and d toxins, or their chimeric forms c/d and d/c. animal botulism is considered an emerging disease in europe, notably in poultry production. before our study, 14 genomes from different countries were available in the public database, but none were from france. in order to investigate the genetic relationship of french strains with different geographical areas and find new potential typing targets, 17 strains ...201627242769
designing a field trial of an equine grass sickness vaccine: a questionnaire-based feasibility study.without an experimental model of equine grass sickness (egs), a randomised controlled field trial (rct) represents the only method of evaluating the efficacy of clostridium botulinum type c vaccination in preventing naturally occurring disease. clinical trial feasibility is an important aspect of preliminary work undertaken prior to initiating rcts, estimating parameters that are important for study design. this cross-sectional study aimed to assess the feasibility of conducting a nationwide rct ...201627240918
conformational divergence in the ha-33/ha-17 trimer of serotype c and d botulinum toxin complex.clostridium botulinum produces a large toxin complex (l-tc) comprising botulinum neurotoxin associated with auxiliary nontoxic proteins. a complex of 33- and 17-kda hemagglutinins (an ha-33/ha-17 trimer) enhances l-tc transport across the intestinal epithelial cell layer via binding ha-33 to a sugar on the cell surface. at least two subtypes of serotype c/d ha-33 exhibit differing preferences for the sugars sialic acid and galactose. here, we compared the three-dimensional structures of the gala ...201627237978
protective potential of recombinant non-purified botulinum neurotoxin serotypes c and d.botulinum neurotoxin (bont) serotypes c and d are responsible for cattle botulism, a fatal paralytic disease that results in great economic losses in livestock production. vaccination is the main approach to prevent cattle botulism. however, production of commercially available vaccines (toxoids) involves high risk and presents variation of bont production between batches. such limitations can be attenuated by the development of novel nontoxic recombinant vaccines through a simple and reproducib ...201627236078
phenotypic and genotypic characterization of bacteriocinogenic enterococci against clostridium botulinum.the present study aimed to characterize enterococcus faecalis (n = -6) and enterococcus faecium (n = 1) isolated from healthy chickens to find a novel perspective probiotic candidate that antagonize clostridium botulinum types a, b, d, and e. the isolated enterococci were characterized based on phenotypic properties, pcr, and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight (maldi-tof). the virulence determinants including hemolytic activity on blood agar, gelatinase activity, sensitiv ...201627914002
an integrative approach to computational modelling of the gene regulatory network controlling clostridium botulinum type a1 toxin production.clostridium botulinum produces botulinum neurotoxins (bonts), highly potent substances responsible for botulism. currently, mathematical models of c. botulinum growth and toxigenesis are largely aimed at risk assessment and do not include explicit genetic information beyond group level but integrate many component processes, such as signalling, membrane permeability and metabolic activity. in this paper we present a scheme for modelling neurotoxin production in c. botulinum group i type a1, base ...201627855161
diversity of the germination apparatus in clostridium botulinum groups i, ii, iii, and iv.clostridium botulinum is a highly dangerous pathogen that forms very resistant endospores that are ubiquitous in the environment, and which, under favorable conditions germinate to produce vegetative cells that multiply and form the exceptionally potent botulinum neurotoxin. to improve the control of botulinum neurotoxin-forming clostridia, it is important to understand the mechanisms involved in spore germination. here we present models for spore germination in c. botulinum based on comparative ...201627840626
cell entry of c3 exoenzyme from clostridium botulinum.clostridium botulinum c3 is the prototype of c3-like adp-ribosyltransferases that selectively adp-ribosylate the small gtp-binding proteins rhoa/b/c and inhibit their downstream signaling pathways. it is used as pharmacological tool to study cellular rho functions. in addition, c3bot harbors a transferase-independent activity on neurons to promote axonal and dendritic growth and branching. many bacterial protein toxins interact specifically with proteins and/or other membrane components at the s ...201627832378
isolation of botulinolysin, a thiol-activated hemolysin, from serotype d clostridium botulinum: a species-specific gene duplication in clostridia.botulinolysin (bly) is a toxin produced by clostridium botulinum that belongs to a group of thiol-activated hemolysins. in this study, a protein exhibiting hemolytic activity was purified from the culture supernatant of c. botulinum serotype d strain 4947. the purified protein displayed a single band by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis with a molecular mass of 55kda, and its n-terminal and internal amino acid sequences exhibited high similarity to a group of thiol-activa ...201627825483
receptor-binding and uptake of binary actin-adp-ribosylating toxins.binary actin-adp-ribosylating toxins (e.g., clostridium botulinum c2 toxin or clostridium perfringens iota toxin ) consist of two separate proteins: an adp-ribosyltransferase, which modifies actin thereby inhibiting actin polymerization, and a binding component that forms heptamers after proteolytic activation. while c2 toxin interacts with carbohydrate structures on host cells, the group of iota-like toxins binds to lipolysis-stimulated lipoprotein receptor (lsr). here, we review lsr and discus ...201627817176
study on potential clostridium botulinum growth and toxin production in parma ham.the objective of this study was to investigate clostridium botulinum growth and toxin production in the industrially manufactured italian parma ham. the study focuses on the parma ham production phase identified as maximum risk to c. botulinum proliferation, i.e. the transition from cold phase (salting and resting) to a phase carried out at temperature between 15 and 23°c (drying). a preliminary in vitro test was carried out in order to verify the capability of 6 c. botulinum strains (1 type a, ...201627800441
diversity of the bacterial community in myanmar traditional salted fish yegyo ngapi.the distribution and characterization of bacteria including lactic acid bacteria (lab) in the traditional and popular salted fish yegyo ngapi in myanmar were studied to clarify the contribution of these bacteria to the curing and ripening of this product. samples of yegyo ngapi purchased from a market in yangon were used. most of the isolates obtained using de man, rogosa and sharpe medium containing 10 % nacl were identified as coccoid lab on the basis of their basic phenotypic characteristics. ...201627565776
neurotoxins from clostridium botulinum (serotype a) isolated from the soil of mendoza (argentina) differ from the a-hall archetype and from that causing infant botulism.the type a of neurotoxin produced by clostridium botulinum is the prevalent serotype in strains of mendoza. the soil is the main reservoir for c.botulinum and is possibly one of the infection sources in infant botulism. in this study, we characterized and compared autochthonous c. botulinum strains and their neurotoxins. bacterial samples were obtained from the soil and from fecal samples collected from children with infant botulism. we first observed differences in the appearance of the colonie ...201627527271
chloroquine analog interaction with c2- and iota-toxin in vitro and in living cells.c2-toxin from clostridium botulinum and iota-toxin from clostridium perfringens belong both to the binary a-b-type of toxins consisting of two separately secreted components, an enzymatic subunit a and a binding component b that facilitates the entry of the corresponding enzymatic subunit into the target cells. the enzymatic subunits are in both cases actin adp-ribosyltransferases that modify r177 of globular actin finally leading to cell death. following their binding to host cells' receptors a ...201627517960
botulinum toxin for rhinitis.rhinitis is a common clinical entity. besides nasal obstruction, itching, and sneezing, one of the most important symptoms of rhinitis is nasal hypersecretion produced by nasal glands and exudate from the nasal vascular bed. allergic rhinitis is an ige-mediated inflammatory reaction of nasal mucosa after exposure to environmental allergens. idiopathic rhinitis describes rhinitis symptoms that occur after non-allergic, noninfectious irritants. specific allergen avoidance, topical nasal decongesta ...201627461136
α-tea inhibits the growth and motility of human colon cancer cells via targeting rhoa/rock signaling.colon or colorectal cancer is a common type of human cancer, which originates in the intestine crassum or the rectum. in the united states, colorectal cancer has one of the highest rates of cancer‑related mortality. investigating novel chemotherapeutic approaches is significant in the treatment of cancers, such as colorectal cancer. α-tocopherol ether-linked acetic acid (α-tea) is a potent anticancer agent in multiple types of human cancer. however, its effect remains to be determined in colon c ...201627432222
survival of corticostriatal neurons by rho/rho-kinase signaling pathway.developing cortical neurons undergo a number of sequential developmental events including neuronal survival/apoptosis, and the molecular mechanism underlying each characteristic process has been studied in detail. however, the survival pathway of cortical neurons at mature stages remains largely uninvestigated. we herein focused on mature corticostriatal neurons because of their important roles in various higher brain functions and the spectrum of neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders. the ...201627424794
the intermediate filament protein vimentin is essential for axonotrophic effects of clostridium botulinum c3 exoenzyme.the type iii intermediate filament protein vimentin was recently identified to mediate binding and uptake of clostridium botulinum c3 exoenzyme (c3bot) in two cell lines. here, we used primary neuronal cultures from vimentin knockout (vim(-/-) ) mice to study the impact of vimentin on axonal growth and internalization of c3bot. in contrast to wild type, vimentin knockout neurons were insensitive to c3bot. application of extracellular vimentin to vim(-/-) neurons completely restored the growth-pr ...201627419376
clostridial binary toxins: basic understandings that include cell surface binding and an internal "coup de grâce".clostridium species can make a remarkable number of different protein toxins, causing many diverse diseases in humans and animals. the binary toxins of clostridium botulinum, c. difficile, c. perfringens, and c. spiroforme are one group of enteric-acting toxins that attack the actin cytoskeleton of various cell types. these enterotoxins consist of a (enzymatic) and b (cell binding/membrane translocation) components that assemble on the targeted cell surface or in solution, forming a multimeric c ...201627380267
botulinum toxin a for bladder pain syndrome/interstitial cystitis.botulinum neurotoxin a (bont-a), derived from clostridium botulinum, has been used clinically for several diseases or syndrome including chronic migraine, spasticity, focal dystonia and other neuropathic pain. chronic pelvic or bladder pain is the one of the core symptoms of bladder pain syndrome/interstitial cystitis (bps/ic). however, in the field of urology, chronic bladder or pelvic pain is often difficult to eradicate by oral medications or bladder instillation therapy. we are looking for n ...201627376330
characterization of the spore surface and exosporium proteins of clostridium sporogenes; implications for clostridium botulinum group i strains.clostridium sporogenes is a non-pathogenic close relative and surrogate for group i (proteolytic) neurotoxin-producing clostridium botulinum strains. the exosporium, the sac-like outermost layer of spores of these species, is likely to contribute to adhesion, dissemination, and virulence. a paracrystalline array, hairy nap, and several appendages were detected in the exosporium of c. sporogenes strain ncimb 701792 by em and afm. the protein composition of purified exosporium was explored by lc-m ...201627375261
detection, differentiation, and identification of botulinum neurotoxin serotypes c, cd, d, and dc by highly specific immunoassays and mass spectrometry.botulinum neurotoxin (bont) serotypes c and d and their mosaic variants cd and dc cause severe cases of botulism in animal husbandry and wildlife. epidemiological data on the exact serotype or toxin variant causing outbreaks are rarely available, mainly because of their high sequence identity and the lack of fast and specific screening tools to detect and differentiate the four similar toxins. to fill this gap, we developed four highly specific sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (elisas ...201627353114
[familial microepidemic of food-borne botulism in the region of madrid].botulism is a syndrome caused by the toxin of the bacillus clostridium botulinum. the toxin acts by blocking the presynaptic cholinergic endings of the neuromuscular junction and of the parasympathetic nervous system, and gives rise to a flaccid paralysis and parasympathetic failure. the most common way to catch the disease is by ingestion of the preformed toxin present in badly sterilised home-made preserves, although other mechanisms are also possible. its incidence in spain today is very low.201627345277
structural constraints-based evaluation of immunogenic avirulent toxins from clostridium botulinum c2 and c3 toxins as subunit vaccines.clostridium botulinum (group-iii) is an anaerobic bacterium producing c2 and c3 toxins in addition to botulinum neurotoxins in avian and mammalian cells. c2 and c3 toxins are members of bacterial adp-ribosyltransferase superfamily, which modify the eukaryotic cell surface proteins by adp-ribosylation reaction. herein, the mutant proteins with lack of catalytic and pore forming function derived from c2 (c2i and c2ii) and c3 toxins were computationally evaluated to understand their structure-funct ...201627320793
a penicillin- and metronidazole-resistant clostridium botulinum strain responsible for an infant botulism case.the clinical course of a case of infant botulism was characterized by several relapses despite therapy with amoxicillin and metronidazole. botulism was confirmed by identification of botulinum toxin and clostridium botulinum in stools. a c. botulinum a2 strain resistant to penicillins and with heterogeneous resistance to metronidazole was isolated from stool samples up to 110 days after onset. antibiotic susceptibility was tested by disc agar diffusion and mics were determined by etest. whole ge ...201627108966
occurrence of human pathogenic clostridium botulinum among healthy dairy animals: an emerging public health hazard.the current study was conducted to investigate the occurrence of human pathogenic clostridium botulinum in the feces of dairy animals. fecal samples were collected from 203 apparently healthy dairy animals (50 cattle, 50 buffaloes, 52 sheep, 51 goats). samples were cultured to recover c. botulinum while human pathogenic c. botulinum strains were identified after screening of all c. botulinum isolates for the presence of genes that encode toxins type a, b, e, f. the overall prevalence of c. botul ...201627077311
recombinant botulinum toxoids: a practical guide for production.clostridium botulinum is a gram-positive, spore-forming, anaerobic bacillus that produces a potent neurotoxin. botulinum neurotoxins (bonts) are classified from serotypes a to h, and even though they have similar mechanisms of action, they show preferential hosts. in veterinary medicine, bont serotypes c and d are the most important, once several animal species are susceptible to them. since bonts are the most potent toxins known in nature, the best way to control botulism in animals is through ...201627076326
sugared biomaterial binding lectins: achievements and perspectives.lectins, a distinct group of glycan-binding proteins, play a prominent role in the immune system ranging from pathogen recognition and tuning of inflammation to cell adhesion or cellular signalling. the possibilities of their detailed study expanded along with the rapid development of biomaterials in the last decade. the immense knowledge of all aspects of glycan-lectin interactions both in vitro and in vivo may be efficiently used in bioimaging, targeted drug delivery, diagnostic and analytic b ...201627075026
a novel immune-tolerable and permeable lectin-like protein from mushroom agaricus bisporus.a lectin like protein designated as lsmt is recently discovered in agaricus bisporus. the protein adopts very similar structure to ricin-b like lectin from clitocybe nebularis (cnl) and ha-33 from clostridium botulinum (ha-33), which both recognize sugar molecules that decorate the surface of the epithelial cells of the intestine. a preliminary study in silico pointed out potential capability of lsmt to perform such biological activity. following that hypothesis, we demonstrated that lsmt is ind ...201627060548
a structurally novel chitinase from the chitin-degrading hyperthermophilic archaeon thermococcus chitonophagus.a structurally novel chitinase, tc-chid, was identified from the hyperthermophilic archaeon thermococcus chitonophagus, which can grow on chitin as the sole organic carbon source. the gene encoding tc-chid contains regions corresponding to a signal sequence, two chitin-binding domains, and a putative catalytic domain. this catalytic domain shows no similarity with previously characterized chitinases but resembles an uncharacterized protein found in the mesophilic anaerobic bacterium clostridium ...201627060120
detection and quantification of adp-ribosylated rhoa/b by monoclonal antibody.clostridium botulinum exoenzyme c3 is the prototype of c3-like adp-ribosyltransferases that modify the gtpases rhoa, b, and c. c3 catalyzes the transfer of an adp-ribose moiety from the co-substrate nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (nad) to asparagine-41 of rho-gtpases. although c3 does not possess cell-binding/-translocation domains, c3 is able to efficiently enter intact cells, including neuronal and macrophage-like cells. conventionally, the detection of c3 uptake into cells is carried out v ...201627043630
oxidation-reduction potential and lipid oxidation in ready-to-eat blue mussels in red sauce: criteria for package design.ready-to-eat in-package pasteurized blue mussels in red sauce requires refrigerated storage or in combination with aerobic environment to prevent the growth of anaerobes. a low barrier packaging may create aerobic environment, however, it causes lipid oxidation in mussels. thus, evaluation of oxidation-reduction potential (eh) (aerobic/anaerobic nature of food) and lipid oxidation is essential. three packaging materials with oxygen transmission rate (otr) of 62 (f-62), 40 (f-40) and 3 (f-3) cc/m ...201627030106
retargeting the clostridium botulinum c2 toxin to the neuronal cytosol.many biological toxins are known to attack specific cell types, delivering their enzymatic payloads to the cytosol. this process can be manipulated by molecular engineering of chimeric toxins. using toxins with naturally unlinked components as a starting point is advantageous because it allows for the development of payloads separately from the binding/translocation components. here the clostridium botulinum c2 binding/translocation domain was retargeted to neural cell populations by deleting it ...201627025362
differences in the vulnerability of waterbird species to botulism outbreaks in mediterranean wetlands: an assessment of ecological and physiological factors.avian botulism kills thousands of waterbirds every year, including endangered species, but information about the differences between species in vulnerability to botulism outbreaks and the capacity to act as carriers of clostridium botulinum is still poorly known. here, we estimated the vulnerability to botulism of 11 waterbird species from mediterranean wetlands by comparing the number of affected birds with the census of individuals at risk. the capacity of different species to act as carriers ...201627016572
detection of clostridium botulinum neurotoxin genes (a-f) in dairy farms from northern germany using pcr: a case-control study.classical botulism in cattle mainly occurs after ingestion of feed contaminated with preformed toxin. in 2001 a form of botulism ("visceral botulism") was postulated to occur after ingestion of clostridium (c.) botulinum cells or spores, followed by colonization of the intestine, and local production of botulinum neurotoxin (bont) causing chronic generalized disease. to verify the potential role of c. botulinum in the described syndrome, a case-control study was conducted, including 139 farms. f ...201627016061
construction of nontoxigenic mutants of nonproteolytic clostridium botulinum nctc 11219 by insertional mutagenesis and gene replacement.group ii nonproteolytic clostridium botulinum (giicb) strains are an important concern for the safety of minimally processed ready-to-eat foods, because they can grow and produce botulinum neurotoxin during refrigerated storage. the principles of control of giicb by conventional food processing and preservation methods have been well investigated and translated into guidelines for the food industry; in contrast, the effectiveness of emerging processing and preservation techniques has been poorly ...201626994073
outbreak of type c botulism in commercial layer chickens.this report describes an outbreak of type c botulism in two organic, free-range commercial layer farms in the midwest. hens affected were 64-wk-old hy-line brown hens and 34-wk-old hy-line brown hens owned by the same company, but housed on different premises, with approximately 20,000 birds per house. mortality over the 2 wk of investigation was estimated to be up to 8% and 2.8%, respectively, with birds acting listless, lethargic, and depressed. clinical signs consisted of progressive paralysi ...201626953952
comparative genomic analyses reveal broad diversity in botulinum-toxin-producing clostridia.clostridium botulinum is a diverse group of bacteria characterized by the production of botulinum neurotoxin. botulinum neurotoxins are classified into serotypes (bont/a-g), which are produced by six species/groups of clostridia, but the genetic background of the bacteria remains poorly understood. the purpose of this study was to use comparative genomics to provide insights into the genetic diversity and evolutionary history of bacteria that produce the potent botulinum neurotoxin.201626939550
immunological characterization and neutralizing ability of monoclonal antibodies directed against botulinum neurotoxin type h.only clostridium botulinum strain ibca10-7060 produces the recently described novel botulinum neurotoxin type h (bont/h). bont/h (n-terminal two-thirds most homologous to bont/f and c-terminal one-third most homologous to bont/a) requires antitoxin to toxin ratios ≥1190:1 for neutralization by existing antitoxins. hence, more potent and safer antitoxins against bont/h are needed.201626936913
evolution of chromosomal clostridium botulinum type e neurotoxin gene clusters: evidence provided by their rare plasmid-borne counterparts.analysis of more than 150 clostridium botulinum group ii type e genomes identified a small fraction (6%) where neurotoxin-encoding genes were located on plasmids. seven closely related (134-144 kb) neurotoxigenic plasmids of subtypes e1, e3, and e10 were characterized; all carried genes associated with plasmid mobility via conjugation. each plasmid contained the same 24-kb neurotoxin cluster cassette (six neurotoxin cluster and six flanking genes) that had split a helicase gene, rather than the ...201626936890
use of botulinum toxin type a for the treatment of radiation therapy-induced myokymia and neuromyotonia in a dog.case description a 5-year-old castrated male maltese was evaluated for intermittent clinical signs of muscle cramping and abnormal movements of the skin of the right pelvic limb at the site where an infiltrative lipoma had twice been resected. after the second surgery, the surgical field was treated with radiation therapy (rt). the clinical signs developed approximately 14 months after completion of rt. clinical findings when clinical signs were present, the right biceps femoris and semitendinos ...201626885596
botulinum toxin: pharmacology and therapeutic roles in pain states.botulinum toxin, also known as botox, is produced by clostridium botulinum, a gram-positive anaerobic bacterium, and botulinum toxin injections are among the most commonly practiced cosmetic procedures in the usa. although botulinum toxin is typically associated with cosmetic procedures, it can be used to treat a variety of other conditions, including pain. botulinum toxin blocks the release of acetylcholine from nerve endings to paralyze muscles and to decrease the pain response. botulinum toxi ...201626879873
the botulinum toxin as a therapeutic agent: molecular structure and mechanism of action in motor and sensory systems.botulinum neurotoxin (bont) produced by clostridium botulinum is the most potent molecule known to mankind. higher potency of bont is attributed to several factors, including structural and functional uniqueness, target specificity, and longevity. although bont is an extremely toxic molecule, it is now increasingly used for the treatment of disorders related to muscle hyperactivity and glandular hyperactivity. weakening of muscles due to peripheral action of bont produces a therapeutic effect. d ...201626866491
a supramolecular approach toward bioinspired pamam-dendronized fusion toxins.nature has provided a highly optimized toolbox in bacterial endotoxins with precise functions dictated by their clear structural division. inspired by this streamlined design, a supramolecular approach capitalizing on the strong biomolecular (streptavidin (sa))-biotin interactions is reported herein to prepare two multipartite fusion constructs, which involves the generation 2.0 (d2) or generation 3.0 (d3) polyamidoamine-dendronized transporter proteins (dendronized streptavidin (d3sa) and dendr ...201626833574
thermal and pressure-assisted thermal destruction kinetics for spores of type a clostridium botulinum and clostridium sporogenes pa3679.the purpose of this study was to determine the inactivation kinetics of the spores of the most resistant proteolytic clostridium botulinum strains (giorgio-a and 69-a, as determined from an earlier screening study) and of clostridium sporogenes pa3679 and to compare the thermal and pressure-assisted thermal resistance of these spores. spores of these strains were prepared using a biphasic medium method. c. sporogenes pa3679 spores were heat treated before spore preparation. using laboratory-scal ...201626818986
structure-function discrepancy in clostridium botulinum c3 toxin for its rational prioritization as a subunit vaccine.clostridium botulinum is anaerobic pathogenic bacterium causing food-born botulism in human and animals by producing botulinum neurotoxins a-h, c2, and c3 cytotoxins. physiological group iii strains (type c and d) of this bacterium are capable of producing c2 and c3 toxins in cattle and avian. herein, we have revealed the structure-function disparity of c3 toxins from two different c. botulinum type c phage (cboc) and type d phage (cbod) to design avirulent toxins rationally. structure-function ...201626239365
the role of small acid-soluble proteins (sasps) in protection of spores of clostridium botulinum against nitrous acid.mutant strains of clostridium botulinum atcc 3502 were generated using the clostron in four genes (cbo1789, cbo1790, cbo3048, cbo3145) identified as encoding α/β-type sasp homologues. the spores of mutant strains in which cbo1789 or cbo1790 was inactivated demonstrated a significant increase in sensitivity to the damaging agent nitrous acid (p<0.01), a phenotype that was partially restored to wild-type in complementation studies. in contrast to nitrous acid, the spores of the cbo1789 and cbo1790 ...201626386202
a novel botulinum neurotoxin, previously reported as serotype h, has a hybrid-like structure with regions of similarity to the structures of serotypes a and f and is neutralized with serotype a antitoxin.botulism is a potentially fatal paralytic disease caused by the action of botulinum neurotoxin (bont) on nerve cells. there are 7 known serotypes (a-g) of bont and up to 40 genetic variants. clostridium botulinum strain ibca10-7060 was recently reported to produce bont serotype b (bont/b) and a novel bont, designated as bont/h. the bont gene (bont) sequence of bont/h was compared to known bont sequences. genetic analysis suggested that bont/h has a hybrid-like structure containing regions of sim ...201626068781
microbiology and foodborne pathogens in honey.honey has been considered a relatively safe foodstuff due to its compositional properties, with infant botulism caused by clostridium botulinum being the most prominent health risk associated with it. our review is focused on the honey microflora along the food chain and evaluates the pathogenic potential of those microorganisms found in honey. this product may contain a great variety of bacteria and, particularly, fungi that eventually entered the food chain at an early stage (e.g., via pollen) ...201726176586
purification and characterization of botulinum neurotoxin fa from a genetically modified clostridium botulinum strain.botulinum neurotoxins (bonts), produced by neurotoxigenic clostridial species, are the cause of the severe disease botulism in humans and animals. early research on bonts has led to their classification into seven serotypes (serotypes a to g) based upon the selective neutralization of their toxicity in mice by homologous antibodies. recently, a report of a potential eighth serotype of bont, designated "type h," has been controversial. this novel bont was produced together with bont/b2 in a dual- ...201727303710
entry of botulinum neurotoxin subtypes a1 and a2 into neurons.botulinum neurotoxins (bonts) are the most toxic proteins for humans but also are common therapies for neurological diseases. bonts are dichain toxins, comprising an n-terminal catalytic domain (lc) disulfide bond linked to a c-terminal heavy chain (hc) which includes a translocation domain (hn) and a receptor binding domain (hc). recently, the bont serotype a (bont/a) subtypes a1 and a2 were reported to possess similar potencies but different rates of cellular intoxication and pathology in a mo ...201727795365
exploring the metabolic heterogeneity of coagulase-negative staphylococci to improve the quality and safety of fermented meats: a review.the production of fermented meats, such as fermented sausage, relies on the metabolic activities of lactic acid bacteria and catalase-positive cocci, in particular the group of coagulase-negative staphylococci (cns). conventional use of cns as meat starter cultures usually leads to an appropriate cured colour development based on their nitrate reductase activity, whereas their catalase activity reduces oxidative damage. in addition, cns metabolism contributes to flavour, although the precise eff ...201727234590
investigation of a type c/d botulism outbreak in free-range laying hens in france.in 2014, a botulism outbreak in a flock of laying hens was investigated in france. in the flock of 5020 hens, clinical signs of botulism occurred at 46 weeks of age. a type c/d botulism outbreak was confirmed using the mouse lethality assay for detection of botulinum toxin in serum and a real-time pcr test to detect clostridium botulinum in intestinal contents. the disease lasted one week with a mortality rate of 2.6% without recurrence. botulism in laying hens has rarely been reported. five mon ...201727686664
virulence and biodegradation potential of dynamic microbial communities associated with decaying cladophora in great lakes.cladophora mats that accumulate and decompose along shorelines of the great lakes create potential threats to the health of humans and wildlife. the decaying algae create a low oxygen and redox potential environment favoring growth and persistence of anaerobic microbial populations, including clostridium botulinum, the causal agent of botulism in humans, birds, and other wildlife. in addition to the diverse population of microbes, a dynamic chemical environment is generated, which involves produ ...201727665447
in silico study to develop a lectin-like protein from mushroom agaricus bisporus for pharmaceutical application.a lectin-like protein of unknown function designated as lsmt was recently discovered in the edible mushroom agaricus bisporus. the protein shares high structural similarity to ha-33 from clostridium botulinum (ha33) and ricin-b-like lectin from the mushroom clitocybe nebularis (cnl), which have been developed as drug carrier and anti-cancer, respectively. these homologous proteins display the ability to penetrate the intestinal epithelial cell monolayer, and are beneficial for oral administratio ...201727110510
construction of "toxin complex" in a mutant serotype c strain of clostridium botulinum harboring a defective neurotoxin gene.a non-toxigenic mutant of the toxigenic serotype c clostridium botulinum strain stockholm (c-st), c-n71, does not produce the botulinum neurotoxin (bont). however, the original strain c-st produces botulinum toxin complex, in which bont is associated with non-toxic non-hemagglutinin (ntnha) and three hemagglutinin proteins (ha-70, ha-33, and ha-17). therefore, in this study, we aimed to elucidate the effects of bont gene knockout on the formation of the "toxin complex." nucleotide sequence analy ...201727785552
glycans confer specificity to the recognition of ganglioside receptors by botulinum neurotoxin a.the highly poisonous botulinum neurotoxins, produced by the bacterium clostridium botulinum, act on their hosts by a high-affinity association to two receptors on neuronal cell surfaces as the first step of invasion. the glycan motifs of gangliosides serve as initial coreceptors for these protein complexes, whereby a membrane protein receptor is bound. herein we set out to characterize the carbohydrate minimal binding epitope of the botulinum neurotoxin serotype a. by means of ligand-based nmr s ...201727958736
[use of intracutaneous or subcutaneous botulinum toxin for postherpetic neuralgia].botulinum neurotoxin (bont), a toxin of the anaerobic spore-forming bacterium clostridium botulinum is used as a drug for alleviating muscle spasticity. other indications include the cosmetic application in facial muscles, hyperhidrosis and neurogenic bladder disorders. it has been approved since 2010 as the first prophylactic treatment for chronic migraine. the analgesic effect of bont was observed early on and is currently the subject of intensive research. painful postherpetic neuralgia is a  ...201727924350
a bacterial global regulator forms a prion.prions are self-propagating protein aggregates that act as protein-based elements of inheritance in fungi. although prevalent in eukaryotes, prions have not been identified in bacteria. here we found that a bacterial protein, transcription terminator rho of clostridium botulinum (cb-rho), could form a prion. we identified a candidate prion-forming domain (cprd) in cb-rho and showed that it conferred amyloidogenicity on cb-rho and could functionally replace the prd of a yeast prion-forming protei ...201728082594
development and validation of a new reliable method for the diagnosis of avian botulism.liver is a reliable matrix for laboratory confirmation of avian botulism using real-time pcr. here, we developed, optimized, and validated the analytical steps preceding pcr to maximize the detection of clostridium botulinum group iii in avian liver. these pre-pcr steps included enrichment incubation of the whole liver (maximum 25 g) at 37°c for at least 24 h in an anaerobic chamber and dna extraction using an enzymatic digestion step followed by a dna purification step. conditions of sample sto ...201728076405
molecular evolutionary constraints that determine the avirulence state of clostridium botulinum c2 toxin.clostridium botulinum (group-iii) is an anaerobic bacterium producing c2 toxin along with botulinum neurotoxins. c2 toxin is belonged to binary toxin a family in bacterial adp-ribosylation superfamily. a structural and functional diversity of binary toxin a family was inferred from different evolutionary constraints to determine the avirulence state of c2 toxin. evolutionary genetic analyses revealed evidence of c2 toxin cluster evolution through horizontal gene transfer from the phage or plasmi ...201728382496
[foodborne botulism - a re-emerging public health challenge].human foodborne botulism is an intoxication caused by ingestion of botulinum neurotoxins (bont) of serotypes a, b, e, and rarely also serotype f, produced in contaminated food by anaerobic bacteria clostridium botulinum group i, group ii, or by toxigenic strains of c. butyricum and c. baratii. bont-producing clostridia are ubiquitously distributed in the environment and, under suitable conditions, they can enter the food chain, proliferate and produce bont in a variety of foods. in the past, the ...201728374597
botulism outbreak in a family after ingestion of locally produced cheese.botulism is one of the most important foodborne diseases and is caused by clostridium botulinum toxin. the main manifestations are flaccid muscle paralysis and cranial nerve palsies. botulism is an essential health problem because of its high mortality. the diagnosis of botulism, especially in sporadic cases, is a medical challenge and a high clinical suspicion is necessary for early recognition. so, every physician should be familiar with its signs and symptoms for early detection and treatment ...201728360447
the history of botulinum toxin: from poison to beauty.botulinum toxin, also called the "miracle toxin," is a neurotoxin produced by the bacteria clostridium botulinum. it is known to block nerve signals that contract muscles resulting in a temporary paralysis of the muscles. toxins type a and b have been extensively studied and utilized in the realm of beauty and cosmetology. initially, the toxin gained popularity as a disease-causing "poison". it was only later that it found its way to becoming a must have in modern aesthetic practice. today, this ...201728299552
botulinum neurotoxin type b uses a distinct entry pathway mediated by cdc42 into intestinal cells versus neuronal cells.botulinum neurotoxins (bonts) are responsible for severe flaccid paralysis by inhibiting the release of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junctions. bont/b most often induces mild forms of botulism with predominant dysautonomic symptoms. in food borne botulism and botulism by intestinal colonization such as infant botulism, which are the most frequent naturally acquired forms of botulism, the digestive tract is the main entry route of bonts into the organism. we previously showed that bont/b tr ...201728296078
implementing the bruker maldi biotyper in the public health laboratory for c. botulinum neurotoxin detection.currently, the gold standard method for active botulinum neurotoxin (bont) detection is the mouse bioassay (mba). a centers for disease control and prevention-developed mass spectrometry (ms)-based assay that detects active bont was successfully validated and implemented in a public health laboratory in clinical matrices using the bruker maldi-tof ms (matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry) biotyper. for the first time, a direct comparison with the mba was p ...201728282915
embryonic stem cell-derived neurons grown on multi-electrode arrays as a novel in vitro bioassay for the detection of clostridium botulinum neurotoxins.clostridium botulinum neurotoxins (bonts) are the most poisonous naturally occurring protein toxins known to mankind and are the causative agents of the severe and potentially life-threatening disease botulism. they are also known for their application as cosmetics and as unique bio-pharmaceuticals to treat an increasing number of neurological and non-neurological disorders. currently, the potency of biologically active bont for therapeutic use is mainly monitored by the murine ld50-assay, an et ...201728280466
in-vivo neutralization of botulinum neurotoxin serotype e using rabbit polyclonal antibody developed against bont/e light chain.clostridium botulinum is an obligate anaerobic, gram positive bacterium that secretes extremely toxic substances known as botulinum neurotoxins (bonts) that cause serious paralytic illness called botulism. based upon the serological properties, these neurotoxin have been classified into seven serotypes designated from a to g. due to extreme toxicity of bonts, these neurotoxins have been designated as category a biowarfare agents. there is no commercial neutralizing antibody available for the tre ...201728260503
the therapeutic usage of botulinum toxin (botox) in non-cosmetic head and neck conditions - an evidence based review.botulinum toxin (botox) is an exotoxin produced from clostridium botulinum. it blocks the release of acetylcholine from the cholinergic nerve end plates resulting in inactivity of the muscles or glands innervated. the efficacy of botox in facial aesthetics is well established; however, recent literature has highlighted its utilization in multiple non-cosmetic medical and surgical conditions. the present article reviews the current evidence pertaining to botox use in the non-cosmetic head and nec ...201728223858
botulinum toxin the poison that heals: a brief review.botulinum neurotoxins, causative agents of botulism in humans, are produced by clostridium botulinum, an anaerobic spore-former gram-positive bacillus. botulinum neurotoxin poses a major bioweapon threat because of its extreme potency and lethality; its ease of production, transport, and misuse; and the need for prolonged intensive care among affected persons. this paper aims at discussing botulinum neurotoxin, its structure, mechanism of action, pharmacology, its serotypes and the reasons for w ...201728163472
botulinum toxin in the management of head and neck disorders.botulinum toxin is a polypeptide protoxin synthesized by clostridium botulinum that results in localized reduction of muscle activity by inhibiting acetylcholine release at the neuromuscular junction. in 2004, the us food and drug administration approved its application in the treatment of various medical conditions, such as facial wrinkles, strabismus, cervical dystonia, blepharospasm, and hyperhidrosis. later, its application extended to improving dental esthetics and gummy smile. it was found ...201728159584
cellular uptake of clostridium botulinum c2 toxin requires acid sphingomyelinase activity.clostridium botulinum c2 toxin consists of an enzyme component (c2i) and a binding component (c2ii). activated c2ii (c2iia) binds to a cell receptor, giving rise to lipid raft-dependent oligomerization, and it then assembles with c2i. the whole toxin complex is then endocytosed into the cytosol, resulting in the destruction of the actin cytoskeleton and cell rounding. here, we showed that c2 toxin requires acid sphingomyelinase (asmase) activity during internalization. in this study, inhibitors ...201728138018
historical perspectives and guidelines for botulinum neurotoxin subtype nomenclature.botulinum neurotoxins are diverse proteins. they are currently represented by at least seven serotypes and more than 40 subtypes. new clostridial strains that produce novel neurotoxin variants are being identified with increasing frequency, which presents challenges when organizing the nomenclature surrounding these neurotoxins. worldwide, researchers are faced with the possibility that toxins having identical sequences may be given different designations or novel toxins having unique sequences ...201728106761
a clostridioides difficile bacteriophage genome encodes functional binary toxin-associated genes.pathogenic clostridia typically produce toxins as virulence factors which cause severe diseases in both humans and animals. whereas many clostridia like e.g., clostridium perfringens, clostridium botulinum or clostridium tetani were shown to contain toxin-encoding plasmids, only toxin genes located on the chromosome were detected in clostridioides difficile so far. in this study, we determined, annotated, and analyzed the complete genome of the bacteriophage phisemix9p1 using single-molecule rea ...201728216103
chloroquine derivatives block the translocation pores and inhibit cellular entry of clostridium botulinum c2 toxin and bacillus anthracis lethal toxin.the pathogenic bacteria clostridium botulinum and bacillus anthracis produce the binary protein toxins c2 and lethal toxin (lt), respectively. these toxins consist of a binding/transport (b7) component that delivers the separate enzyme (a) component into the cytosol of target cells where it modifies its specific substrate and causes cell death. the b7 components of c2 toxin and lt, c2iia and pa63, respectively, are ring-shaped heptamers that bind to their cellular receptors and form complexes wi ...201727106023
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