Publications

development of a sexually dimorphic neuromuscular system involved in green anole courtship behavior.	during courtship and aggression, adult male green anoles (anolis carolinensis) extend a large red throat fan called a dewlap. adult females have a very small dewlap; they rarely use it during agonistic encounters and never during courtship. the motoneurons, nerve, muscle fibers, neuromuscular junctions, and cartilage pieces responsible for dewlap extension are all larger in adult males than females, parallel to the behavioral dimorphisms. however, the general developmental pattern of these struc ...	2001	12016355
the role of monoaminergic nuclei during aggression and sympathetic social signaling.	a social sign stimulus that is sympathetically induced affects aggressive approaches and influences serotonergic, dopaminergic and noradrenergic activity in the brainstem nuclei of anolis carolinensis. darkening of postorbital skin via sympathetic activation of adrenal catecholamines and beta(2)-adrenergic receptors provides a visual signal that forms more rapidly in dominant than subordinate males during social interactions. this signal limits aggressive interactions. males were painted postorb ...	2001	11713386
maternal plasma and egg yolk testosterone concentrations during embryonic development in green anoles (anolis carolinensis).	sex steroids of presumably maternal origin have been found in avian, crocodilian, and chelonian egg yolks, and they can affect offspring morphology and behavior. the present study reports testosterone (t) levels to which embryos are potentially exposed in the green anole (anolis carolinensis), a lizard with genotypic sex determination. we documented plasma and yolk t concentrations in adult females, in their developing follicles and eggs, and in freshly oviposited and incubating eggs. plasma t w ...	2001	11703087
mechanisms for quick and variable responses.	dominant and subordinate males produce neuroendocrine stress responses during aggressive social interaction. in addition, stress responsiveness has both acute and chronic temporal components. a neurochemical marker that distinguishes social status and aggression by temporal and regional differentiation is the activity of serotonergic nuclei and terminals. a unique model for distinguishing the relationships among the neuroendocrine machinery of stress, social status and behavior is the lizard ano ...	2001	11641564
brain mediation of anolis social dominance displays. ii. differential forebrain serotonin turnover, and effects of specific 5-ht receptor agonists.	serotonin (5-ht) functions are associated with social dominance status in diverse species, but to date the brain regions wherein 5-ht exerts such effects are uncertain. here, we indexed 5-ht turnover in male anolis carolinensis as the ratio of 5-ht to its metabolite, 5-hydroxy-indol-acetic acid, and also as the accumulation of the in vivo tracer 14c-alpha-methyl-tryptophan (14c-amt). after patching one eye, displaying dominant animals increased both measures of 5-ht turnover in the forebrain hem ...	2001	11641557
brain mediation of anolis social dominance displays. i. differential basal ganglia activation.	ritualistic displays of aggressive intent are important social signals, often obviating physically dangerous engagement. to date, however, brain regions mediating such behaviors are not established. here we used male anolis carolinensis together with an in vivo 14c-2-deoxyglucose method to determine patterns of brain activation during elicitation of this animal's dominance displays vs. other behaviors. by patching one eye regional brain activation in the hemisphere receiving display-evocative vi ...	2001	11641556
molecular evolution of the cone visual pigments in the pure rod-retina of the nocturnal gecko, gekko gekko.	we have isolated a full-length cdna encoding a putative ultraviolet (uv)-sensitive visual pigment of the tokay gecko (gekko gekko). this clone has 57 and 59% sequence similarities to the gecko rh2 and mws pigment genes, respectively, but it shows 87% similarity to the uv pigment gene of the american chameleon (anolis carolinensis). the evolutionary rates of amino acid replacement are significantly higher in the three gecko pigments than in the corresponding chameleon pigments. the accelerated ev ...	2001	11591478
androgen metabolism in the brain of the green anole lizard (anolis carolinensis): effects of sex and season.	courtship behavior in male green anoles is partly mediated by the 5alpha-reductase enzyme, which converts testosterone (t) to 5alpha-dihydrotestosterone. this study aimed to determine whether the activity of 5alpha-reductase is enhanced in breeding males compared to females and nonbreeding males who do not normally display masculine behaviors. in some cases, aromatase, which converts t to 17beta-estradiol, also was assessed to determine whether the pattern of its activity in anoles is similar to ...	2001	11352552
suspected hypovitaminosis a in a colony of captive green anoles (anolis carolinensis).	in a colony of 18 green anoles (anolis carolinensis), 3 animals experienced focally thickened lips, ulcerative cheilitis, lethargy, depression, and weight loss over a 5-month period. in addition to crickets fed fresh fruit and leafy green vegetables, the diet of the green anoles consisted of a supply of mealworms that had been dusted with a commercial liquid vitamin supplement. the history, clinical findings, and histopathologic lesions were suggestive of hypovitaminosis a, which is known to cau ...	2001	11300682
characterization of gastrointestinal chitinase in the lizard sceloporus undulatus garmani (reptilia: phrynosomatidae).	most studies on chitinase activity in lizards have been concerned with palaearctic (european) and laurasian (middle eastern and asian) taxa. several genera of old world lizards, anguis, uromastix, chamaeleo and lacerta, have been shown to possess chitinolytic activity. to date, only one new world lizard, anolis carolinensis, has been reported to exhibit chitinolytic activity. in the present study, chitinase activity was characterized in a second new world taxon, sceloporus undulatus garmani, a n ...	2001	11290449
serotonin reverses dominant social status.	social stress from aggressive interaction is expressed differently in specific brain regions of dominant and subordinate male anolis carolinensis. prior to aggressive behavior, the outcome is predictable via the celerity of postorbital coloration: dominant males exhibit more rapid eyespot darkening. serotonergic activation is manifest rapidly (1 h) in hippocampus, nucleus accumbens and brainstem of subordinate males, and is expressed more rapidly in dominant males. amygdalar serotonergic activat ...	2001	11275287
tasty on the outside, but toxic in the middle: grasshopper regurgitation and host plant-mediated toxicity to a vertebrate predator.	regurgitation by arthropods is often considered to be a rudimentary form of defense against predators. in phytophagous insects, regurgitate composition will vary with diet, and plant secondary compounds from host plants can contribute to the effectiveness of regurgitate deterrence. regurgitation in response to predator attack is particularly common in grasshoppers. however, there is little empirical evidence in favor of grasshopper regurgitation as an effective antipredator mechanism in natural ...	2001	24549911
social interaction over time, implications for stress responsiveness.	behavioral interaction during social situations is a continuum of action, response, and reaction. the temporal nature of social interaction creates a series of stressful situations, such as aggression, displacement from resources, and the variable psychological challenge of adapting to dynamic social hierarchies. the ebb and flow of neurochemical and endocrine secretions during social stress provide a unique tool for understanding individualized responses to stress. each social station is an ada ...	2002	21708755
ethological aspects of stress in a model lizard, anolis carolinensis.	research on the stress response in reptiles can provide a useful comparative perspective for understanding how the constituent elements of the response can be put into service of diverse behavioral adaptations. a summary of the neural and endocrine causes and consequences of specific behavioral patterns seen in the small diurnal lizard, anolis carolinensis, has provided a model for the exploration of the dynamics of autonomic and neurohormonal contributions to adaptive behavior. in this species, ...	2002	21708748
visual pigments and oil droplets in diurnal lizards: a comparative study of caribbean anoles.	we report microspectrophotometric (msp) data for the visual pigments and oil droplets of 17 species of caribbean anoline lizard known to live in differing photic habitats and having distinctly different dewlap colors. the outgroup polychrus marmoratus was also examined to gain insight into the ancestral condition. except for anolis carolinensis, which is known to use vitamin a(2) as its visual pigment chromophore, all anoline species examined possessed at least four vitamin-a(1)-based visual pig ...	2002	11916989
distribution of androgen receptor mrna expression and immunoreactivity in the brain of the green anole lizard.	male courtship and copulation are androgen dependent in the green anole lizard, and female receptivity can be facilitated by testosterone. however, only a few, and relatively large, regions in the brain have been implicated in the control of these behaviours. in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry were therefore used to determine in detail where androgens are likely to act in the brains of breeding males and females. a 697-bp fragment of the anole androgen receptor (ar) was cloned from t ...	2002	11903809
manipulation of visual sympathetic sign stimulus modifies social status and plasma catecholamines.	darkening of postorbital skin (eyespots) in anolis carolinensis occurs during stressful situations via adrenal catecholaminergic activation of beta(2)-adrenergic receptors. the eyespots form more rapidly in dominant males during social interaction. it was hypothesized that eyespot darkening from green to black is a social signal that communicates disposition, resulting from sympathetic activation and determines social hierarchy. to assess the value of the eyespot as a signal influencing social d ...	2002	12392689
relationships between hormones and aggressive behavior in green anole lizards: an analysis using structural equation modeling.	we investigated the relationship between aggressive behavior and circulating androgens in the context of agonistic social interaction and examined the effect of this interaction on the androgen-aggression relationship in response to a subsequent social challenge in male anolis carolinensis lizards. individuals comprising an aggressive encounter group were exposed to an aggressive conspecific male for 10 min per day during a 5-day encounter period, while controls were exposed to a neutral stimulu ...	2002	12367572
sexual dimorphisms in a copulatory neuromuscular system in the green anole lizard.	sexual dimorphisms in neuromuscular systems have been investigated in several vertebrate groups, but data on reptiles are limited. the present studies were designed to establish the copulatory neuromuscular system of the green anole lizard (anolis carolinensis) as an appropriate model. like mammals, male reptiles have copulatory organs. however, each individual has two "hemipenes" that are controlled by bilateral sets of muscles. first, the anatomy of the hemipenes and associated muscles was des ...	2002	11807838
sexual dimorphism in neuromuscular junction size on a muscle used in courtship by green anole lizards.	the green anole lizard exhibits seasonal courtship behavior that is sexually dimorphic. this courtship consists of the extension of a bright red throat fan (dewlap) associated with head-bobbing display behavior. while males extend their dewlaps in aggressive encounters as well as in courtship, females use their considerably smaller dewlaps much less frequently and mainly in agonistic encounters. in parallel, a number of components of the neuromuscular system controlling dewlap extension are grea ...	2002	11748630
seasonal and sexual dimorphisms in the green anole forebrain.	during the breeding season, male green anole lizards extend a throat fan (dewlap) in courtship. this behavior is facilitated by testosterone (t). females extend a much smaller dewlap less often, even with the same dose of t. during the nonbreeding season when t is low, dewlap extension is reduced. to determine if parallels exist between structure and function, we investigated neuron soma size and density in the preoptic area (poa) and ventromedial nucleus of the amygdala (amy), which are involve ...	2002	12018934
ability of structurally diverse natural products and synthetic chemicals to induce gene expression mediated by estrogen receptors from various species.	the ability of 14 structurally diverse estrogenic compounds to induce reporter gene expression mediated by estrogen receptors (ers) from different species was examined. mcf-7 cells were transiently transfected with a gal4-regulated luciferase reporter gene (17m5-g-luc) and gal4-er chimeric receptors containing the d, e and f domains of the human alpha (gal4-heralphadef), mouse alpha (gal4-meralphadef), mouse beta (gal4-merbetadef), chicken (gal4-ceralphadef), green anole (gal4-aeralphadef), xeno ...	2002	12477484
basal ganglia systems in ritualistic social displays: reptiles and humans; function and illness.	complex, situation-specific territorial maintenance routines are similar across living terrestrial vertebrates (=amniotes). decades ago, paul maclean et al., at the laboratory of brain evolution and behavior of the national institute of mental health, postulated that these are evolutionarily conserved behaviors whose expression is mediated by the similarly conserved amniote basal ganglia and related brain systems (bg systems). therefore, they undertook studies in nonhuman primates and in small s ...	2003	12954439
interaction effects of corticosterone and experience on aggressive behavior in the green anole lizard.	aggressive encounters are accompanied by a release of stress hormone, and this corticosterone (cort) secretion could influence aggressive behavior in subsequent encounters. we investigated the modulating effects of cort on aggressive behavior in the context of a 5-day social experience in male green anole lizards. in experiment 1, we measured plasma cort levels in animals that were exposed for different times to aggressive males. in experiment 2, using metyrapone, a cort synthesis blocker, we te ...	2003	14609550
sex steroids in green anoles (anolis carolinensis): uncoupled maternal plasma and yolking follicle concentrations, potential embryonic steroidogenesis, and evolutionary implications.	the sex steroids testosterone (t) and estradiol-17beta (e2) play important roles in vertebrate reproduction and development. however, little is known about the relationship between plasma steroid levels (which can influence reproductive function) and yolk steroid levels (which can influence embryonic development) in oviparous species. therefore, we examined the extent to which t and e2 are coupled in plasma and yolking follicles in adult females and explored the dynamics of yolk and embryo stero ...	2003	14511980
sociality, stress, and the corpus striatum of the green anolis lizard.	the green anolis lizard, anolis carolinensis, is a uniquely convenient species with great potential for providing insights about the causes and consequences of social behavior from an evolutionary perspective. in this species, social interactions are mediated by visual displays in which specific units of behavior are combined in various ways to communicate several more-or-less specific messages. two related research programs that utilize this species converge in provocative ways to provide insig ...	2003	12954437
form emergence and fixation of head bobbing displays in the green anole lizard (anolis carolinensis): a reptilian model of signal ontogeny.	signal ontogeny was examined in green anoles (anolis carolinensis). from 1,246 head bob displays given by 114 juveniles, it was found that juveniles possessed all 3 display types (a, b, and c) described for adults and that c displays were present at hatching, but a and b displays appeared to emerge gradually from a common precursor. durations of the head bobs and pauses that make up juvenile displays tended to be more variable (i.e., less stereotyped) than those of adult displays. however, withi ...	2003	12856783
a biomechanical analysis of intra- and interspecific scaling of jumping and morphology in caribbean anolis lizards.	scaling models predict how functional variables change as animals grow or increase in size evolutionarily. however, few experimental studies have found support for the predictions of these models. here, we use a force plate to investigate the scaling of functional variables associated with jumping within (for three species) and across adults of 12 species of anolis lizards. both ontogenetically (with the exception of anolis carolinensis) and across the 12 species examined, limb dimensions increa ...	2003	12819270
rapid glucocorticoid stimulation and gabaergic inhibition of hippocampal serotonergic response: in vivo dialysis in the lizard anolis carolinensis.	central serotonin (5-ht) is activated during stressful situations and aggressive interactions in a number of species. glucocorticoids secreted peripherally during stressful events feed back on central systems and may affect 5-ht mediation of stress-induced behavioral events. to test the neuromodulatory effect of stress hormone secretion, serotonin overflow was measured from the hippocampus of the lizard anolis carolinensis. microdialysis was used to collect repeated samples from anesthetized liz ...	2003	12614656
temporal patterns of limbic monoamine and plasma corticosterone response during social stress.	dominant and subordinate males respond differently to the stress of social interaction. after an hour of social interaction, subordinate male anolis carolinensis have elevated serotonergic activity in hippocampus, but dominant males do not. in other species, and using other stressors, the activation of hippocampal serotonergic activity is much more rapid than one hour. to elucidate early stress responsiveness, adult male a. carolinensis were divided into four groups: isolated controls, and pairs ...	2003	12559110
yolk testosterone varies with sex in eggs of the lizard, anolis carolinensis.	in the green anole (anolis carolinensis), a lizard with genotypic sex determination, yolk testosterone (t) concentration is greater in male-producing than female-producing eggs at oviposition, but the source and potential effects were not clear from previous studies. if yolk t levels are also sex-specific before eggs are laid, a period during which embryonic steroidogenesis is unlikely, it would strongly suggest that the difference in yolk t is maternally derived. we collected yolk samples from ...	2003	12541305
performance capacity, fighting tactics and the evolution of life-stage male morphs in the green anole lizard (anolis carolinensis).	the evolution of alternative male phenotypes is probably driven by male-male competition for access to reproductive females, but few studies have examined whether whole-organism performance capacities differ between male morphs, and if so whether any such differences affect fighting ability. we show how ontogenetic changes in performance and morphology have given rise to two distinct life-stage male morphs exhibiting different fighting tactics within the green anole lizard (anolis carolinensis). ...	2004	15590602
partial island submergence and speciation in an adaptive radiation: a multilocus analysis of the cuban green anoles.	sympatric speciation is often proposed to account for species-rich adaptive radiations within lakes or islands, where barriers to gene flow or dispersal may be lacking. however, allopatric speciation may also occur in such situations, especially when ranges are fragmented by fluctuating water levels. we test the hypothesis that miocene fragmentation of cuba into three palaeo-archipelagos accompanied species-level divergence in the adaptive radiation of west indian anolis lizards. analysis of mor ...	2004	15539351
social stress and corticosterone regionally upregulate limbic n-methyl-d-aspartatereceptor (nr) subunit type nr(2a) and nr(2b) in the lizard anolis carolinensis.	social aggression in the lizard anolis carolinensis produces dominant and subordinate relationships while elevating corticosterone levels and monoaminergic transmitter activity in hippocampus (medial and mediodorsal cortex). adaptive social behavior for dominant and subordinate male a. carolinensis is learned during aggressive interaction and therefore was hypothesized to involve hippocampus and regulation of n-methyl-d-aspartate (nmda) receptors. to test the effects of social stress and cortico ...	2004	15464276
an external communicating lesion to the coelemic cavity in a green anole (anolis carolensis).		2004	15334105
effectiveness of the defence mechanism of the turnip sawfly, athalia rosae (hymenoptera: tenthredinidae), against predation by lizards.	the turnip sawfly, athalia rosae linnaeus, is a pest on cruciferous crops. larvae sequester secondary plant compounds, namely glucosinolates, in their haemolymph. when attacked, their integument is easily disrupted and a droplet of haemolymph is exuded ('easy bleeding'). this has been shown to be an effective, chemical-based, defence against invertebrate predators. the efficiency of this proposed defence was tested against a vertebrate predator, using groups of the iguanid lizard anolis caroline ...	2004	15191629
effects of testosterone on the development of neuromuscular systems and their target tissues involved in courtship and copulation in green anoles (anolis carolinensis).	male green anole lizards court females using a red throat fan (dewlap) and copulate by intromitting one of two penises (hemipenes). these structures begin sexually monomorphic, but by adulthood males have larger dewlaps, only males have hemipenes, and many of the neuromuscular components of both systems show male-biased dimorphisms. we hypothesized that testosterone (t), which increases in juvenile males but not females about a month after hatching, facilitates masculinization. to test this idea ...	2004	15109903
fiber type composition of the muscle responsible for throat fan extension in green anole lizards.	throat fan (dewlap) extension is sexually dimorphic in green anole lizards (anolis carolinensis). males have larger dewlaps which they display more frequently than females. correlated with the behavior, sexual dimorphisms occur in the skeletal, muscular and neural structures responsible for dewlap extension in green anoles. we used histochemical techniques to stain for myosin atpase and succinate dehydrogenase (sdh) to determine whether sex differences also exist in fiber type composition of the ...	2004	15051965
characterization of projections from a sexually dimorphic motor nucleus in the spinal cord of adult green anoles.	male green anoles possess two copulatory organs (hemipenes), which are independently controlled by bilateral muscles: the transversus penis (tpn) and retractor penis magnus (rpm). adult females do not possess hemipenes or either of the two related muscles. motoneurons projecting to the tpn lie in spinal segments trunk 17 and sacral 1 (t17-s1). overall, motoneurons in this region are larger and more numerous in males than females. the present studies were designed to determine 1) whether motoneur ...	2004	14986311
the green anole (anolis carolinensis): a reptilian model for laboratory studies of reproductive morphology and behavior.	the green anol (anolis carolinensis) is an excellent reptilian model for studying reproductive behavior and the neural and muscular morphology that supports it. this lizard has been the subject of behavioral and ecological study for more than 100 yr, and a rich literature exists on its natural history. both courtship and copulatory behaviors reveal sex and seasonal differences, which allow for the study of mechanisms regulation naturally occurring variation in performance at multiple levels with ...	2004	14756155
serotonergic response to social stress and artificial social sign stimuli during paired interactions between male anolis carolinensis.	serotonergic activity is influenced by social status and manipulation of social signals. in the lizard anolis carolinensis, eyespot formation, i.e. darkening of postorbital skin from green to black, appears during stressful and agonistic situations, forming first in males that become dominant. to assess the effect of eyespots on central serotonergic activity during social interaction, males were paired by weight and painted postorbitally with green or black paint. manipulation of eyespot color i ...	2004	14751277
dominance status predicts response to nonsocial forced movement stress in the green anole lizard (anolis carolinensis).	we used changes in body color and eyespot formation, two somatic indices of stress controlled mainly by catecholamine activity, to compare the reactions of dominant and subordinate male green anole lizards (anolis carolinensis) to a nonsocial stressor, forced movement. individual males were pretested by subjecting them to 10 min of forced movement induced by chasing them around their home cage with a slender wooden stick. stress responses were assayed via changes in body color (progressive darke ...	2004	14741240
seasonal plasticity in the copulatory neuromuscular system of green anole lizards: a role for testosterone in muscle but not motoneuron morphology.	the copulatory system of green anoles is highly sexually dimorphic. males possess bilateral copulatory organs called hemipenes, each independently controlled by two muscles: the transversus penis (tpn) and retractor penis magnus (rpm). the tpn everts the hemipene through the cloaca and the rpm retracts it. adult females do not possess hemipenes or either of these two muscles. the spinal nucleus projecting to the tpn and rpm contains more and larger motoneurons in males than females. because anol ...	2004	15188267
comparison of long-term perifused pars intermedia of anolis carolinensis, rana pipiens and hyla chrysoscelis: their responses to dopamine.	pituitary pars nervosa-pars intermedia of anolis carolinensis, rana pipiens and hyla crysoscelis were perifused with synthetic medium 199 for up to 35 h. the pre- and post-perifused tissues were examined by electron microscopy. no neuronal endings were found in anolis tissue, but both rana and hyla had occasional synaptic end bulbs, which remained visible in the post-perifused tissue, although the synaptic vesicles appeared to cluster in the center of the end bulbs. exposure to dopamine hcl from ...	2004	15687732
dynamics and mechanics of social rank reversal.	stable social relationships are rearranged over time as resources such as favored territorial positions change. we test the hypotheses that social rank relationships are relatively stable, and although social signals influence aggression and rank, they are not as important as memory of an opponent. in addition, we hypothesize that eyespots, aggression and corticosterone influence serotonin and n-methyl-d: -aspartate (nmda) systems in limbic structures involved in learning and memory. in stable a ...	2005	15372303
effects of l-dopa on aggressive behavior and central monoaminergic activity in the lizard anolis carolinensis, using a new method for drug delivery.	the dopamine (da) precursor, l-dopa (500 microg), was injected into living crickets, which were ingested (one each) by adult male anolis carolinensis. this method of delivery elevated plasma l-dopa and da concentrations by approximately 1000-fold. in contrast, plasma epinephrine (epi) and norepinephrine (ne) were not influenced by l-dopa treatment, although they were elevated following the consumption of the cricket. lizards that ingested l-dopa treated crickets had elevated l-dopa in all brain ...	2005	15474650
glucocorticoid interaction with aggression in non-mammalian vertebrates: reciprocal action.	socially aggressive interaction is stressful, and as such, glucocorticoids are typically secreted during aggressive interaction in a variety of vertebrates, which may both potentiate and inhibit aggression. the behavioral relationship between corticosterone and/or cortisol in non-mammalian (as well as mammalian) vertebrates is dependent on timing, magnitude, context, and coordination of physiological and behavioral responses. chronically elevated plasma glucocorticoids reliably inhibit aggressiv ...	2005	16298361
current research on the behavioral neuroendocrinology of reptiles.	selected reptilian species have been the targets of investigations in behavioral neuroendocrinology for many years. reptiles offer a particularly powerful set of traits that facilitate comparisons at multiple levels, including those within and between individuals of a particular species, between different environmental and social contexts, as well as across species. these types of studies, particularly as they are considered within the framework of results from other vertebrates, will enhance ou ...	2005	16239163
sex chromosomes and sex determination in reptiles.	reptiles occupy a crucial position with respect to vertebrate phylogeny, having roamed the earth for more than 300 million years and given rise to both birds and mammals. to date, this group has been largely ignored by contemporary genomics technologies, although the green anole lizard was recently recommended for whole genome sequencing. future experiments using flow-sorted chromosome libraries and high-throughout genomic sequencing will help to discover important findings regarding sex chromos ...	2005	16214335
stress induces rapid changes in central catecholaminergic activity in anolis carolinensis: restraint and forced physical activity.	immobilization stress and physical activity separately influence monoaminergic function. in addition, it appears that stress and locomotion reciprocally modulate neuroendocrine responses, with forced exercise ameliorating stress-induced serotonergic activity in lizards. to investigate the interaction of forced physical activity and restraint stress on central dopamine (da), norepinephrine (ne), and epinephrine (epi), we measured these catecholamines and their metabolites in select brain regions ...	2005	16144657
testosterone regulates androgen receptor immunoreactivity in the copulatory, but not courtship, neuromuscular system in adult male green anoles.	androgens regulate the expression of male reproductive behaviour in diverse vertebrate species, often acting on androgen receptors (ar) to induce structural or functional changes in the nervous system and periphery. male green anoles possess two sexually dimorphic neuromuscular systems, one controlling throat fan (dewlap) extension, which occurs during courtship, and the other mediating copulatory organ function. although androgens are required for behavioural activation in both systems, testost ...	2005	16101894
effect of temperature on toxicity of a natural pyrethrin pesticide to green anole lizards (anolis carolinensis).	metabolic rates of reptiles vary with body temperature; therefore, the sensitivity of reptiles to a particular dose level of a pesticide might be expected to vary as well. the purpose of the present study was twofold: to evaluate the effects of temperature on the toxicity to green anole lizards (anolis carolinensis) of a single concentration of a natural pyrethrin pesticide via percutaneous exposure, and to compare the effects of temperature (20 vs 35 degrees c) on the toxicity of different conc ...	2005	16445093
sexual differentiation of the copulatory neuromuscular system in green anoles (anolis carolinensis): normal ontogeny and manipulation of steroid hormones.	the copulatory neuromuscular system of green anoles is sexually dimorphic and differentiates during embryonic development, although details of the process were unknown. in experiment 1, we determined the time course of normal ontogeny. both male and female embryos possessed bilateral copulatory organs (hemipenes) and associated muscles until incubation day 13; the structures completely regressed in female embryos by incubation day 19 (total incubation 34 days). in experiment 2, we treated eggs w ...	2005	16025462
out of cuba: overwater dispersal and speciation among lizards in the anolis carolinensis subgroup.	overwater dispersal and subsequent allopatric speciation contribute importantly to the species diversity of west indian anolis lizards and many other island radiations. here we use molecular phylogenetic analyses to assess the contribution of overwater dispersal to diversification of the anolis carolinensis subgroup, a clade comprising nine canopy-dwelling species distributed across the northern caribbean. although this clade includes some of the most successful dispersers and colonists in the a ...	2005	15969724
age-specific forced polymorphism: implications of ontogenetic changes in morphology for male mating tactics.	age-specific forced polymorphism is the presence of two or more distinct phenotypes (here we consider only males) that occur in separate sexually mature age groups (e.g., horns in older males but not younger males). the life-stage morph maturation hypothesis posits that all younger males that possess a particular structure can transform into older males with a different structure, most likely via the influence of hormones. the life-stage morph selection hypothesis posits that polymorphism is due ...	2006	16380929
uterine motility in the reptile anolis carolinensis: interactive effects of tension, prostaglandins, calcium, and vasotocin.	uteri of anolis carolinensis exhibited spontaneous rhythmic contractions in vitro. addition of arginine vasotocin (avt) caused an immediate, strong, tonic contraction followed by rhythmic contractions with the same frequency as spontaneous contractions but of a greater amplitude. at low tension (1.5 g) the avt-induced tonic contraction was blocked by low dose of indomethacin, suggesting that it is influenced by calcium rather than prostaglandins (pgs). an increase in tension (from 1.5 to 15 g) r ...	2006	17041917
dopaminergic activity modulation via aggression, status, and a visual social signal.	social interaction may elicit aggression, establish social rank, and be influenced by changes in central dopaminergic activity. in the lizard anolis carolinensis, a sign stimulus (darkening of postorbital skin or eyespots) inhibits aggressive response from opponents, in part because it forms more rapidly in dominant males. the authors report that artificially hiding or darkening eyespots influences central dopaminergic activity, social status, and aggression during dyadic social interaction. all ...	2006	16492120
intersexual differences in energy expenditure of anolis carolinensis lizards during breeding and postbreeding seasons.	although the amount of energy that males and females invest in reproduction is an integral component of theories explaining the evolution of particular mating strategies, few studies have actually determined the amount of energy that each sex allocates to reproduction. we compared how energy is expended by male and female anolis carolinensis lizards during both the breeding and postbreeding seasons. we used laboratory respirometry to determine resting metabolic rates (rmrs) of inactive, freshly ...	2006	15057717
catecholaminergic cells and fibers in the brain of the lizard anolis carolinensis identified by traditional as well as whole-mount immunohistochemistry.	using traditional as well as whole-mount immunohistochemistry, we described the location of tyrosine hydroxylase- and dopamine beta hydroxylase-positive cells and fibers in the brain of the lizard anolis carolinensis. major catecholaminergic cell groups were in the ependyma in certain ventricular regions, along the periventricular floor in the preoptic region, within the anterior hypothalamic and lateral hypothalamic areas, and in the mesencephalic tegmental region, locus coeruleus, nucleus of t ...	2006	1360335
opening of the blood-brain barrier in anolis carolinensis. a high voltage electron microscope protein tracer study.	the tight junctions between endothelial cells of capillaries in the forebrain of anolis carolinensis are a common component of the structural basis for the blood-brain barrier in this reptile. the complexity of these junctions, which is apparent in platinum replicas of freeze-fractured brain capillaries, is unchanged by treatments designed to render the blood-brain barrier of these lizards leaky to horseradish peroxidase. an alternative route for extravasation of horseradish peroxidase, followin ...	2006	6521844
phylogenomic investigation of cr1 line diversity in reptiles.	it is unlikely that taxonomically diverse phylogenetic studies will be completed rapidly in the near future for nonmodel organisms on a whole-genome basis. however, one approach to advancing the field of "phylogenomics" is to estimate the structure of poorly known genomes by mining libraries of clones from suites of taxa, rather than from single species. the present analysis adopts this approach by taking advantage of megabase-scale end-sequence scanning of reptilian genomic clones to characteri ...	2006	17345672
confocal microscopy of the lizard motor nerve terminals.	confocal imaging was performed on the ceratomandibularis nerve muscle preparation of the lizard anolis carolinensis, using 4-di-2-asp as a fluorescent probe. the imaging system consisted of a sarastro phoibos 1000 (molecular dynamics) scanning system and a zeiss universal microscope. the data were analyzed using the vanis set of programs on a silicon graphics personal iris computer. a three dimensional reconstruction of the nerve terminals was performed using look-through and depth-coded project ...	2006	1723895
mesocestoides lineatus (goeze, 1782) (mesocestoididae): new data on sperm ultrastructure.	spermiogenesis and the ultrastructural characters of the spermatozoon of mesocestoides lineatus are described by means of transmission electron microscopy, including cytochemical analysis for glycogen. materials were obtained from a golden hamster (mesocricetus auratus) after experimental infection with tetrathyridia metacestodes obtained from naturally infected lizards (anolis carolinensis) from louisiana. spermiogenesis in m. lineatus is characterized by the orthogonal growth of a free flagell ...	2007	17626346
effects of season, testosterone and female exposure on c-fos expression in the preoptic area and amygdala of male green anoles.	expression of the immediate early gene, c-fos, was used to investigate changes in neuronal activity in forebrain regions involved in male sexual behavior following social, hormonal and/or seasonal manipulations in the male green anole. these factors all influence behavior, yet it is unclear how they interact to modify neuronal activity in forebrain regions, including the preoptic area (poa) and ventromedial nucleus of the amygdala (amy). these regions are involved in the display of sexual behavi ...	2007	17673187
courtship and copulation in the adult male green anole: effects of season, hormone and female contact on reproductive behavior and morphology.	interactions among reproductive season, testosterone (t) and female presence were investigated on the structure and function of forebrain and neuromuscular systems controlling courtship and copulation in the green anole lizard. under breeding (bs) or non-breeding (nbs) environmental conditions, male green anoles were implanted with either t or blank capsules and exposed to one of three female stimulus conditions: physical, visual or no female contact. t and at least visual exposure to females in ...	2007	17174414
behavioral diversity and neurochemical plasticity: selection of stress coping strategies that define social status.	social interactions include a variety of stimulating but challenging factors that are the basis for strategies that allow individuals to cope with novel or familiar stressful situations. evolutionarily conserved strategies have been identified that reflect specific behavioral and physiological identities. in this review we discuss a unique model for social stress in the lizard anolis carolinensis, which has characteristics amenable to an investigation of individual differences in behavioral resp ...	2007	17914257
hormones, sexual signals, and performance of green anole lizards (anolis carolinensis).	the evolutionary processes that result in reliable links between male signals and fighting capacity have received a great deal of attention, but the proximate mechanisms underlying such connections remain understudied. we studied a large sample of male green anole lizards (anolis carolinensis) to determine whether testosterone or corticosterone predicted dewlap size and/or bite-force capacity, as dewlap size is known to be a reliable predictor of bite-force capacity in territorial males. we also ...	2007	17612540
memory of opponents is more potent than visual sign stimuli after social hierarchy has been established.	during agonistic interactions between male anolis carolinensis, perception of a visual sign stimulus (darkened eyespots) not only inhibits aggression and promotes initial attainment of dominant social status, but also evokes distinct neuroendocrine responses in each opponent. this study was designed to examine the effect of eyespot manipulation on behavior and social rank during a second interaction between opponents that had previously established a natural dyadic social hierarchy. prior to a s ...	2007	17602761
incubation temperature modifies neonatal thermoregulation in the lizard anolis carolinensis.	the thermal environment experienced during embryonic development can profoundly affect the phenotype, and potentially the fitness, of ectothermic animals. we examined the effect of incubation temperature on the thermal preferences of juveniles in the oviparous lizard, anolis carolinensis. temperature preference trials were conducted in a laboratory thermal gradient within 48 hr of hatching and after 22-27 days of maintenance in a common laboratory environment. incubation temperature had a signif ...	2007	17577200
androgen receptor expression and morphology of forebrain and neuromuscular systems in male green anoles displaying individual differences in sexual behavior.	investigating individual differences in sexual performance in unmanipulated males is important for understanding natural relationships between behavior and morphology, and the mechanisms regulating them. among male green anole lizards, some court and copulate frequently (studs) and others do not (duds). to evaluate potential factors underlying differences in the level of these behaviors, morphology and androgen receptor expression in neuromuscular courtship and copulatory structures, as well as ...	2007	17531996
androgen dependent seasonal changes in muscle fiber type in the dewlap neuromuscular system of green anoles.	green anoles (anolis carolinensis) possess two sexually dimorphic neuromuscular systems involved in reproductive behaviors. one controls extension of a red throat fan (dewlap), which males employ during courtship, and the other controls intromission of copulatory organs (hemipenes). although seasonal changes in circulating androgens mediate both courtship and copulatory behaviors, testosterone has differential effects on the underlying neuromuscular morphology. the present experiments were desig ...	2007	17477939
social experience organizes parallel networks in sensory and limbic forebrain.	successful social behavior can directly influence an individual's reproductive success. therefore, many organisms readily modify social behavior based on past experience. the neural changes induced by social experience, however, remain to be fully elucidated. we hypothesize that social modulation of neural systems not only occurs at the level of individual nuclei, but also of functional networks, and their relationships with behavior. we used the green anole lizard (anolis carolinensis), which d ...	2007	17443788
endocannabinoids mediate muscarine-induced synaptic depression at the vertebrate neuromuscular junction.	endocannabinoids (ecbs) inhibit neurotransmitter release throughout the central nervous system. using the ceratomandibularis muscle from the lizard anolis carolinensis we asked whether ecbs play a similar role at the vertebrate neuromuscular junction. we report here that the cb(1) cannabinoid receptor is concentrated on motor terminals and that ecbs mediate the inhibition of neurotransmitter release induced by the activation of m(3) muscarinic acetylcholine (ach) receptors. n-(piperidin-1-yl)-5- ...	2007	17408433
rapid neuroendocrine responses evoked at the onset of social challenge.	at the onset of agonistic social challenge, individuals must assess the degree of threat the opponent represents in order to react appropriately. we aimed to characterize the neuroendocrine changes accompanying this period of initial social assessment using the lizard anolis carolinensis. conveyance of aggressive intent by male a. carolinensis is facilitated by rapid postorbital skin darkening (eyespot), whereas eyespot presence inhibits opponent aggression. by manipulating this visual signal, w ...	2007	17187831
evolutionary background for stress-coping styles: relationships between physiological, behavioral, and cognitive traits in non-mammalian vertebrates.	reactions to stress vary between individuals, and physiological and behavioral responses tend to be associated in distinct suites of correlated traits, often termed stress-coping styles. in mammals, individuals exhibiting divergent stress-coping styles also appear to exhibit intrinsic differences in cognitive processing. a connection between physiology, behavior, and cognition was also recently demonstrated in strains of rainbow trout (oncorhynchus mykiss) selected for consistently high or low c ...	2007	17182101
fasting increases delta15n-values in the uric acid of anolis carolinensis and uta stansburiana as measured by nondestructive sampling.	previous studies suggest that a nutritional/energetic state may be determined from the delta(15)n-values of an animal's tissues. it has been hypothesized that if an animal is in a negative nutritional/energetic balance, (15)n will be retained by the tissues preferentially and (14)n preferentially excreted. over time, this should cause enrichment of the delta(15)n-values of the tissues. tests of this hypothesis have met with mixed results. to date, these studies have focused on endotherms. few st ...	2007	18023076
mechanisms of spectral tuning in the rh2 pigments of tokay gecko and american chameleon.	at present, molecular bases of spectral tuning in rhodopsin-like (rh2) pigments are not well understood. here, we have constructed the rh2 pigments of nocturnal tokay gecko (gekko gekko) and diurnal american chameleon (anolis carolinensis) as well as chimeras between them. the rh2 pigments of the gecko and chameleon reconstituted with 11-cis-retinal had the wavelengths of maximal absorption (lambda(max)'s) of 467 and 496 nm, respectively. chimeric pigment analyses indicated that 76-86%, 14-24%, ...	2007	17590287
the effects of diet on plasma and yolk steroids in lizards (anolis carolinensis).	steroids present in egg yolk have been shown to vary as a result of numerous social and environmental influences and to produce both positive and negative phenotypic outcomes in offspring. in the present study, we examined how quality of the diet affects plasma and yolk steroids in the green anole (anolis carolinensis), a lizard species with genotypic sex determination. we documented the effects of body condition on plasma testosterone (t) and corticosterone (cort)-steroids with frequently oppos ...	2008	21669804
effect of locomotor approach on feeding kinematics in the green anole (anolis carolinensis).	squamates are well-known models for studying to examine locomotor and feeding behaviors in tetrapods, but studies that integrate both behavioral activities remain scarce. anolis lizards are a classical lineage to study the evolutionary relationships between locomotor behavior and complex structural features of the habitat. here, we analyzed prey-capture behavior in one representative arboreal predator, anolis carolinensis, to demonstrate the functional links between locomotor strategies and the ...	2008	18661471
latent effects of egg incubation temperature on growth in the lizard anolis carolinensis.	varied egg incubation temperatures can result in immediate effects on the phenotype of reptiles, and also latent effects that can augment or contradict effects evident at egg hatching. i examined the effects of incubation temperature on embryonic development, hatching morphology, and subsequent growth in multiple populations of the lizard anolis carolinensis. eggs from wild-caught females in four populations were incubated at up to three temperatures, 23.5, 27, and 30 degrees c. measures of body ...	2008	18646184
effects of bacterial lipopolysaccharide on thermoregulation in green anole lizards (anolis carolinensis).	fever is a non-specific host defense mechanism that comprises part of the innate immune response. innate immune function is thought to be an important adaptive immunological response to infection because it occurs across a broad diversity of phyla. some reptiles can mount a febrile response, despite the fact that their internal body temperatures (t(b)s) are, to some extent, controlled by the environmental temperatures in which they live. this study was undertaken to determine if lps would induce ...	2008	18514328
steroid receptor expression in the developing copulatory system of the green anole lizard (anolis carolinensis).	in adulthood, the copulatory system in male green anole lizards is characterized by the presence of two hemipenes, each controlled by ipsilateral muscles. these structures are present in both sexes early in development, but prior to hatching regress completely in females. embryonic treatment with steroid hormones alters the morphology of the copulatory system, suggesting active roles for both androgens and estrogens in sexual differentiation. to elucidate the timing and sites of steroid hormone ...	2008	18448105
digit ratios in green anolis lizards (anolis carolinensis).	the development of tetrapod digits is directed by the homeobox (hox) genes. the expression of hox genes is influenced by exposure to endogenous sex steroids during development so that prenatal exposure to estrogens and androgens positively influences the lengths of digits 2 (2d) and 4 (4d), respectively. because of this, manning (2002) predicted that male tetrapods should have smaller 2d:4d than that of females because males are exposed to higher levels of androgens during development. we measur ...	2008	18286614
classical androgen receptors in non-classical sites in the brain.	androgen receptors are expressed in many different neuronal populations in the central nervous system where they often act as transcription factors in the cell nucleus. however, recent studies have detected androgen receptor immunoreactivity in neuronal and glial processes of the adult rat neocortex, hippocampal formation, and amygdala as well as in the telencephalon of eastern fence and green anole lizards. this review discusses previously published findings on extranuclear androgen receptors, ...	2008	18402960
sex and seasonal differences in morphology of limbic forebrain nuclei in the green anole lizard.	sex and seasonal differences in the brain occur in many species and are often related to behavioral expression. for example, morphology of limbic regions involved in male sex behavior are larger in males than in females, and sometimes are larger in the breeding than non-breeding season. morphology can often be altered in adulthood by manipulating levels of steroid hormones. in untreated green anole lizards, previous work indicated that neuron soma size and density did not differ between the sexe ...	2008	18598684
identification of reptilian genes encoding hair keratin-like proteins suggests a new scenario for the evolutionary origin of hair.	the appearance of hair is one of the main evolutionary innovations in the amniote lineage leading to mammals. the main components of mammalian hair are cysteine-rich type i and type ii keratins, also known as hard alpha-keratins or "hair keratins." to determine the evolutionary history of these important structural proteins, we compared the genomic loci of the human hair keratin genes with the homologous loci of the chicken and of the green anole lizard anolis carolinenis. the genome of the chic ...	2008	19001262
new resources inform study of genome size, content, and organization in nonavian reptiles.	genomic resources for studies of nonavian reptiles have recently improved and will reach a new level of access once the genomes of the painted turtle (chrysemys picta) and the green anole (anolis carolinensis) have been published. eleven speakers gathered for a symposium on reptilian genomics and evolutionary genetics at the 2008 meeting of the society for integrative and comparative biology in san antonio, texas. presentations described results of reptilian genetic studies concerning molecular ...	2008	21669805
identification of ionic currents at presynaptic nerve endings of the lizard.	1. ionic currents associated with the invasion of an action potential into the motor nerve ending of the lizard, anolis carolinensis, were measured with a focal extracellular electrode at several locations along the nerve ending. 2. these experimentally observed currents could be matched with computer simulations of action potential propagation into the nerve ending. they revealed that while na+ channels are the major ionic current pathway in the heminode, k+ channels provide the major pathway i ...	2008	2575161
transformation of an irreversible msh antagonist into an irreversible msh agonist by differential receptor crosslinking using the photo-affinity technique.	photocrosslinking of receptors for alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (alpha-msh) on melanophores of frogs and lizards has been shown to induce long-lasting receptor stimulation whereby the photoreactive alpha-msh may contain one or two photolabels in positions 1, 7, 9, or 13. the chemical synthesis and biological testing of an alpha-msh analogue is now described which contains three photoreactive groups in positions 1, 9 and 13, one of which with a cleavable s-s disulphide bridge: [apsspr-ser ...	2008	7598952
monoterpene hydrocarbons may serve as antipredation defensive compounds in boisea trivittata, the boxelder bug.	boxelder bugs, boisea trivittata, are deterred from predation by green anoles (anolis carolinensis). hydrodistillation and gc-ms analysis reveals b. trivittata to contain the volatile monoterpene hydrocarbons beta-pinene (83.9%), limonene (14.7%), myrcene (0.8%), and (e)-beta-ocimene (0.6%). the presence of these antifeedant volatile chemicals may serve to provide some protection of boxelder bugs from predation.	2009	19475983
the immunoglobulin heavy chain locus in the platypus (ornithorhynchus anatinus).	immunoglobulins loci in mammals are well known to be organized within a translocon, however their origin remains unresolved. four of the five classes of immunoglobulins described in humans and rodents (immunoglobulins m, g, e and a-igm, igg, ige and iga) were found in marsupials and monotremes (immunoglobulin d-igd was not found) thus showing that the genomic structure of antibodies in mammals has remained constant since its origin. we have recently described the genomic organization of the immu ...	2009	19505725
the immunoglobulin heavy chain locus in the reptile anolis carolinensis.	we describe the entire immunoglobulin heavy chain (igh) locus from the reptile anolis carolinensis. the heavy chain constant (c(h)) region includes c mu, c delta and c upsilon genes. this is the first description of a c upsilon gene in the reptilian class. variable (v(h)), diversity (d(h)) and joining (j(h)) genes are located 5' from the constant (c(h)) chain complex locus. the c mu and c upsilon genes encode antibodies with four immunoglobulin domains. the c delta gene encoded an 11 domain delt ...	2009	19299020
hormonal response of male green anole lizards (anolis carolinensis) to gnrh challenge.	circulating plasma levels of testosterone often differ among social classes of sexually mature males within a population, but the general physiological mechanisms underlying such differences remain unclear. within sexually mature male green anole lizards (anolis carolinensis), smaller "lightweight" males have on average relatively smaller heads, lower bite-forces, and lower testosterone levels compared with larger "heavyweight" males. we conducted gonadotropin-releasing hormone (gnrh) challenges ...	2009	19012286
morphology and estrogen receptor alpha mrna expression in the developing green anole forebrain.	sex differences in forebrain morphology arise during development and are often linked to hormonal changes. these dimorphisms frequently occur in regions related to reproductive behaviors. little is known about the normal ontogeny of reproductive nuclei in the green anole lizard, including whether steroid hormones influence their development. to address this issue, brain region volume, cell density, soma size, and estrogen receptor alpha (eralpha) mrna expression were characterized in the preopti ...	2009	19065643
patterns of infection of the lizard malaria parasite, plasmodium floridense, in invasive brown anoles (anolis sagrei) in southwestern florida.	plasmodium floridense is a saurian malaria parasite common in the anolis lizards of the northern caribbean islands and the se usa. in the latter area, it is found in two native lizards (sceloporus undulatus and anolis carolinensis) and in the introduced anolis sagrei, which is native to cuba. we measured parasite prevalence and parasitemia in the introduced anole at a single site in north port, florida over 5 years. prevalence, based on microscopic examination of blood smears, was high year-roun ...	2009	19085004
kisspeptin-like immunoreactive neuron distribution in the green anole (anolis carolinensis).	kisspeptins are a recently identified class of neuropeptides belonging to the rfamide peptide family. despite growing evidence supporting kisspeptin as a key regulator of reproduction, data addressing whether kisspeptin is a conserved reproductive signal are lacking. we investigated the distribution of kisspeptin in adult green anole lizards (anolis carolinensis) via immunohistochemistry. additionally, we examined the possibility of a sexual dimorphism in kisspeptin expression. kisspeptin immuno ...	2009	19420914
homologue of mammalian apolipoprotein a-ii in non-mammalian vertebrates.	although apolipoprotein with molecular weight 14 kda (apo-14 kda) is associated with fish plasma high-density lipoproteins (hdls), it remains to be determined whether apo-14 kda is the homologue of mammalian apoa-ii. we have obtained the full cdna sequences that encode japanese eel and rainbow trout apo-14 kda. homologues of japanese eel apo-14 kda sequence could be found in 14 fish species deposited in the ddbj/embl/genbank or tgi database. fish apo-14 kda lacks propeptide and contains more int ...	2009	19430701
sexually dimorphic estrogen receptor alpha mrna expression in the preoptic area and ventromedial hypothalamus of green anole lizards.	estradiol (e2) is important in activation of male reproductive behaviors, and masculinizes morphology of associated brain regions in a number of mammalian and avian species. in contrast, it is testosterone, rather than its metabolites, that is the most potent activator of male sexual behavior in green anole lizards. as in other vertebrate groups, however, e2 is critical for receptivity in females of this species. aromatase, the enzyme which converts testosterone to e2, is more active in the male ...	2009	19470372
a bacterial artificial chromosome library for the australian saltwater crocodile (crocodylus porosus) and its utilization in gene isolation and genome characterization.	crocodilians (order crocodylia) are an ancient vertebrate group of tremendous ecological, social, and evolutionary importance. they are the only extant reptilian members of archosauria, a monophyletic group that also includes birds, dinosaurs, and pterosaurs. consequently, crocodilian genomes represent a gateway through which the molecular evolution of avian lineages can be explored. to facilitate comparative genomics within crocodylia and between crocodilians and other archosaurs, we have const ...	2009	19607660
expression of igm, igd, and igy in a reptile, anolis carolinensis.	the reptiles are the last major group of jawed vertebrates in which the organization of the igh locus and its encoded ig h chain isotypes have not been well characterized. in this study, we show that the green anole lizard (anolis carolinensis) expresses three ig h chain isotypes (igm, igd, and igy) but no iga. the presence of the delta gene in the lizard demonstrates an evolutionary continuity of igd from fishes to mammals. although the germline delta gene contains 11 c(h) exons, only the first ...	2009	19717516