Publications

cortisol but not testosterone is repeatable and varies with reproductive effort in wild red deer stags.	although it is known that hormone concentrations vary considerably between individuals within a population, how they change across time and how they relate to an individual's reproductive effort remains poorly quantified in wild animals. using faecal samples collected from wild red deer stags, we examined sources of variation in faecal cortisol and androgen metabolites, and the potential relationship that these might have with an index of reproductive effort. we also biologically validated an as ...	2015	26209865
manganese supplementation in deer under balanced diet increases impact energy and contents in minerals of antler bone tissue.	bone ash, collagen, ca and p composition, are considered the main factors affecting mechanical properties in bones. however, a series of studies in bone and antler have shown that some trace minerals, such as manganese, may play a role whose importance exceeds what may be expected considering their low content. a previous study showed that a reduction in manganese in antlers during a year of late winter frosts led to generalized antler breakage in spain, which included a reduction of 30% of cort ...	2015	26177083
vocal activity of the red deer and the acoustic structure of its rutting calls in the russian far east.		2015	26164336
mitochondrial genomes of giant deers suggest their late survival in central europe.	the giant deer megaloceros giganteus is among the most fascinating late pleistocene eurasian megafauna that became extinct at the end of the last ice age. important questions persist regarding its phylogenetic relationship to contemporary taxa and the reasons for its extinction. we analyzed two large ancient cervid bone fragments recovered from cave sites in the swabian jura (baden-württemberg, germany) dated to 12,000 years ago. using hybridization capture in combination with next generation se ...	2015	26052672
incorporating anthropogenic effects into trophic ecology: predator-prey interactions in a human-dominated landscape.	apex predators perform important functions that regulate ecosystems worldwide. however, little is known about how ecosystem regulation by predators is influenced by human activities. in particular, how important are top-down effects of predators relative to direct and indirect human-mediated bottom-up and top-down processes? combining data on species' occurrence from camera traps and hunting records, we aimed to quantify the relative effects of top-down and bottom-up processes in shaping predato ...	2015	26336169
ixodes ricinus (ixodidae), an occasional phoront on necrophagous and coprophagous beetles in europe.	for ticks, phoretic behaviour using insects associated with vertebrates might offer an alternative strategy to host-seeking. here we report for the first time the presence of immature stages of the most widespread tick species in western europe, ixodes ricinus (acari: ixodidae), on three beetle species belonging to families silphidae and geotrupidae (coleoptera). specimens were collected while performing fieldwork surveys on insect diversity during the peak of tick's questing behaviour, in july ...	2015	25491290
a comparison of food habits and prey preference of amur tiger (panthera tigris altaica) at three sites in the russian far east.	prey availability is one of the principal drivers of tiger distribution and abundance. therefore, formulating effective conservation strategies requires a clear understanding of tiger diet. we used scat analysis in combination with data on the abundance of several prey species to estimate amur tiger diet and preference at 3 sites in the russian far east. we also examined the effect of pseudoreplication on estimates of tiger diet. we collected 770 scats across the 3 sites. similar to previous stu ...	2015	25939758
[morphometry in development of red deer's adrenal glands].	histological structures and morphometric and some histochemical indicators of elk's adrenal gland development as subspecies of red deer in prenatal and postnatal ontogenies stages was studied. it was found that the growth of the fetus adrenal glands weight and the thickness of the structures adrenal glands fragments continue throughout the prenatal period of ontogeny. the cells of androgenic zone with single wandering sympathogoniae are differentiated in the adrenal glands in the second month of ...	2015	26480487
anaplasma phagocytophilum prevalence in ticks and rodents in an urban and natural habitat in south-western slovakia.	ixodes ricinus is the principal vector of anaplasma phagocytophilum, the ethiological agent of granulocytic anaplasmosis in europe. anaplasmosis is an emerging zoonotic disease with a natural enzootic cycle. the reservoir competence of rodents is unclear. monitoring of a. phagocytophilum prevalence in i. ricinus and rodents in various habitat types of slovakia may contribute to the knowledge about the epidemiology of anaplasmosis in central europe.	2015	25980768
foraging ecology of three sympatric ungulate species - behavioural and resource maps indicate differences between chamois, ibex and red deer.	the spatial distribution of forage resources is a major driver of animal movement patterns. understanding where animals forage is important for the conservation of multi-species communities, since interspecific competition can emerge if different species use the same depletable resources. however, determining forage resources in a spatially continuous fashion in alpine grasslands at high spatial resolution was challenging up to now, because terrain heterogeneity causes vegetation characteristics ...	2015	26807258
country, cover or protection: what shapes the distribution of red deer and roe deer in the bohemian forest ecosystem?	the bohemian forest ecosystem encompasses various wildlife management systems. two large, contiguous national parks (one in germany and one in the czech republic) form the centre of the area, are surrounded by private hunting grounds, and hunting regulations in each country differ. here we aimed at unravelling the influence of management-related and environmental factors on the distribution of red deer (cervus elaphus) and roe deer (capreolus capreolus) in this ecosystem. we used the standing cr ...	2015	25781942
vertical transmission of bartonella schoenbuchensis in lipoptena cervi.	lipoptena cervi (diptera: hippoboscidae) is a hematophagous ectoparasite of cervids, which is considered to transmit pathogens between animals and occasionally to humans. the principal life stage that is able to parasitize new hosts is a winged ked that just emerged from a pupa. to facilitate efficient transmission of pathogens between hosts, vertical transmission from female deer keds to their offspring is necessary. we investigated vertical transmission of several vector-borne pathogens associ ...	2015	25889985
the epidemiology of mycobacterium bovis in wild deer and feral pigs and their roles in the establishment and spread of bovine tuberculosis in new zealand wildlife.	in new zealand, wild deer and feral pigs are assumed to be spillover hosts for mycobacterium bovis, and so are not targeted in efforts aimed at locally eradicating bovine tuberculosis (tb) from possums (trichosurus vulpecula), the main wildlife host. here we review the epidemiology of tb in deer and pigs, and assess whether new zealand's tb management programme could be undermined if these species sometimes achieve maintenance host status. in new zealand, tb prevalences of up to 47% have been re ...	2015	25295713
susceptibility of european red deer (cervus elaphus elaphus) to alimentary challenge with bovine spongiform encephalopathy.	european red deer (cervus elaphus elaphus) are susceptible to the agent of bovine spongiform encephalopathy, one of the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, when challenged intracerebrally but their susceptibility to alimentary challenge, the presumed natural route of transmission, is unknown. to determine this, eighteen deer were challenged via stomach tube with a large dose of the bovine spongiform encephalopathy agent and clinical signs, gross and histological lesions, presence and dist ...	2015	25615837
sequence analysis of bitter taste receptor gene repertoires in different ruminant species.	bitter taste has been extensively studied in mammalian species and is associated with sensitivity to toxins and with food choices that avoid dangerous substances in the diet. at the molecular level, bitter compounds are sensed by bitter taste receptor proteins (t2r) present at the surface of taste receptor cells in the gustatory papillae. our work aims at exploring the phylogenetic relationships of t2r gene sequences within different ruminant species. to accomplish this goal, we gathered a colle ...	2015	26061084
patterns of mycobacterium tuberculosis-complex excretion and characterization of super-shedders in naturally-infected wild boar and red deer.	wild boar (sus scrofa) and red deer (cervus elaphus) are the main maintenance hosts for bovine tuberculosis (btb) in continental europe. understanding mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (mtc) excretion routes is crucial to define strategies to control btb in free-ranging populations, nevertheless available information is scarce. aiming at filling this gap, four different mtc excretion routes (oronasal, bronchial-alveolar, fecal and urinary) were investigated by molecular methods in naturally inf ...	2015	26518244
long-term dynamics of coxiella burnetii in farmed red deer (cervus elaphus).	several aspects of the dynamics of coxiella burnetii that are relevant for the implementation of control strategies in ruminant herds with endemic q fever are unknown. we designed a longitudinal study to monitor the dynamics of exposure to c. burnetii in a red deer herd with endemic infection in order to allow the design of q fever-specific control approaches. other relevant aspects of the dynamics of c. burnetii - the effect of herd immune status, age, season, and early infection on exposure, t ...	2015	26697437
prevalence and genetic diversity of rhodococcus equi in wild boars (sus scrofa), roe deer (capreolus capreolus) and red deer (cervus elaphus) in poland.	rhodococcus equi is now considered an emerging zoonotic pathogen. sources and routes of human infection remain unclear but foodborne transmission seems to be the most probable way. strains of pig or bovine type are most often isolated from human cases and moreover r. equi is present in submaxillary lymph nodes of apparently healthy pigs and wild boars intended for human consumption. the aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence of r. equi in submaxillary lymph nodes in wild boars, roe dee ...	2015	25997952
patterns of lynx predation at the interface between protected areas and multi-use landscapes in central europe.	in central europe, protected areas are too small to ensure survival of populations of large carnivores. in the surrounding areas, these species are often persecuted due to competition with game hunters. therefore, understanding how predation intensity varies spatio-temporally across areas with different levels of protection is fundamental. we investigated the predation patterns of eurasian lynx (lynx lynx) on roe deer (capreolus capreolus) and red deer (cervus elaphus) in both protected areas an ...	2015	26379142
seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii in wild boars, red deer and roe deer in poland.	little is known about the prevalence of toxoplasma gondii in wild life, particularly game animals in poland. meat juice collected during the 2009/2010 and 2010/2011 hunting seasons from 552 red deer (cervus elaphus), 367 wild boars (sus scrofa) and 92 roe deer (capreolus capreolus) was tested for t. gondii antibodies using the multi-species id screen toxoplasmosis indirect kit (idvet, montpellier, france). antibodies to t. gondii were detected in 24.1% of red deer (95% ci: 20.7%, 27.8%), 37.6% o ...	2015	25993468
temporal dynamics of seed excretion by wild ungulates: implications for plant dispersal.	dispersal is a key process in metapopulation dynamics as it conditions species' spatial responses to gradients of abiotic and biotic conditions and triggers individual and gene flows. in the numerous plants that are dispersed through seed consumption by herbivores (endozoochory), the distance and effectiveness of dispersal is determined by the combined effects of seed retention time in the vector's digestive system, the spatial extent of its movements, and the ability of the seeds to germinate o ...	2015	26257875
avoiding toxic levels of essential minerals: a forgotten factor in deer diet preferences.	ungulates select diets with high energy, protein, and sodium contents. however, it is scarcely known the influence of essential minerals other than na in diet preferences. moreover, almost no information is available about the possible influence of toxic levels of essential minerals on avoidance of certain plant species. the aim of this research was to test the relative importance of mineral content of plants in diet selection by red deer (cervus elaphus) in an annual basis. we determined minera ...	2015	25615596
sensitivity of bovine tuberculosis surveillance in wildlife in france: a scenario tree approach.	bovine tuberculosis (btb) is a common disease in cattle and wildlife, with an impact on animal and human health, and economic implications. infected wild animals have been detected in some european countries, and btb reservoirs in wildlife have been identified, potentially hindering the eradication of btb from cattle populations. however, the surveillance of btb in wildlife involves several practical difficulties and is not currently covered by eu legislation. we report here the first assessment ...	2015	26517372
development of an interspecies nested dose-response model for mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis.	mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (map) causes chronic inflammation of the intestines in humans, ruminants, and other species. it is the causative agent of johne's disease in cattle, and has been implicated as the causative agent of crohn's disease in humans. to date, no quantitative microbial risk assessment (qmra) for map utilizing a dose-response function exists. the objective of this study is to develop a nested dose-response model for infection from oral exposure to map utiliz ...	2015	25809926
molecular identification of mycobacterium avium subsp. silvaticum by duplex high-resolution melt analysis and subspecies-specific real-time pcr.	accurate identification of mycobacterial species and subspecies is essential to evaluate their significance and to perform epidemiological studies. the subspecies of mycobacterium avium have different attributes but coincide in their zoonotic potential. our knowledge about m. avium subsp. silvaticum is limited, since its identification is uncertain. mycobacterium avium subsp. avium and m. avium subsp. silvaticum can be discriminated from each other based only on phenotypic characteristics, as th ...	2015	25740770
[bovine tuberculosis still not to be forgotten even in the czech republic].	bovine tuberculosis is caused by two obligate pathogenic species, mycobacterium bovis and m. caprae, that cause severe disease in animals and humans. the oral route of infection causing extrapulmonary forms of the disease in humans is more common than aerogenic infection causing pulmonary tuberculosis. significant risk factors for the development of diseases in humans are mainly consuming insufficiently heat-treated milk or meat from infected animals. since 2004, the czech republic has been list ...	2015	26312376
prevalence of hepatitis e virus in populations of wild animals in comparison with animals bred in game enclosures.	hepatitis e virus (hev) is now accepted as a zoonotic virus, and domestic pigs, wild boars and deer are recognised as natural reservoirs of the pathogen. in this study, 762 animals (wild boars, fallow deer, red deer, sika deer, roe deer and mouflons) originating from the wild and from game enclosures were tested for the presence of hev rna by qrt-pcr. hev rna was detected in wild boars (96/450), red deer (2/169), roe deer (1/30) and mouflons (5/39). the sequence relationship between hev isolates ...	2015	25771162
hepatitis e virus antibody prevalence in wildlife in poland.	hepatitis e is an important public health problem mostly in developing but occasionally also in industrialized countries. domestic and wildlife animals are considered reservoirs of the hepatitis e virus (hev). since no information on the prevalence of autochthonous hev infections in human and animal in poland is available, the aim of the study was to investigate the hev seroprevalence of different wildlife species as potential virus reservoirs in the country. no hev antibodies were found in any ...	2015	24655475
belgian wildlife as potential zoonotic reservoir of hepatitis e virus.	hepatitis e is an acute human liver disease in healthy individuals but may become chronic in immunocompromised patients. it is caused by the hepatitis e virus (hev) and can have a zoonotic origin, particularly in high-income countries. in this study, 383 sera from wild boars were selected for serology; for virological analyses, 69 sera and 61 livers from young wild boars were used. a total of 189 and 235 sera of, respectively, red deer and roe deer were collected for serological analysis. for vi ...	2015	26518619
factors that influence mycobacterium bovis infection in red deer and wild boar in an epidemiological risk area for tuberculosis of game species in portugal.	bovine tuberculosis (btb) is a worldwide zoonotic disease of domestic and wild animals. eradication has proved elusive in those countries with intensive national programmes but with ongoing transmission between wildlife and cattle. in portugal, a high-risk area for btb was defined and specific measures implemented to assess and minimize the risk from wildlife. data from the 2011 to 2014 hunting seasons for red deer (cervus elaphus) and wild boar (sus scrofa) were analysed with bovine demographic ...	2015	26519121
fascioloides magna--epizootiology in a deer farm in germany.	after initial observations of suspicious cases in 2009, the occurrence of fascioloides (f.) magna in deer of a deer farm located in northeastern bavaria, germany, at the border to the czech republic was confirmed in autumn 2011. in march 2012, the deer were treated for fascioloidosis with triclabendazole. to monitor the epizootiology of fascioloidosis in the farm, 80-100 faecal samples were examined for fascioloides eggs at monthly intervals from june 2012 to june 2013 inclusive. in addition, li ...	2015	26054221
development of a multiplex pcr for identification of dictyocaulus lungworms in domestic and wild ruminants.	dictyocaulus lungworms are the causative agents of parasitic bronchitis (dictyocaulosis) characterised by coughing and severe lung pathology in domestic and wild ruminants. the objective of this study was to design a simple molecular test that could detect of lungworm dna from both adult and larval lungworms and could distinguish between the most common dictyocaulus species found in cattle and in some species of wild ruminants. a multiplex pcr test with four novel primers targeting species-speci ...	2015	26266883
prevalence of subtilase cytotoxin-encoding subab variants among shiga toxin-producing escherichia coli strains isolated from wild ruminants and sheep differs from that of cattle and pigs and is predominated by the new allelic variant subab2-2.	subtilase cytotoxin (subab) is an ab5 toxin produced by shiga toxin (stx)-producing escherichia coli (stec) strains usually lacking the eae gene product intimin. three allelic variants of subab encoding genes have been described: subab1, located on a plasmid, subab2-1, located on the pathogenicity island se-pai and subab2-2 located in an outer membrane efflux protein (oep) region. subab is becoming increasingly recognized as a toxin potentially involved in human pathogenesis. ruminants and cattl ...	2015	25488108
extension of occurrence area of the american fluke fascioloides magna in south-western poland.	liver fluke fascioloides magna is a typical parasite of american cervids. the reason for f. magna to appear in poland territory was bringing the american wapiti deer to those forests around 1850. along with these deer the aforementioned fluke was also introduced. the aim of this study was to present the case of finding of this species in cervids in bory zielonogórskie. samples of deer feces were collected in february 2015 in forest district krzystkowice. a total of 16 samples of feces were exami ...	2015	26342504
antimicrobial resistance in wildlife: implications for public health.	the emergence and spread of antimicrobial-resistant (amr) bacteria in natural environments is a major concern with serious implications for human and animal health. the aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of amr escherichia coli (e. coli) in wild birds and mammalian species. thirty faecal samples were collected from each of the following wildlife species: herring gulls (larus argentatus), black-headed gulls (larus ridibundus), lesser black-back gulls (larus fuscus), hybrid deer spe ...	2015	25639901
prevalence and molecular typing of giardia duodenalis in wildlife from eastern poland.	faecal samples from 162 wild animals were collected from 32 distinct sites of łęczyńsko-włodawskie lakeland (eastern poland). the presence of giardia duodenalis (stiles, 1902) was assessed by a direct fluorescence assay (dfa) and by polymerase chain reaction (pcr) and sequencing of a fragment of the beta-giardin gene. dfa showed the presence of cysts of g. duodenalis in 12 of 162 faecal samples (7%), namely in four wild boars (15%), four foxes (19%), two roe deer (4%), and two wolves (29%). pcr ...	2015	26278650
molecular characterization of fascioloides magna (trematoda: fasciolidae) from south-western poland based on mitochondrial markers.	the giant liver fluke, fascioloides magna, is a veterinary important liver parasite of free living and domestic ruminants. this originally north american parasite was introduced along with its cervid hosts to europe where it has established three permanent natural foci - in northern italy, central and southern parts of the czech republic and the danube floodplain forests. the first record on fascioloidosis in poland originated from the lower silesian forest in south-western poland and since then ...	2015	26204195
granuloma coinfection with mycobacterium bovis, mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis, and corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis in five hunted red deer (cervus elaphus) in portugal.	we report granulomatous lymphadenitis in red deer (cervus elaphus) in portugal caused by coinfection with corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis, mycobacterium bovis, and mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis, as demonstrated by molecular methods.	2015	25932668
establishment rate of sheep gastrointestinal nematodes in farmed red deer (cervus elaphus).	to investigate the establishment of sheep gastrointestinal nematodes (gin) in red deer, five red deer and five sheep aged 5-6 months were challenged with a mixed burden of sheep gin at a rate of 327l3/kg bodyweight. the lsmean (se) establishment rates (%) for haemonchus contortus, teladorsagia circumcincta, cooperia curticei, trichostrongylus spp. and oesophagostomum+chabertia spp. were 18.6 (0.03), 35.5 (0.04), 30.7 (0.04), 74.9 (0.05), 19.9 (0.06), respectively in sheep and 10.5 (0.03), 1.0 (0 ...	2015	25657087
host and environmental factors modulate the exposure of free-ranging and farmed red deer (cervus elaphus) to coxiella burnetii.	the control of multihost pathogens, such as coxiella burnetii, should rely on accurate information about the roles played by the main hosts. we aimed to determine the involvement of the red deer (cervus elaphus) in the ecology of c. burnetii. we predicted that red deer populations from broad geographic areas within a european context would be exposed to c. burnetii, and therefore, we hypothesized that a series of factors would modulate the exposure of red deer to c. burnetii. to test this hypoth ...	2015	26150466
experimental studies of microbial populations and incidence of zoonotic pathogens in the faeces of red deer (cervus elaphus).	wild animals can serve as hosts, amplifiers or reservoirs for various zoonotic diseases. most species of deer in highly fragmented agricultural landscapes, search out maximum cover from intrusive human activity. hence, the likelihood of zoonosis transmission is likely to increase the more humans and wildlife interact. in our study, we conducted a comparative analysis of bacteria isolated from the faeces of red deer (cervus elaphus) living in their natural environment in south-western poland and ...	2015	26222832
novel sequence types of chlamydia pecorum infect free-ranging alpine ibex (capra ibex) and red deer (cervus elaphus) in switzerland.	chlamydia pecorum, a recognized pathogen of domesticated ruminants and koalas (phascolarctos cinereus), has been recently reported in a broad range of other wildlife species including water buffalo (bubalus bubalis), ibex (capra ibex), chamois (rupicapra rupicapra), red deer (cervus elaphus), and birds. this identification raises questions as to whether cross-host transmission may be a factor in the epidemiology of infections in these species. to begin to address this question, we employed a c. ...	2015	25647593
coxiella burnetii shedding by farmed red deer (cervus elaphus).	wildlife and notably deer species--due to the increasing relevance of deer farming worldwide--may contribute to the maintenance of coxiella burnetii, the causal agent of q fever. currently, there are no precedents linking exposure to deer species with human q fever cases. however, a human case of q fever was recently diagnosed in a red deer (cervus elaphus) farm, which led us to investigate whether deer could be a source for environmental contamination with c. burnetii and ascertain the implicat ...	2015	24127840
early detection of chronic wasting disease prions in urine of pre-symptomatic deer by real-time quaking-induced conversion assay.	chronic wasting disease (cwd) is a prion disease of captive and free-ranging deer (odocoileus spp), elk (cervus elaphus nelsonii) and moose (alces alces shirasi). unlike in most other prion diseases, in cwd prions are shed in urine and feces, which most likely contributes to the horizontal transmission within and between cervid species. to date, cwd ante-mortem diagnosis is only possible by immunohistochemical detection of protease resistant prion protein (prp (sc) ) in tonsil or recto-anal muco ...	2015	23764839
progressive accumulation of the abnormal conformer of the prion protein and spongiform encephalopathy in the obex of nonsymptomatic and symptomatic rocky mountain elk (cervus elaphus nelsoni) with chronic wasting disease.	the purpose of our study was to describe the progressive accumulation of the abnormal conformer of the prion protein (prp(cwd)) and spongiform degeneration in a single section of brain stem in rocky mountain elk (cervus elaphus nelsoni) with chronic wasting disease (cwd). a section of obex from 85 cwd-positive elk was scored using the presence and abundance of prp(cwd) immunoreactivity and spongiform degeneration in 10 nuclear regions and the presence and abundance of prp(cwd) in 10 axonal tract ...	2015	26185123
prion amplification and hierarchical bayesian modeling refine detection of prion infection.	prions are unique infectious agents that replicate without a genome and cause neurodegenerative diseases that include chronic wasting disease (cwd) of cervids. immunohistochemistry (ihc) is currently considered the gold standard for diagnosis of a prion infection but may be insensitive to early or sub-clinical cwd that are important to understanding cwd transmission and ecology. we assessed the potential of serial protein misfolding cyclic amplification (spmca) to improve detection of cwd prior ...	2015	25665713
detection of invasive borrelia burgdorferi strains in north-eastern piedmont, italy.	following reports of human cases of lyme borreliosis from the ossola valley, a mountainous area of piemonte, north-western italy, the abundance and altitudinal distribution of ticks, and infection of these vectors with borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato were evaluated. a total of 1662 host-seeking ixodes ricinus were collected by dragging from april to september 2011 at locations between 400 and 1450 m above sea level. additional 104 i. ricinus were collected from 35 hunted wild animals (4 chamois, ...	2015	25220838
a geographic cluster of malignant catarrhal fever in moose (alces alces) in norway.	three cases of lethal sheep-associated malignant catarrhal fever (sa-mcf) in free-ranging moose (alces alces) were diagnosed in lesja, norway, december 2008-february 2010. the diagnosis was based on pcr identification of ovine herpesvirus 2 (ovhv-2) dna (n = 3) and typical histopathologic lesions (n = 1). to study the possibility of subclinical or latent mcf virus (mcfv) infection in this moose population and in red deer (cervus elaphus), we examined clinically normal animals sampled during hunt ...	2015	25574807
parasite infections in red deer cervus elaphus from krakow area, southern poland.	the study describes the parasitofauna of red deer cervus elaphus from kraków area (southern poland). the study was done in years 2011-2012 and included altogether 6 animals. five deer originated from the forest areas (hunted) and one came from the urban site (it died in a road accident). in addition to post-mortem examination, coproscopic analyses with sporulation were performed to define eimeria species diversity. the deer were infected with four species of nematodes: ashworthius sidemi, spicul ...	2015	25911038
the power of oral and nasal calls to discriminate individual mothers and offspring in red deer, cervus elaphus.	in most species, acoustical cues are crucial for mother-offspring recognition. studies of a few species of ungulates showed that potential for individual recognition may differ between nasal and oral contact calls.	2015	25610491
bluetongue in europe and the role of wildlife in the epidemiology of disease.	the article reviews a current bluetongue (bt) epidemiological situation in europe, bt restricted zones and the role of wild ungulates as a reservoir for bluetongue virus (btv) and its transmission. bt has been eradicated from central and northern europe, however it is still circulating in some regions of southern and south-eastern europe. according to the recent information of the directoriate general for health and consumer affairs (dg sanco) disease caused by btv1 was spreading at the beginnin ...	2015	26172200
state-space modelling of the drivers of movement behaviour in sympatric species.	understanding animal movement behaviour is key to furthering our knowledge on intra- and inter-specific competition, group cohesion, energy expenditure, habitat use, the spread of zoonotic diseases or species management. we used a radial basis function surface approximation subject to minimum description length constraint to uncover the state-space dynamical systems from time series data. this approximation allowed us to infer structure from a mathematical model of the movement behaviour of shee ...	2015	26580801
pragmatic perspective on conservation genetics and demographic history of the last surviving population of kashmir red deer (cervus elaphus hanglu) in india.	the hangul (cervus elaphus hanglu) is of great conservation concern because it represents the easternmost and only hope for an asiatic survivor of the red deer species in the indian subcontinent. despite the rigorous conservation efforts of the department of wildlife protection in jammu & kashmir, the hangul population has experienced a severe decline in numbers and range contraction in the past few decades. the hangul population once abundant in the past has largely become confined to the dachi ...	2015	25671567
effect of microsatellite selection on individual and population genetic inferences: an empirical study using cross-specific and species-specific amplifications.	although whole-genome sequencing is becoming more accessible and feasible for nonmodel organisms, microsatellites have remained the markers of choice for various population and conservation genetic studies. however, the criteria for choosing microsatellites are still controversial due to ascertainment bias that may be introduced into the genetic inference. an empirical study of red deer (cervus elaphus) populations, in which cross-specific and species-specific microsatellites developed through p ...	2015	25403329
authenticity control of game meat products--a single method to detect and quantify adulteration of fallow deer (dama dama), red deer (cervus elaphus) and sika deer (cervus nippon) by real-time pcr.	this contribution presents a single real-time pcr assay allowing the determination of the deer content (the sum of fallow deer (dama dama), red deer (cervus elaphus) and sika deer (cervus nippon)) in meat products to detect food adulteration. the pcr assay does not show cross-reactivity with 20 animal species and 43 botanical species potentially contained in game meat products. the limit of quantification is 0.5% for fallow deer and red deer and 0.1% for sika deer. the deer content in meat produ ...	2015	25306377
[molecular identification of hairy antler by analysis of high resolution melting].	high resolution melting (hrm) , an important technology for genotyping and mutation scanning, has broad prospects in the authenticity of traditional chinese medicine. this paper selected universal co i primers and used hrm to establish a new method for authenticity of hairy antler. pcr was conducted at the annealing temperature of 60 °c and 45 cycles. the range of the dna template concentration, the primer concentration and the mg2+ ion concentration were further optimized. the results showed th ...	2015	26137679
assessing nutritional parameters of brown bear diets among ecosystems gives insight into differences among populations.	food habit studies are among the first steps used to understand wildlife-habitat relationships. however, these studies are in themselves insufficient to understand differences in population productivity and life histories, because they do not provide a direct measure of the energetic value or nutritional composition of the complete diet. here, we developed a dynamic model integrating food habits and nutritional information to assess nutritional parameters of brown bear (ursus arctos) diets among ...	2015	26083536
admixture of eastern and western european red deer lineages as a result of postglacial recolonization of the czech republic (central europe).	due to a restriction of the distributional range of european red deer (cervus elaphus l.) during the quaternary and subsequent recolonization of europe from different refugia, a clear phylogeographical pattern in genetic structure has been revealed using mitochondrial dna markers. in central europe, 2 distinct, eastern and western, lineages of european red deer are present; however, admixture between them has not yet been studied in detail. we used mitochondrial dna (control region and cytochrom ...	2015	25918430
analysis of annual changes in the concentrations of selected macro- and microelements, thyroxine, and testosterone in the serum of red deer (cervus elaphus) stags.	the aim of the study was to analyze seasonal changes in the concentrations of calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and selenium as well as thyroxine and testosterone in adult red deer stags. the highest testosterone concentrations (mean 6.29±4.36 ng/ml) were observed from the end of august to november, confirming an increase in testicular secretory activity during the mating season. the changes in thyroxine concentration show circannual rhythms, most likely related to changes in the air temperature. ...	2015	25998797
investment in constitutive immune function by north american elk experimentally maintained at two different population densities.	natural selection favors individuals that respond with effective and appropriate immune responses to macro or microparasites. animals living in populations close to ecological carrying capacity experience increased intraspecific competition, and as a result are often in poor nutritional condition. nutritional condition, in turn, affects the amount of endogenous resources that are available for investment in immune function. our objective was to understand the relationship between immune function ...	2015	25992627
vegetation changes associated with a population irruption by roosevelt elk.	interactions between large herbivores and their food supply are central to the study of population dynamics. we assessed temporal and spatial patterns in meadow plant biomass over a 23-year period for meadow complexes that were spatially linked to three distinct populations of roosevelt elk (cervus elaphus roosevelti) in northwestern california. our objectives were to determine whether the plant community exhibited a tolerant or resistant response when elk population growth became irruptive. pla ...	2015	25628868
the content of selected metals in muscles of the red deer (cervus elaphus) from poland.	the aim of this study was to evaluate the concentrations of pb, cu, zn, rb, cs, sr and ba in the muscles of red deer that were hunted in two regions of poland (south-western and north-eastern). the data obtained were evaluated with regards to benefits and potential risk to consumers' health. samples for the investigations were collected in 2008 and 2009 from 50 female red deer, and the metal concentrations were determined by using the inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometric (icp-ms) method ...	2015	25548020
circannual changes in serum concentrations of thyroxine, calcitonin and parathormone in immature and mature red deer females (cervus elaphus).	the aim of this study was to determine circannual changes in the serum concentrations of thyroxine, calcitonin and parathormone in mature and immature red deer females. blood samples from 8 hinds were collected monthly for 26 months. secretions of thyroxine and calcitonin showed circannual rhythms with significantly higher levels in the immature hinds compared to the mature animals (p<0.05). for thyroxine, the concentration was higher in the winter/spring period than in summer/autumn (p<0.05), w ...	2015	26618595
the larger mammal fauna from the lower paleolithic schöningen spear site and its contribution to hominin subsistence.	the locality schöningen (germany) is an important source of knowledge about lower paleolithic hominin subsistence. the locality includes a series of sites dated to the late middle pleistocene with a holsteinian (mis 11) and reinsdorf interglacial (mis 9) age. one of the youngest sites is schöningen 13 ii-4, the spear horizon site also known as the horse butchery site. the organic remains excavated here are exceptionally well-preserved as they were embedded in anaerobic, waterlogged sediments in ...	2015	26607346
[identification of antler powder components based on dna barcoding technology].	in order to authenticate the components of antler powder in the market, dna barcoding technology coupled with cloning method were used. cytochrome c oxidase subunit i (coi) sequences were obtained according to the dna barcoding standard operation procedure (sop). for antler powder with possible mixed components, the cloning method was used to get each coi sequence. 65 coi sequences were successfully obtained from commercial antler powders via sequencing pcr products. the results indicates that o ...	2015	26837186
lead, cadmium and organochlorine pesticide residues in hunted red deer and wild boar from northern italy.	the objectives of the present study were to assess heavy metal cadmium (cd), lead (pb) and organochlorine pesticide concentrations in tissues of red deer (cervus elaphus) and wild boar (sus scrofa) from nine hunting areas and to evaluate related risk factors for the host animal. over a period of 2 years, a total of 1055 and 210 masseters, 424 and 201 livers, 642 and 152 kidneys were collected from wild boar and red deer, respectively, and concentrations of cd, pb and organochlorine pesticides we ...	2015	26365428
solar radiation determines site occupancy of coexisting tropical and temperate deer species introduced to new zealand forests.	assemblages of introduced taxa provide an opportunity to understand how abiotic and biotic factors shape habitat use by coexisting species. we tested hypotheses about habitat selection by two deer species recently introduced to new zealand's temperate rainforests. we hypothesised that, due to different thermoregulatory abilities, rusa deer (cervus timorensis; a tropical species) would prefer warmer locations in winter than red deer (cervus elaphus scoticus; a temperate species). since adult male ...	2015	26061426
contrary seasonal changes of rates of nutrient uptake, organ mass, and voluntary food intake in red deer (cervus elaphus).	northern ungulates acclimatize to winter conditions with restricted food supply and unfavorable weather conditions by reducing energy expenditure and voluntary food intake. we investigated in a study on red deer whether rates of peptide and glucose transport in the small intestines are also reduced during winter as part of the thrifty phenotype of winter-acclimatized animals, or whether transport rates are increased during winter in order to exploit poor forage more efficiently. our results supp ...	2015	26017492
sexual segregation in north american elk: the role of density dependence.	we investigated how density-dependent processes and subsequent variation in nutritional condition of individuals influenced both timing and duration of sexual segregation and selection of resources. during 1999-2001, we experimentally created two population densities of north american elk (cervus elaphus), a high-density population at 20 elk/km(2), and a low-density population at 4 elk/km(2) to test hypotheses relative to timing and duration of sexual segregation and variation in selection of re ...	2015	25691992
increased chromatin fragmentation and reduced acrosome integrity in spermatozoa of red deer from lead polluted sites.	vertebrates are constantly exposed to a diffuse pollution of heavy metals existing in the environment, but in some cases, the proximity to emission sources like mining activity increases the risk of developing adverse effects of these pollutants. here we have studied lead (pb) levels in spermatozoa and testis, and chromatin damage and levels of endogenous antioxidant activity in spermatozoa of red deer (cervus elaphus) from a pb mining area (n=37) and a control area (n=26). deer from the pb-poll ...	2015	25306093
relationship between velvet antler ossification and pth and androgen serum levels in tarim red deer (cervus elaphus).	ossification degree is one of the primary variables affecting the medicinal value of velvet antler. multiple factors regulate the calcification of velvet antler. we studied the relationship between the ossification of velvet antlers and the serum levels of parathyroid hormone (pth) and androgen (adg) in tarim red deer. enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (elisa) and atomic absorption spectrometry demonstrated that the changes in serum pth and adg levels nearly paralleled antler ossification durin ...	2015	26351085
wear fast, die young: more worn teeth and shorter lives in iberian compared to scottish red deer.	teeth in cervidae are permanent structures that are not replaceable or repairable; consequently their rate of wear, due to the grinding effect of food and dental attrition, affects their duration and can determine an animal's lifespan. tooth wear is also a useful indicator of accumulative life energy investment in intake and mastication and their interactions with diet. little is known regarding how natural and sexual selection operate on dental structures within a species in contrasting environ ...	2015	26252380
high prevalence of methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus (mrsa) carrying the mecc gene in a semi-extensive red deer (cervus elaphus hispanicus) farm in southern spain.	the objective was to determine the prevalence of staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage in red deer of a semi-extensive farm and in humans in contact with the estate animals, and to characterize obtained isolates. nasal swabs of 65 deer and 15 humans were seeded on mannitol-salt-agar and oxacillin-resistance-screening-agar-base. isolates were identified by microbiological and molecular methods. antimicrobial susceptibility profile was determined for 16 antibiotics by disk-diffusion and the presenc ...	2015	25912021
toxoplasma gondii infection in alpine red deer (cervus elaphus): its spread and effects on fertility [corrected].	in contrast to the depth of knowledge on the pathological effects of parasitism in domestic animals, the impact of the vast majority of parasites on wildlife hosts is poorly understood and, besides, information from domestics is rarely usable to disclose the parasites' impact on free-ranging populations' dynamics. here we use toxoplasmosis as a study model since, until now, the infection process and the protozoan's effects in natural conditions has received little attention. we analysed 81 sera ...	2015	26405785
milk drop due to leptospirosis in dairy cows.	leptospiral milk drop in dairy cows. pseudomonas aeruginosa mastitis in a cow. systemic pasteurellosis in lambs. encephalopathy due to water deprivation/salt poisoning suspected in weaned lambs. biliary cystadenoma in a red deer hind. these are among matters discussed in the disease surveillance report for november 2014 from sac consulting: veterinary services (sac c vs).	2015	25748187
parapoxvirus (ppv) of red deer reveals subclinical infection and confirms a unique species.	parapoxvirus (ppv) infections are of worldwide importance, particularly in sheep and goat herds. owing to the zoonotic potential of all ppv species, they are a permanent threat to human health as well. the virus is also known to affect wildlife, as reported for pinnipeds, red deer and several other wild ruminants. ppvs found in red deer have been claimed as a unique species according to certain genomic features. so far infection of wildlife has been recognized because of clinical manifestation s ...	2015	25701822
levels of infection, pathology and nodule size of onchocerca flexuosa (nematoda: onchocercidae) in red deer (cervus elaphus) from northern spain.	between 2005 and 2007, the presence of onchocerca flexuosa (wedl, 1856) was discovered and investigated in 110 red deer (cervus elaphus) shot in the riaño regional hunting reserve, in the province of león (north-western spain). nodules containing o. flexuosa were located in the dorsal region and flanks of the deer. these were collected and measured, and some adult parasites were extracted from the nodules and identified by morphology and by obtaining mitochondrial 12s rdna sequences, which were ...	2015	24622346
correction: toxoplasma gondii infection in alpine red deer (cervus elaphus): its spread and effects on fertility.		2015	26517869
report of theileria luwenshuni and theileria sp. rsr from cervids in gansu, china.	theileria parasites are important tick-borne pathogens of animals and cause huge economic losses worldwide. here, we undertook to assess the prevalence of theileria spp. in cervids in gansu, china, based on pcr analysis and sequencing of the 18s rrna genes. molecular survey showed that theileria luwenshuni and theileria sp. rsr were frequently found in gansu cervids, and the prevalence of t. luwenshuni was 66.7% (n = 9, 6/9) in roe deer in zhengning county, 58.3% (n = 12, 7/12) in sika deer in n ...	2015	25820647
factors affecting the ecology of tick-borne encephalitis in slovenia.	recognition of factors that influence the formation of tick-borne encephalitis (tbe) foci is important for assessing the risk of humans acquiring the viral infection and for establishing what can be done (within reasonable boundaries) to minimize that risk. in slovenia, the dynamics of the tbe vector, i.e. ixodes ricinus, was studied over a 4-year period and the prevalence of infection in ticks was established. two groups of tick hosts were investigated: deer and small mammals. red deer have bee ...	2015	25918865
red deer as maintenance host for bovine tuberculosis, alpine region.	to estimate the prevalence of bovine tuberculosis in the alpine region, we studied the epidemiology of mycobacterium caprae in wildlife during the 2009-2012 hunting seasons. free-ranging red deer (cervus elaphus) were a maintenance host in a hot-spot area, mainly located in austria.	2015	25695273
patch-use dynamics by a large herbivore.	an adaption of the optimal foraging theory suggests that herbivores deplete, depart, and finally return to foraging patches leaving time for regrowth [van moorter et al., oikos 118:641-652, 2009]. inter-patch movement and memory of patches then produce a periodic pattern of use that may define the bounds of a home range. the objective of this work was to evaluate the underlying movements within home ranges of elk (cervus elaphus) according to the predictions of this theory. using a spatial tempo ...	2015	27408724
recovering aspen follow changing elk dynamics in yellowstone: evidence of a trophic cascade?	to investigate the extent and causes of recent quaking aspen (populus tremuloides) recruitment in northern yellowstone national park, we measured browsing intensity and height of young aspen in 87 randomly selected aspen stands in 2012, and compared our results to similar data collected in 1997-1998. we also examined the relationship between aspen recovery and the distribution of rocky mountain elk (cervus elaphus) and bison (bison bison) on the yellowstone northern ungulate winter range, using ...	2015	26236910
characteristics of spermatozoa and reproductive organs in relation to age and body weight in swedish moose (alces alces).	knowledge of the reproductive biology of game species is vital for sustainable management. in moose (alces alces), research in reproductive characteristics has focused on the female, whereas there are few studies in male moose. the aim of the present study was to investigate sperm morphology and chromatin integrity (scsa), and their relationships with testicular and epididymal features, as well as temporal aspects with respect to the hunting season. in total, 143 male moose aged 1.5-11.5 years w ...	2015	25576030
protein tyrosine phosphorylation during capacitation in sperm of a rare red deer, tarim wapiti (cervus elaphus yarkandensis).	high efficiency of in vitro capacitation of deer sperm has not yet been achieved as low sperm penetration rates were reported in in vitro fertilization studies. our main goal in this study was to identify the changes of frozen-thawed sperm of the rare red deer tarim wapiti (cervus elaphus yarkandensis) and detect the effect of bovine serum albumin (bsa), serum, and heparin on the protein tyrosine phosphorylation of frozen-thawed sperm. the frozen-thawed sperm of tarim wapiti was suspended in imp ...	2015	25638741
dna left on browsed twigs uncovers bite-scale resource use patterns in european ungulates.	fine-scale resource use by large herbivores is often difficult to quantify directly. this is particularly true for browsing ungulates due to the challenges in observing shy subjects in forested environments of low visibility. as a consequence we know relatively little about resource use by diverse browsing ungulates. when browsing, ungulates leave behind saliva on the browsed twig that includes their dna, which can be used to identify the species that was responsible for browsing the twig. we us ...	2015	25543852
time-dependence of ¹³⁷cs activity concentration in wild game meat in knyszyn primeval forest (poland).	wild game meat samples were analysed from the region of the podlasie province (knyszyn primeval forest). (137)cs content in meat was determined by gamma spectrometry in 2003 (33 samples), 2009 (22 samples) and 2012 (26 samples). the samples were collected in the autumn of 2003, 2009 and 2012 and were compared with data from 1996. mean concentrations of (137)cs in the respective years were as follow: 42.2 bq kg(-1), 33.7 bq kg(-1) and 30.5 bq kg(-1), respectively. on the basis of mean values of ( ...	2015	25559242
genetic differentiation between red deer from different sample sites on the tianshan mountains (cervus elaphus), china.	about 273 individuals were identified from 471 fecal samples from six different red deer populations in china. the genetic structure showed that the red deer from the western and eastern tianshan mountains was different. a total number of 12 haplotypes were defined by 97 variable sites by the control region (cr), and 10 haplotypes were defined by 34 variable sites by cytochrome b. there was no haplotype sharing between red deer populations from western and eastern tianshan mountains by the cr an ...	2015	25431826
sarcocystosis in cervus elaphus: comparison of diagnostic methods.	red deer (cervus elaphus) from a national wildlife reserve near toledo in central spain were surveyed for sarcocystis infection. a total of 61 deer were examined. tissue compression and histology were used to examine samples from diaphragm and heart from each animal included in the study, and results from the two techniques and the two tissues were compared to determine the tissue and technique that provide the most accurate measure of prevalence and intensity. prevalence and intensity were then ...	2015	26767167
quality attributes and composition of meat from red deer (cervus elaphus), fallow deer (dama dama) and aberdeen angus and holstein cattle (bos taurus).	the consumption of venison from deer species has increased in recent years owing to presumably positive health effects. therefore a comparison was made of the physical characteristics, chemical composition and sensory attributes of meat obtained from red deer, fallow deer and aberdeen angus and holstein cattle raised under conditions typical for commercial farming practice and slaughtered at similar ages.	2015	25298298
the region of difference four is a robust genetic marker for subtyping mycobacterium caprae isolates and is linked to spatial distribution of three subtypes.	alpine mycobacterium caprae isolates found in cattle and red deer display at least three genetic variations in the region of difference four (rd4) that can be used for further differentiation of the isolates into the subtypes 'allgäu', 'karwendel' and 'lechtal'. each genomic subtype is thereby characterized by a specific nucleotide deletion pattern in the 12.7-kb rd4 region. even though m. caprae infections are frequently documented in cattle and red deer, little is known about the transmission ...	2015	26518998
the bioaccumulation of lead in the organs of roe deer (capreolus capreolus l.), red deer (cervus elaphus l.), and wild boar (sus scrofa l.) from poland.	the aim of this study was to evaluate the level of lead (pb) in the livers and kidneys of free-living animals from poland, with regard to the differences in tissue pb content between the species. the research material consisted of liver and kidney samples collected from roe deer (capreolus capreolus), red deer (cervus elaphus), and wild boar (sus scrofa) that had been hunted in 16 voivodeships of poland. the concentration of lead had been measured using inductively coupled plasma optical emissio ...	2016	27068893
simulation of potential habitat overlap between red deer (cervus elaphus) and roe deer (capreolus capreolus) in northeastern china.	background. understanding species distribution, especially areas of overlapping habitat between sympatric species, is essential for informing conservation through natural habitat protection. new protection strategies should simultaneously consider conservation efforts for multiple species that exist within the same landscape, which requires studies that include habitat overlap analysis. methods. we estimated the potential habitat of cervids, which are typical ungulates in northern china, using t ...	2016	27019775
identification of host blood-meal sources and borrelia in field-collected ixodes ricinus ticks in north-western poland.	forest animals play fundamental roles in the maintenance of ixodes ricinus and borrelia species in the forest biotope. to identify the forest vertebrate species that are host for i. ricinus and for the recognition of the reservoirs of borrelia species, the blood-meal of 325 i. ricinus ticks collected at two forest sites in north-western poland were analysed. nested pcr was used to detect polymorphisms in a fragment of the mitochondrial 12s rrna gene for the identification of the hosts species. t ...	2016	27007518
elemental composition of game meat from austria.	concentrations of 26 elements (b, na, mg, p, s, k, ca, v, cr, mn, fe, co, ni, cu, zn, as, se, rb, sr, mo, cd, sb, ba, hg, pb, u) in wild game meat from austria were analysed using an inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer. all investigated animals were culled during the hunting season 2012/2013, including 10 chamois (rupicapra rupicapra), 9 hare (lepus europaeus), 10 pheasant (phasianus colchicus), 10 red deer (cervus elaphus), 12 roe deer (capreolus capreolus) and 10 wild boar (sus scrofa ...	2016	26886253
complete mitochondrial genome sequence of a hungarian red deer (cervus elaphus hippelaphus) from high-throughput sequencing data and its phylogenetic position within the family cervidae.	recently, there has been considerable interest in genetic differentiation in the cervidae family. a common tool used to determine genetic variation in different species, breeds and populations is mitochondrial dna analysis, which can be used to estimate phylogenetic relationships among animal taxa and for molecular phylogenetic evolution analysis. with the development of sequencing technology, more and more mitochondrial sequences have been made available in public databases, including whole mit ...	2016	27165525
linking landscape-scale differences in forage to ungulate nutritional ecology.	understanding how habitat and nutritional condition affect ungulate populations is necessary for informing management, particularly in areas experiencing carnivore recovery and declining ungulate population trends. variations in forage species availability, plant phenological stage, and the abundance of forage make it challenging to understand landscape-level effects of nutrition on ungulates. we developed an integrated spatial modeling approach to estimate landscape-level elk (cervus elaphus) n ...	2016	27755722
changes in the rumen microbiome and metabolites reveal the effect of host genetics on hybrid crosses.	the rumen microbiota plays important roles in nutrient metabolism and absorption of the host. however, it is poorly understood how host genetic variation shapes the community structure of the rumen microbiota and its metabolic phenotype. here, we used sika deer (cervus nippon) and elk (cervus elaphus) to produce the following two types of hybrid offspring: sika deer ♀ × elk ♂ (seh) and elk ♀ × sika deer ♂ (esh). then, we examined the rumen microbiome and metabolites in the parents and their hybr ...	2016	27717170
green wave tracking by large herbivores: an experimental approach.	the forage maturation hypothesis (fmh) states that herbivores should follow the onset of growth in spring to obtain access to forage of higher quality and quantity, the so-called "green wave surfing." several studies have found correlative evidence in support of this by associating animal movement with plant phenology. however, experimental manipulation of vast natural systems determining causes of large herbivore movement is usually beyond reach. the unique management system involving winter en ...	2016	27912000
relative costs of offspring sex and offspring survival in a polygynous mammal.	costs of reproduction are expected to be ubiquitous in wild animal populations and understanding the drivers of variation in these costs is an important aspect of life-history evolution theory. we use a 43 year dataset from a wild population of red deer to examine the relative importance of two factors that influence the costs of reproduction to mothers, and to test whether these costs vary with changing ecological conditions. like previous studies, our analyses indicate fitness costs of lactati ...	2016	27601725