Publications

performance of latex agglutination test (katex) in diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis in iran.	visceral leishmaniasis (vl) is an endemic disease in some parts of iran. many techniques have been used for diagnosis of vl, among which the urine based latex agglutination test (katex) is a promising one.	2009	20054108
qualitative and semi-quantitative comparison of an rk39 strip test and direct agglutination test for detection of anti-leishmania donovani antibodies in the sudan.	until now, the comparison of the rk39 strip test (rkt) and direct agglutination test (dat) for detection of visceral leishmaniasis (vl) is exclusively based on either positive or negative qualification of the reaction outcome.	2009	20054109
synthesis and antileishmanial activity of novel 2,4,6-trisubstituted pyrimidines and 1,3,5-triazines.	a series of 2,4,6-trisubstituted pyrimidines and 1,3,5-triazines have been synthesized and screened for their in vitro and in vivo antileishmanial activity against leishmania donovani. among all, 14 compounds have shown promising inhibition of 80-100% at 10 microg/ml against promastigotes and ic(50) in the range of 0.89-9.68 microg/ml against amastigotes. three compounds 13, 32 and 33 with good selectivity index (s.i.) were screened for their in vivo activity in golden hamsters (mesocricetus aur ...	2009	19217698
pcr and direct agglutination as leishmania infection markers among healthy nepalese subjects living in areas endemic for kala-azar.	to compare a pcr assay and direct agglutination test (dat) for the detection of potential markers of leishmania infection in 231 healthy subjects living in a kala-azar endemic focus of nepal.	2009	19228350
presence of antibodies against leishmania chagasi in haemodialysed patients.	in the last decades there has been an increase in cases of visceral leishmaniasis complicating the post-transplant phase, mainly following kidney transplantation. the aim of this study was to evaluate the reactivity of haemodialysed patients using ifat. blood samples of 310 individuals from natal, rn, brazil, were collected and analysed. data regarding blood transfusion, cause of end-stage renal disease and duration of haemodialysis were also analysed. in total, 69 patients (22.3%) were positive ...	2009	19237180
rna editing and mitochondrial activity in promastigotes and amastigotes of leishmania donovani.	kinetoplast maxicircle dna sequence organisation was investigated in leishmania donovani, strain 1s ldbob. gene arrangement in the coding (conserved) region of the maxicircle is collinear with that of most trypanosomatids, with individual genes showing 80-90% nucleotide identity to leishmania tarentolae, strain uc. the notable exception was an integration of a full-size minicircle sequence in the nd1 gene coding region found in l. donovani. editing patterns of the mitochondrial mrnas investigate ...	2009	19109964
potentiation by cigarette smoke of macrophage function against leishmania donovani infection.	cigarette smoke is able to induce the generation of reactive oxygen species and pro-inflammatory cytokines, which are mediators of macrophage function and therefore, we have investigated the ability of cigarette smoke to activate leishmania donovani infected peritoneal macrophage.	2009	19115041
redox-active dinitrodiphenylthioethers against leishmania: synthesis, structure-activity relationships and mechanism of action studies.	btb 06237 (2-[(2,4-dichloro-5-methylphenyl)sulfanyl]-1,3-dinitro-5-(trifluoromethyl) benzene), a compound previously identified through qsar pharmacophore development and a virtual screen of the maybridge database, possesses potent and selective activity against leishmania parasites. in the present study, several analogs of btb 06237 were synthesized and analyzed for activity against leishmania axenic amastigotes, their ability to reduce the level of parasitemia in peritoneal macrophages, and th ...	2009	19058972
leishmania donovani ornithine decarboxylase is indispensable for parasite survival in the mammalian host.	mutations within the polyamine biosynthetic pathway of leishmania donovani, the etiological agent of visceral leishmaniasis, confer polyamine auxotrophy to the insect vector or promastigote form of the parasite. however, whether the infectious or amastigote form of the parasite requires an intact polyamine pathway has remained an open question. to address this issue, conditionally lethal deltaodc mutants lacking ornithine decarboxylase (odc), the rate-limiting enzyme in polyamine biosynthesis, w ...	2009	19064633
the distribution pattern of proliferating cell nuclear antigen in the nuclei of leishmania donovani.	dna replication in eukaryotes is a highly conserved process marked by the licensing of multiple origins, with pre-replication complex assembly in g1 phase, followed by the onset of replication at these origins in s phase. the two strands replicate by different mechanisms, and dna synthesis is brought about by the activity of the replicative dna polymerases pol delta and pol epsilon. proliferating cell nuclear antigen (pcna) augments the processivity of these polymerases by serving as a dna slidi ...	2009	19729406
role of a differentially expressed camp phosphodiesterase in regulating the induction of resistance against oxidative damage in leishmania donovani.	differentiation-coupled induction of resistance of leishmania parasites to macrophage oxidative damage was shown to be associated with an increased camp response. this study explores the significance of the camp response in the parasite by identifying a differentially expressed camp phosphodiesterase (ldpdea) and deciphering its role in regulating antioxidant machineries in the parasite. ldpdea, a high k(m) class i cytosolic camp phosphodiesterase, was expressed maximally in log-phase promastigo ...	2009	19733234
leishmania donovani causing cutaneous leishmaniasis in sri lanka: a wolf in sheep's clothing?	research involving leishmaniasis, a newly established disease in sri lanka, has focused mostly on parasitological and clinical factors, with inadequate understanding of other aspects, including its epidemiology and vector. the escalation in the spread of cutaneous leishmaniasis cases within sri lanka and the close resemblance (genotypic and phenotypic) between the local parasite leishmania donovani mon-37 and the parasite causing visceral leishmaniasis in india (l. donovani mon-2), underscored b ...	2009	19734098
discovery of novel antileishmanial agents in an attempt to synthesize pentamidine-aplysinopsin hybrid molecule.	in an attempt to synthesize pentamidine-aplysinopsin hybrid molecule 25, a lead molecule 8 (containing z-configured aplysinopsin moiety) was identified for antileishmanial activity. optimization of lead 8 provided 24 (containing e-configured aplysinopsin) possessing 10 times more activity and 401-fold less toxicity than the drug pentamidine in cell based assays. synthesis of 24 was possible, surprisingly, because of two innate reactivities of indole-3-carbaldehyde which provided it in diastereo- ...	2009	19743860
cxc chemokine-mediated protection against visceral leishmaniasis: involvement of the proinflammatory response.	visceral leishmaniasis, caused by the protozoan parasite leishmania donovani, is characterized by the loss of ability of the host to generate an effective immune response. in the present study, the comparative potential of cxc chemokines, interferon-gamma-inducible protein-10 (ip-10) and interleukin-8 (il-8) in restricting leishmania donovani infection via the release of nitric oxide and proinflammatory cytokines was studied in an in vitro model. nitric oxide, a crucial mediator for ip-10-mediat ...	2009	19743920
recombinant outer membrane vesicles to augment antigen-specific live vaccine responses.	release of outer membrane vesicles is a common feature of gram negative bacteria. there is growing interest in the use of these vesicles in the development of affordable vaccines. however, to exploit their full potential a convenient system to generate recombinant vesicles would be highly desirable. here, we report the design of a versatile system for preparation of recombinant outer membrane vesicles based on an engineered autotransporter. two model vaccine antigens of leishmania were expressed ...	2009	19748581
synthesis and biological evaluation of new heterocyclic quinolinones as anti-parasite and anti-hiv drug candidates.	we have synthesized quinolinones with potential antiparasitic and anti-hiv activities by an original two-step method involving microwave irradiation and have evaluated their activities against plasmodium falciparum, leishmania donovani, trichomonas vaginalis, and hiv. none of the tested compounds had been previously described using this method of synthesis. one of the compounds had interesting antiparasitic and anti-hiv activity, which could be improved by substitution with different radicals.	2009	19748781
use of multilocus microsatellite typing (mlmt) for the genetic analysis of indian isolates of leishmania donovani.		2009	19583916
in vivo induction of the autophagic machinery in human bone marrow cells during leishmania donovani complex infection.	autophagy is a homeostatic process promoting cell survival in periods of stress. the induction of the autophagic machinery has also been implicated in both innate and adaptive immunity. leishmania donovani, which is the causative pathogen of visceral leishmaniasis, is an intracellular parasite that invades and multiplies in bone marrow macrophages. we describe the induction of host cell autophagic machinery during acute natural bone marrow infection by l. donovani complex, detected by lc3b immun ...	2009	19591960
intracellular replication-deficient leishmania donovani induces long lasting protective immunity against visceral leishmaniasis.	no vaccine is currently available for visceral leishmaniasis (vl) caused by leishmania donovani. this study addresses whether a live attenuated centrin gene-deleted l. donovani (ldcen1(-/-)) parasite can persist and be both safe and protective in animals. ldcen1(-/-) has a defect in amastigote replication both in vitro and ex vivo in human macrophages. safety was shown by the lack of parasites in spleen and liver in susceptible balb/c mice, immune compromised scid mice, and human vl model hamste ...	2009	19592661
evaluation of anti-leishmanial activity of selected indian plants known to have antimicrobial properties.	the severe toxicity, exorbitant cost and the emerging resistance of leishmania spp. against most of the currently used drugs led to the urgent need for exploiting our traditional ayurvedic knowledge to treat visceral leishmaniasis. the aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro anti-leishmanial activity of various extracts from ten traditionally used indian medicinal plants. the methanolic extract from only two plants, withania somnifera dunal (ashwagandha) and allium sativum linn. (garlic), ...	2009	19593584
holiday souvenirs from the mediterranean: three instructive cases of visceral leishmaniasis.	with expanding travel activities, visceral leishmaniasis increasingly occurs in non-endemic areas and affects immunocompetent individuals with no other risk factor than holidays at the mediterranean coast. we report 3 instructive swiss cases of visceral leishmaniasis presenting with fever of unknown origin and pancytopenia and review current diagnostic and therapeutic concepts.	2009	19593691
complete protection against experimental visceral leishmaniasis with complete soluble antigen from attenuated leishmania donovani promastigotes involves th1-immunity and down-regulation of il-10.	compared with cutaneous leishmaniasis, vaccination against visceral leishmaniasis has received limited attention. most available drugs are toxic, and relapse after cure remains a chronic problem. growing limitations in available chemotherapeutic strategies due to emerging resistant strains and lack of an effective vaccine strategy against visceral leishmaniasis deepens the crisis. complete soluble antigen (csa), from a beta1-4 galactosyltransferase expressing attenuated leishmania donovani paras ...	2009	19593771
visceral leishmaniasis and anti-tnf-alpha therapy: case report and review of the literature.	visceral leishmaniasis (vl) is an extremely rare example of opportunistic infection in patients treated with tnf-alpha antagonists and only a few cases have been described. in this paper risk factors, clinical features, diagnostic work-up and outcome of patients developing vl under biologic therapy are described.	2009	19604446
synthesis and antiprotozoal activity of pyridyl analogues of pentamidine.	a series of novel pyridyl analogues 1-18 of antiprotozoal drug 1,5-bis(4-amidinophenoxy)pentane (pentamidine) has been synthesized and tested for in vitro activities against trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, plasmodium falciparum, and leishmania donovani, and for cytotoxicity against mammalian cells. antiprotozoal properties of compounds 1-18 depended on the placement of cationic moieties on the pyridine rings as well as the nature of substituents on the amidine groups. diamidine 6 with cationic m ...	2009	19606902
il-17 and il-22 are associated with protection against human kala azar caused by leishmania donovani.	il-17 and il-22 have been shown to increase protection against certain bacteria and fungal pathogens in experimental models. however, no human studies have demonstrated a crucial role of il-17 and il-22 in protection against infections. we show here that leishmania donovani, which can cause the lethal visceral disease kala azar (ka), stimulates the differentiation of th17 cells, which produce il-17, il-22, and ifn-gamma. analysis of th1, th2, and th17 cytokine responses by cultured pbmcs from in ...	2009	19620772
an orally effective dihydropyrimidone (dhpm) analogue induces apoptosis-like cell death in clinical isolates of leishmania donovani overexpressing pteridine reductase 1.	the protozoan parasite leishmania donovani is the causative agent of visceral leishmaniasis. the enzyme pteridine reductase 1 (ptr1) of l. donovani acts as a metabolic bypass for drugs targeting dihydrofolate reductase (dhfr); therefore, for successful antifolate chemotherapy to be developed against leishmania, it must target both enzyme activities. leishmania cells overexpressing ptr1 tagged at the n-terminal with green fluorescent protein were established to screen for proprietary dihydropyrim ...	2009	19621245
improvement of the newly developed latex agglutination test (katex) for diagnosis of visceral lieshmaniasis.	different methods are available for diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis (vl), among them the urine-based antigen detection assay, latex agglutination test (katex), is a recently developed one. the main drawback of the test is false-positive reactivity in some of healthy individuals. the false positivity of the test can be removed by boiling the urine sample for 5 min before testing. in this study an attempt was made to improve katex by removing unpleasant boiling process, which also decreases fi ...	2009	19623643
phlebotomus perfiliewi transcaucasicus is circulating both leishmania donovani and l. infantum in northwest iran.	leishmania infantum is the causative agent of infantile visceral leishmaniasis (ivl) in the mediterranean basin and, based on isoenzyme typing of the parasite isolated from dogs; this parasite was considered to predominate in the all foci of ivl in iran. however, based on pcr detection and sequencing of parasite cysteine protease b (cpb), only one out of seven sandfly infections in phlebotomus perfiliewi transcaucasicus was found to be l. infantum in the current investigation. the six other infe ...	2009	19631209
high-throughput screening of amastigotes of leishmania donovani clinical isolates against drugs using a colorimetric beta-lactamase assay.	a simple colorimetric beta-lactamase assay for quantifying leishmania amastigotes in macrophages grown in microtiter plates has been reported. the beta-lactamase gene was integrated into the rrna region of the genome, thereby allowing for high-level stable expression of the enzyme. both visceral leishmaniasis (vl) and post-kala azar dermal leishmaniasis (pkdl) isolates were transfected with beta-lactamase gene. these beta-lactamase-expressing promastigotes were used for infecting intracellular j ...	2009	19634714
anti-il-10 mab protection against experimental visceral leishmaniasis via induction of th1 cytokines and nitric oxide.	visceral leishmaniasis is characterized by severe immune suppression of the host. this suppression of the host immune system is primarily mediated by the immunosuppressive cytokine interleukin-10 (il-10), whose levels are significantly upregulated during leishmaniasis. this immune suppression is reflected at the level of t-cell dysfunction and abrogation of leishmaniacidal molecules along with a dampened th1 cytokine response. in the present study, we showed in vivo neutralization of il-10 by ad ...	2009	19634715
anti-fixed leishmania chagasi promastigotes igg antibodies detected by flow cytometry (fc-afpa-igg) as a tool for serodiagnosis and for post-therapeutic cure assessment in american visceral leishmaniasis.	visceral leishmaniasis (vl) is a systemic infection, caused by an intracellular protozoan parasite belonging to the leishmania donovani complex. the diagnosis of vl is complex because most clinical features are shared with other commonly occurring febrile hepatosplenic diseases that can be endemic along with vl. a number of serological devices are available but still require improvement mainly due to residual post-therapeutic serology and the cross-reactivity with other trypanosomatidae protozoo ...	2009	19635482
induction of cellular and humoral responses by autoclaved and heat-killed antigen of leishmania donovani in experimental visceral leishmaniasis.	the potential of autoclaved and heat-killed antigen of leishmania donovani to induce cell-mediated and humoral response has been evaluated in the present study. the vaccines were delivered thrice subcutaneously at an interval of 2 weeks. two weeks after second booster, balb/c mice were challenged with 10(7) stationary phase promastigotes of l. donovani. significant protection was achieved in immunized mice against l. donovani challenge with 69% to 76% and 59% to 64% reduction in parasite load in ...	2009	19638322
signr1-negative red pulp macrophages protect against acute streptococcal sepsis after leishmania donovani-induced loss of marginal zone macrophages.	marginal zone macrophages in the murine spleen play an important role in the capture of blood-borne pathogens and are viewed as an essential component of host defense against the development of pneumococcal sepsis. however, we and others have previously described the loss of marginal zone macrophages associated with the splenomegaly that follows a variety of viral and protozoal infections; this finding raises the question of whether these infected mice would become more susceptible to secondary ...	2009	19644016
leishmania donovani: a glycosyl dihydropyridine analogue induces apoptosis like cell death via targeting pteridine reductase 1 in promastigotes.	targeting of pteridine reductase 1 (ptr1) in leishmania is essential for development of successful antifolate chemotherapy. in search for specific inhibitors of ptr1 we have previously reported phenyl 1,4-dihydropyridine ring as the lead structure showing antileishmanial efficacy in vitro and by the oral route in vivo. in this study, we present programmed cell death inducing potential of this glycosyl dihydropyridine analogue (2,6-dimethyl-4-(3-o-benzyl-1,2-o-isopropylidene-beta-l-threo-pentofur ...	2009	19647734
constituents of tinospora sinensis and their antileishmanial activity against leishmania donovani.	two new compounds 4-methyl-heptadec-6-enoic acid ethyl ester (2) and 3-hydroxy-2,9,11-trimethoxy-5,6-dihydro isoquino[3,2-a]isoquinolinylium (7) were isolated from an ethanolic extract of the stems of tinospora sinensis, along with six known compounds (1, 3-6 and 8). the structures of new compounds were established on the basis of detailed spectroscopic studies. compound 7 exhibited the highest in vitro antileishmanial activity against leishmania donovani promastigotes and intracellular amastigo ...	2009	19662579
berberine chloride causes a caspase-independent, apoptotic-like death in leishmania donovani promastigotes.	berberine chloride, a quarternary isoquinoline alkaloid, is a promising anti-leishmanial compound, ic(50) being 7.1 microm in l. donovani promastigotes. this leishmanicidal activity was initiated by its pro-oxidant effect, evidenced by enhanced generation of reactive oxygen intermediates that was accompanied by depletion of thiols; pre-incubation in n-acetyl cysteine, attenuated its cell viability, corroborating that generation of free radicals triggered its parasiticidal activity. externalizati ...	2009	19669998
proteomic analysis of wild type and arsenite-resistant leishmania donovani.	leishmania donovani, causative organism for visceral leishmaniasis, is responsible for considerable mortality and morbidity worldwide. generation of drug-resistant variants continue to challenge the chemotherapy, the mainstay to fight the disease. the aim of current study was proteomic profiling of wild type (ld-wt) and arsenite-resistant (ld-as20) l. donovani. significant differences in protein profiles were observed between ld-as20 and its parent ld-wt strain. proteomic analysis of 158 spots f ...	2009	19679130
leishmanicidal activity of new megazol derivatives.	a series of thirteen new megazol derivatives, designed exploring the molecular hybridization approach between megazol (3) and heterocombretastatins (2), was synthesized. these new compounds were tested for in vitro antiparasitic activity upon axenic amastigotes of leishmania donovani. biological results led us to identify a new potent megazol derivative (4g), which presents an ic(50) = 0.081microg/ml, more active tham the reference drug miltefosine (ic(50) = 0.131microg/ml).	2009	19689398
apoptosis caused by hsp90 inhibitor geldanamycin in leishmania donovani during promastigote-to-amastigote transformation stage.	the role of heat shock protein 90 inhibitor geldanamycin (ga) during leishmania donovani promastigote-to-amastigote transformation in axenic conditions was investigated. promastigotes exhibited apoptotic morphologic changes after ga treatment at a high temperature, and the effect is in a dose- and time-dependant manner. meanwhile, cell cycle analysis showed a significant increase at the expense of cells in the g0/g1 phase and a decrease in the s and g2/m phases after ga treatment. in addition, c ...	2009	19690889
design and synthesis of novel substituted quinazoline derivatives as antileishmanial agents.	4-(substituted-benzylidine)-2-substituted-5,6-dihydrobenzo[h]quinazoline (5a-p) and 4-(substituted-benzylidine)-2-substituted-3, 4, 5, 6-tetrahydrobenzo[h]quinazoline (6a-p) have been synthesized from 2-(substituted-benzylidine)tetralone-1(3a-d) and several substituted guanidine sulfates(4a-d).these compounds were tested for their in vitro antileishmanial activity. the compounds 6i, 6f, 6g show promising antileishmanial activity against leishmania donovani.	2009	19692240
cutaneous leishmaniasis in north-western yemen: a clinicoepidemiologic study and leishmania species identification by polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis.	cutaneous leishmaniasis (cl) is widespread in yemen, but not fully documented.	2009	19695737
glyoxalase i gene deletion mutants of leishmania donovani exhibit reduced methylglyoxal detoxification.	glyoxalase i is a metalloenzyme of the glyoxalase pathway that plays a central role in eliminating the toxic metabolite methyglyoxal. the protozoan parasite leishmania donovani possesses a unique trypanothione dependent glyoxalase system.	2009	19710909
structure-activity study of pentamidine analogues as antiprotozoal agents.	diamidine 1 (pentamidine) and 65 analogues (2-66) have been tested for in vitro antiprotozoal activities against trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, plasmodium falciparum, and leishmania donovani, and for cytotoxicity against mammalian cells. dications 32, 64, and 66 exhibited antitrypanosomal potencies equal or greater than melarsoprol (ic(50) = 4 nm). nine congeners (2-4, 12, 27, 30, and 64-66) were more active against p. falciparum than artemisinin (ic(50) = 6 nm). eight compounds (12, 32, 33, 44 ...	2009	19267462
short report: development of post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis (pkdl) in miltefosine-treated visceral leishmaniasis.	we report two cases of post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis (pkdl), which had subsequently developed after successful treatment of visceral leishmaniasis with miltefosine. both patients had maculo-nodular lesions all over the body, and they were diagnosed as pkdl by parasitologic examination for leishmania donovani bodies in a skin snip of lesions. patients were put on amphotericin b and responded very well for nodular lesions with one course of treatment. however, longer duration of the treatmen ...	2009	19270277
parasitic lung infections.	global climate change and population explosion leading to changes in natural ecosystem and travel across the continents have resulted in an increase in the transmission of parasites to human beings. this review focuses on recent advancements in parasitic lung infections.	2009	19276810
molecular epidemiology of leishmaniasis in asia (focus on cutaneous infections).	leishmaniasis has a wider geographical distribution than before. this review focuses on molecular epidemiological studies of new foci of cutaneous leishmaniasis in south and southeast asia.	2009	19276879
identification of genetic markers in sodium antimony gluconate (sag) sensitive and resistant indian clinical isolates of leishmania donovani through amplified fragment length polymorphism (aflp).	sodium antimony gluconate (sag) is currently used worldwide as the first-line drugs for the treatment of visceral leishmaniasis (vl) and cutaneous leishmaniasis (cl) since 1940s. unfortunately, the resistance of leishmania parasite to this drug is increasing in several parts of the world. the mechanism of drug resistance in clinical isolates is still not very clear. earlier, we have established a differentiation between six clinical isolates as sensitive and resistant on the basis of their sensi ...	2009	19283900
designing therapies against experimental visceral leishmaniasis by modulating the membrane fluidity of antigen-presenting cells.	the membrane fluidity of antigen-presenting cells (apcs) has a significant bearing on t-cell-stimulating ability and is dependent on the cholesterol content of the membrane. the relationship, if any, between membrane fluidity and defective cell-mediated immunity in visceral leishmaniasis has been investigated. systemic administration of cholesterol by liposome delivery (cholesterol liposomes) in leishmania donovani-infected hamsters was found to cure the infection. splenic macrophages as a proto ...	2009	19289510
membrane sterol depletion impairs miltefosine action in wild-type and miltefosine-resistant leishmania donovani promastigotes.	this study focuses on the importance of sterols in the action of miltefosine (hexadecylphosphocholine, hepc) against leishmania donovani.	2009	19749205
in vitro sensitivity testing of leishmania clinical field isolates: preconditioning of promastigotes enhances infectivity for macrophage host cells.	diagnostic material from patients with leishmaniasis is generally available as promastigotes, and proper testing for susceptibility to first-line drugs by the intracellular amastigote assay is frequently hampered by the poor infectivity of the promastigotes for the macrophage host cell. several conditions for optimization of the in vitro metacyclogenesis and cell infectivity of leishmania donovani, l. guyanensis, and l. braziliensis field strains obtained from patients receiving standard antimon ...	2009	19752271
synthesis and antiprotozoal properties of pentamidine congeners bearing the benzofuran motif.	forty-eight cationically substituted pentamidine congeners possessing benzofuran rings were synthesized by a copper mediated heteroannulation of substituted o-iodophenols with phenyl acetylenes. activities of compounds 1-48 against trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, plasmodium falciparum, and leishmania donovani and cytotoxicities for mammalian cells were influenced by the nature of cationic substituents, placement of the benzofuran fragment, and the length of the carbon linker between aromatic moi ...	2009	19757840
[two new populations of lutzomyia pseudolongipalpis arrivillaga & feliciangeli (diptera: phlebotominae) vector of visceral leishmaniasis in venezuela].	two new populations of lutzomyia pseudolongipalpis arrivillaga & feliciangeli, species belonging to the lutzomyia longipalpis (lutz & neiva) complex, are reported in venezuela on diagnostic isoenzymes.	2009	19768281
leishmania donovani ran-gtpase interacts at the nuclear rim with linker histone h1.	ran-gtpase regulates multiple cellular processes such as nucleocytoplasmic transport, mitotic spindle assembly, nuclear envelope assembly, cell-cycle progression and the mitotic checkpoint. the leishmanial ran protein, in contrast with its mammalian counterpart which is predominately nucleoplasmic, is localized at the nuclear rim. the aim of the present study was to characterize the ldran (leishmania donovani ran) orthologue with an emphasis on the ran-histone association. ldran was found to be ...	2009	19769568
apoptosis-like death in leishmania donovani promastigotes induced by diospyrin and its ethanolamine derivative.	previous studies have demonstrated that diospyrin (1), a quinonoid plant product, can inhibit the growth of leishmania donovani parasites. here, several derivatives of 1 were evaluated by the mtt assay and it was observed that the ethanolamine analogue (10) exhibited maximum cytotoxicity [50% inhibitory concentration (ic(50))=2.9 microm] against l. donovani promastigotes. subsequently, the mode of cell death in promastigotes was investigated through externalisation of membrane-associated phospha ...	2009	19783125
[liposomal amphotericin b as treatment for visceral leishmaniasis in europe, 2009].	visceral leishmaniasis (vl) causes an estimated 500,000 new cases of disease and more than 50,000 deaths a year. for more than 60 years, pentavalent antimonies were considered the standard therapy for vl. the emergence of leishmania strains resistant to antimonials led to the evaluation of other treatments including amphotericin b and its lipidic derivatives. clinical trials with liposomal amphotericin b demonstrated that total doses of 10 to 20mg/kg, administered according to various regimens, ...	2009	19783391
total synthesis and antileishmanial activity of the natural occurring acetylenic fatty acids 6-heptadecynoic acid and 6-icosynoic acid.	the first total syntheses of the naturally occurring acetylenic fatty acids-6-heptadecynoic acid (59% overall yield) and 6-icosynoic acid (34% overall yield)-was accomplished in four steps. using the same synthetic sequence the naturally occurring fatty acids (6z)-heptadecenoic acid (46% overall yield) and (6z)-icosenoic acid (27% overall yield) were also synthesized. the delta(6) acetylenic fatty acids displayed good antiprotozoal activity towards leishmania donovani promastigotes (ec(50) = 1-6 ...	2009	19789903
a human il10 bac transgene reveals tissue-specific control of il-10 expression and alters disease outcome.	interleukin (il)-10 is an immunoregulatory cytokine that is produced by diverse cell populations. studies in mice suggest that the cellular source of il-10 is a key determinant in various disease pathologies, yet little is known regarding the control of tissue-specific human il-10 expression. to assess cell type-specific human il-10 regulation, we created a human il-10 transgenic mouse with a bacterial artificial chromosome (hil10bac) in which the il10 gene is positioned centrally. since human i ...	2009	19805095
coexistence of leishmaniasis and hodgkin's lymphoma in a lymph node.		2009	19805673
a new series of amodiaquine analogues modified in the basic side chain with in vitro antileishmanial and antiplasmodial activity.	the synthesis and the study of new amodiaquine derivatives bearing modified lateral basic chains as new agents with both antimalarial and antileishmanial activities are reported. the compounds were tested in vitro against leishmania donovani mhom/et/67/hu3 and 2 strains of plasmodium falciparum, 3d7 and k1. all the compounds show complex ionisation profiles. at physiological ph the ionised form(s) are in equilibrium with the uncharged form, while at acid ph all the products exist largely as prot ...	2009	19811859
[cloning and expression of extracellular region gene located in n-terminus of leishmania donovani].	the objective of this study was to construct and express recombinant prokaryotic plasmid pet32a (+)- ast1 in e. coli bl21(de3). amastin gene was amplified from genomic dna of leishmania donovani and its transmembran region was predicted by the methods of sosui and tmpred; astl located in n-terminus of amastin gene was amplified and cloned into prokaryotic plasmid pet32a(+), which was named pet32a(+)-ast1, and then rast1 was expressed in e. coli bl21(de3). the results of sds-page and immunoblotin ...	2009	19813619
sensitive, specific, and rapid detection of leishmania donovani dna by loop-mediated isothermal amplification.	we have applied a loop-mediated isothermal amplification (lamp) technique to detect leishmania donovani dna. the lamp technique detected 1 fg of l. donovani dna, which was 10-fold more sensitive than a conventional polymerase chain reaction (pcr). all nested pcr-positive blood samples from visceral leishmaniasis patients were positive with the lamp technique, and dna samples from l. infantum, l. major, l. mexicana, l. tropica, l. braziliensis, plasmodium falciparum, and healthy humans were negat ...	2009	19815869
recombinant leishmania tarentolae expressing the a2 virulence gene as a novel candidate vaccine against visceral leishmaniasis.	visceral leishmaniasis is the most severe form of leishmaniasis. to date, there is no effective vaccine against this disease. many antigens have been examined so far as protein- or dna-based vaccines, but none of them conferred complete long-term protection. the use of live attenuated vaccines has recently emerged as a promising vaccination strategy. in this study, we stably expressed the leishmania donovani a2 antigen in leishmania tarentolae, a non-pathogenic member of the genus leishmania, an ...	2009	19818721
the leishmania donovani lipophosphoglycan excludes the vesicular proton-atpase from phagosomes by impairing the recruitment of synaptotagmin v.	we recently showed that the exocytosis regulator synaptotagmin (syt) v is recruited to the nascent phagosome and remains associated throughout the maturation process. in this study, we investigated the possibility that syt v plays a role in regulating interactions between the phagosome and the endocytic organelles. silencing of syt v by rna interference revealed that syt v contributes to phagolysosome biogenesis by regulating the acquisition of cathepsin d and the vesicular proton-atpase. in con ...	2009	19834555
immunoactivation and immunopathogeny during active visceral leishmaniasis.	visceral leishmaniasis is caused by protozoan parasites of the leishmania donovani complex. during active disease in humans, high levels of ifn-gamma and tnf-alpha detected in blood serum, and high expression of ifn-gamma mrna in samples of the lymphoid organs suggest that the immune system is highly activated. however, studies using peripheral blood mononuclear cells have found immunosuppression specific to leishmania antigens; this poor immune response probably results from leishmania antigen- ...	2009	19893975
study of the stress proteins secreted by leishmania donovani after treatment with edelfosine, mitelfosine and ilmofosine, and morphological alterations analyzed by electronic microscopy.	we studied the stress proteins induced in protozoa leishmania donovani after treatment with edelfosine, miltefosine and ilmofosine. we studied the morphological and structural modifications caused in the promastigote forms of the parasite after treatment with the three alkyl-lysophospholipids (alps). a resistant strain of l. donovani to miltefosine was obtained and the morphological modifications were observed. the stress proteins induction was studied in promastigote forms and also in amastigot ...	2009	19839267
a combination dna vaccine encoding nucleoside hydrolase 36 and glycoproteine 63 protects female but not male hamsters against leishmania mexicana.	leishmaniasis is a group of diseases caused by protozoan parasites of the leishmania genus. previous studies have shown that a dna vaccine encoding leishmania donovani antigen nucleoside hydrolase 36 and l. mexicana glycoprotein 63 is protective in mice. we investigated here the efficacy of this dna vaccine to induce protection in golden hamsters. male hamsters were more susceptible to infection by leishmania mexicana than females. following immunization with two doses of the dna vaccine, only f ...	2009	19839269
sandflies of the south part of ouagadougou city, burkina faso.	since 1996, the number of cases of cutaneous leishmaniasis has increased dramatically in ouagadougou. leishmania major, zymodeme mon74 was the only strain isolated in this focus. an epidemiological study of the phlebotomine sandflies fauna has been undertaken. collections of sandflies have been carried out in six areas of the town during one year with two intensive collections at the end of the dry (may-june) and wet seasons (september-october). the only species of genus phlebotomus captured was ...	2009	19839270
preparation, characterization and evaluation of targeting potential of amphotericin b-loaded engineered plga nanoparticles.	the objective of present work was to develop a mannose-anchored, engineered nanoparticulate system for efficient delivery of amphotericin b to macrophages. furthermore, the effect of spacer on macrophage targeting was also evaluated.	2009	19842021
nmr assignment of actin depolymerizing and dynamics regulatory protein from leishmania donovani.	leishmania donovani cofilin displays low sequence similarity to other mammalian cofilins and also possesses characteristic activity of its own. determination of its solution structure would facilitate understanding of the molecular mechanism of actin dynamics regulation in this disease causing pathogen.	2009	19844807
[comparative proteomic analysis of the promastigotes and amastigotes of leishmania donovani].	to explore the protein profile and identify developmentally regulated proteins of the promastigotes and axenic amastigotes with comparative proteomics technique.	2009	19856494
[preliminary application of pcr-based assay for the detection of neospora caninum in bovine aborted fetus].	to establish a pcr diagnostic method based on nc-5 gene of neospora caninum, for being used to detect neospora in brain tissues of bovine aborted fetus.	2009	19856504
comparison of microscopic examination, rk39, and pcr for visceral leishmaniasis diagnosis in turkey.	the laboratory diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis is based on microscopic examination, culture, serological tests, and molecular methods. in this study, we examined 50 blood specimens from suspected visceral leishmaniasis patients by microscopic examination, recombinant antigen dipstick test (rk39), and polymerase chain reaction (pcr) in the university of cukurova, faculty of medicine, parasitology department in turkey. we calculated the sensitivity-specificity and positive-negative predictive ...	2009	19859739
molecular basis of antimony treatment in leishmaniasis.	leishmaniasis is a disease that affects 2 million people and kills 70000 persons every year. it is caused by leishmania species, which are human protozoan parasites of the trypanosomatidae family. trypanosomatidae differ from the other eukaryotes in their specific redox metabolism because the glutathione/glutathione reductase system is replaced by the unique trypanothione/trypanothione reductase system. the current treatment of leishmaniasis relies mainly on antimonial drugs. the crystal structu ...	2009	19317451
is leishmaniasis in sri lanka benign and be ignored?	cutaneous leishmaniasis is now an endemic disease in sri lanka. many studies have focussed on various aspects of this disease but the knowledge, particularly on epidemiological and vector aspects is still poor and the awareness among the general public and even medical/paramedical personnel regarding this disease remains grossly inadequate. the steady increase in the numbers and spread of cutaneous leishmaniasis cases in sri lanka and the very close similarity (genotypic and phenotypic) between ...	2009	19326703
synthesis and biological evaluation of novel 4-(hetero) aryl-2-piperazino quinazolines as anti-leishmanial and anti-proliferative agents.	a series of new class of 4-(hetero)aryl-2-piperazino quinazolines were synthesized and assessed for in vitro activity against extracellular promastigotes and intracellular amastigotes of leishmania donovani. among the compounds evaluated, compound 4bb and 4cb showed the selectivity index (si) value>8.03 and 4.21, respectively, which is promising as compared with sodium stilbogluconate (ssg) and pentamidine with the si of 6.38 and 2.07, respectively. the synthesized compounds were also tested for ...	2009	19328690
leishmania donovani lacking the golgi gdp-man transporter lpg2 exhibit attenuated virulence in mammalian hosts.	surface phosophoglycans such as lipophosphoglycan (lpg) or proteophosphoglycan (ppg) and glycosylinositol phospholipids (gipls) modulate essential interactions between leishmania and mammalian macrophages. phosphoglycan synthesis depends on the golgi gdp-mannose transporter encoded by lpg2. lpg2-null (lpg2(-)) leishmania major cannot establish macrophage infections or induce acute pathology, whereas lpg2(-)leishmania mexicana retain virulence. lpg2(-)leishmania donovani has been reported to surv ...	2009	19328787
topoisomerase i gene mutations at f270 in the large subunit and n184 in the small subunit contribute to the resistance mechanism of the unicellular parasite leishmania donovani towards 3,3'-diindolylmethane.	3,3'-diindolylmethane (dim), a novel poison targeting leishmania donovani topoisomerase i (ldtop1ls), induces programmed cell death in leishmania parasites. the development of resistant parasites by adaptation with increasing concentrations of dim generates random mutations in ldtop1ls. single-nucleotide mutations result in the amino acid substitutions f270l and k430n in the large subunit and n184s in the small subunit of the enzyme. dim failed to inhibit the catalytic activity of the recombinan ...	2009	19332675
peganine hydrochloride dihydrate an orally active antileishmanial agent.	protozoic infections caused by genus leishmania pose an enormous public health threat in developing countries, compounded by the toxicity and resistance to current therapies. under the aegis of our ongoing program on drug discovery and development on antileishmanial agents from plants, we carried out bioassay guided fractionation on peganum harmala seeds which resulted in the isolation of 1 as an antileishmanial agent. 2d-nmr spectral data and single crystal x-ray crystallography data indicated ...	2009	19339182
biologically active cannabinoids from high-potency cannabis sativa.	nine new cannabinoids (1-9) were isolated from a high-potency variety of cannabis sativa. their structures were identified as (+/-)-4-acetoxycannabichromene (1), (+/-)-3''-hydroxy-delta((4'',5''))-cannabichromene (2), (-)-7-hydroxycannabichromane (3), (-)-7r-cannabicoumarononic acid a (4), 5-acetyl-4-hydroxycannabigerol (5), 4-acetoxy-2-geranyl-5-hydroxy-3-n-pentylphenol (6), 8-hydroxycannabinol (7), 8-hydroxycannabinolic acid a (8), and 2-geranyl-5-hydroxy-3-n-pentyl-1,4-benzoquinone (9) throug ...	2009	19344127
relapse of visceral leishmaniasis after miltefosine treatment in a nepalese patient.	we report the first case of visceral leishmaniasis (vl) relapse in a healthy individual after complete miltefosine treatment. the patient attended hospital with a history of fever for 2 months, splenomegaly, hepatomegaly, and weight loss. the case was confirmed as vl by microscopical detection of leishmania parasites in a bone marrow specimen and by a positive result for the immunochromatography-based test targeting the leishmania donovani rk39 antibody. a polymerase chain reaction (pcr) specifi ...	2009	19346379
targeting histone deacetylase inhibitors for anti-malarial therapy.	it is now clear that histone acetylation plays key roles in regulating gene transcription in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes, the acetylated form inducing gene expression while deacetylation silences genes. recent studies have identified roles for histone acetyltransferases (hats) and/or histone deacetylases (hdacs) in a number of parasites including entamoeba histolytica, toxoplasma gondii, schistosoma mansoni, cryptosporidium sp., leishmania donovani, neospora caninum, and plasmodium falciparu ...	2009	19355992
leishmania donovani: thionins, plant antimicrobial peptides with leishmanicidal activity.	the leishmanicidal activity of plant antibiotic peptides (paps) from the principal families, such wheat thionins, a barley lipid transfer protein and potato defensins and snakins were tested in vitro against leishmania donovani. only thionins and defensins were active against this human pathogen at a low micromolar range of concentrations. thionins resulted as the most active peptides tested until now. they collapsed ionic and ph gradients across the parasite plasma membrane together with a rapi ...	2009	19361504
parasitological diagnosis of canine visceral leishmaniasis: is intact skin a good target?	the objective of this study was to evaluate intact skin of seroreactive dogs as a possible target for the parasitological confirmation of canine visceral leishmaniasis (cvl). for this purpose, 394 dogs identified in serological surveys carried out in the metropolitan region of belo horizonte were studied. blood was collected from all animals for serology and a tissue sample was obtained from two sites for parasitological diagnosis. skin obtained from the ear and scapular region was simultaneousl ...	2009	19364614
bioactive (+)-manzamine a and (+)-8-hydroxymanzamine a tertiary bases and salts from acanthostrongylophora ingens and their preparations.	the genus acanthostrongylophora is famous for producing a wide array of manzamine alkaloids as natural hydrochloride salts. an examination of a. ingens has now yielded two tertiary bases, (+)-8-hydroxymanzamine a (1) and (+)-manzamine a (2), by chromatography over alumina using chcl3-meoh-nh3.h2o as solvent. in addition, (+)-8-hydroxymanzamine a hydrochloride (3) and (+)-manzamine a hydrochloride (4) were isolated under the same conditions from the same source by silica gel chromatography. the s ...	2009	19370920
functionality of drug efflux pumps in antimonial resistant leishmania donovani field isolates.	the recent upsurge of antimony (sb) resistance is a major impediment to successful chemotherapy of visceral leishmaniasis (vl). mechanisms involved in antimony resistance have demonstrated an upregulation of drug efflux pumps; however, the biological role drug efflux pumps in clinical isolates remains to be substantiated. thus, in this study, the functionality of drug efflux pumps was measured in promastigotes and axenic amastigotes isolated from vl patients, who were either sb-sensitive (ag83, ...	2009	19374259
the paraphyletic composition of leishmania donovani zymodeme mon-37 revealed by multilocus microsatellite typing.	multilocus microsatellite typing (mlmt) was employed to compare strains of leishmania donovani belonging to the mon-37 zymodeme (mon-37 strains) from cyprus and israel to mon-37 strains from the indian subcontinent, the middle east, china and east africa as well as strains of other zymodemes. the mlmt data were processed with a distance-based method for construction of phylogenetic trees, factorial correspondence analysis and a bayesian model-based clustering algorithm. all three approaches assi ...	2009	19376262
quinacrine and a novel apigenin dimer can synergistically increase the pentamidine susceptibility of the protozoan parasite leishmania.	the aim of this study was to investigate the synergistic effect of quinacrine and a novel apigenin dimer (compound 9d) on reversing pentamidine resistance of leishmania parasites.	2009	19377065
genetics and visceral leishmaniasis: of mice and man.	ninety per cent of the 500,000 annual new cases of visceral leishmaniasis (vl) occur in india/bangladesh/nepal, sudan and brazil. importantly, 80-90% of human infections are sub-clinical or asymptomatic, usually associated with strong cell-mediated immunity. understanding the environmental and genetic risk factors that determine why two people with the same exposure to infection differ in susceptibility could provide important leads for improved therapies. recent research using candidate gene as ...	2009	19388946
mutational studies reveal lysine 352 on the large subunit is indispensable for catalytic activity of bi-subunit topoisomerase i from leishmania donovani.	from the vanadate complex crystal structure of leishmania donovani topoisomerase i, several amino acid residues have been implicated to be involved in the catalytic reaction. although several predictions and propositions have been made, the exact role of these amino acids has not yet been clearly demonstrated in vitro. among these residues, lysine 352 and arginine 314 stand as potential candidates for playing the role of a general acid during the cleavage step. in this study, we have characteriz ...	2009	19393162
flow cytometric determination of intracellular non-protein thiols in leishmania promastigotes using 5-chloromethyl fluorescein diacetate.	leishmania parasites lack catalase and therefore, their anti-oxidant system hinges primarily upon non-protein thiols; accordingly, depletion of thiols could potentially serve as an effective drug target. we have developed a flow cytometry based assay using 5-chloromethyl fluorescein diacetate based upon its selective staining of non-protein thiols. its specificity was confirmed using buthionine sulphoximine (a gamma-glutamyl cysteine synthetase inhibitor), diamide (an oxidizing agent of intracel ...	2009	19393240
ancient leishmania coronin (crn12) is involved in microtubule remodeling during cytokinesis.	in general, coronins play an important role in actin-based processes, and are expressed in a variety of eukaryotic cells, including leishmania. here, we show that leishmania coronin preferentially distributes to the distal tip during cytokinesis, and interacts with microtubules through a microtubule-based motor, kinesin k39. we further show that reduction in coronin levels by 40-50% in heterozygous coronin mutants results in generation of bipolar cells (25-30%), specifically in the log phase, ow ...	2009	19401334
synthesis and antiprotozoal activities of dicationic bis(phenoxymethyl)benzenes, bis(phenoxymethyl)naphthalenes, and bis(benzyloxy)naphthalenes.	a series of 37 dicationically substituted bis(phenoxymethyl)benzene bis(phenoxymethyl)naphthalene, and bis(benzyloxy)naphthalene analogues of pentamidine was prepared and evaluated for antiprotozoal activities and cytotoxicity in in vitro. 1,3-bis(4-amidinophenoxymethyl)benzene (1) was the most active against trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense (ic(50)=2.1 nm). 1,3-bis[4-(n-isopropylamidino)phenoxymethyl]benzene (2) was most active against plasmodium falciparum (ic(50)=3.6 nm) and displayed a selecti ...	2009	19409677
sub-optimal dose of sodium antimony gluconate (sag)-diperoxovanadate combination clears organ parasites from balb/c mice infected with antimony resistant leishmania donovani by expanding antileishmanial t-cell repertoire and increasing ifn-gamma to il-10 ratio.	we demonstrate that the combination of sub-optimal doses of sodium antimony gluconate (sag) and the diperoxovanadate compound k[vo(o2)2(h2o)], also designated as pv6, is highly effective in combating experimental infection of balb/c mice with antimony resistant (sb(r)) leishmania donovani (ld) as evident from the significant reduction in organ parasite burden where sag is essentially ineffective. interestingly, such treatment also allowed clonal expansion of antileishmanial t-cells coupled with ...	2009	19422069
an ab initio structural model of a nucleoside permease predicts functionally important residues.	permeases belonging to the equilibrative nucleoside transporter family promote uptake of nucleosides and/or nucleobases into a wide range of eukaryotes and mediate the uptake of a variety of drugs used in the treatment of cancer, heart disease, aids, and parasitic infections. no experimental three-dimensional structure exists for any of these permeases, and they are not present in prokaryotes, the source of many membrane proteins used in crystal structure determination. to generate a structural ...	2009	19429678
the antiprotozoal activity of sixteen asteraceae species native to sudan and bioactivity-guided isolation of xanthanolides from xanthium brasilicum.	in vitro screening of the dichloromethane extracts of 16 asteraceae species native to sudan for activity against major protozoan pathogens revealed that a xanthium brasilicum vell. [syn. x. strumarium var. brasilicum (vell.) baker in mart.] extract was the most active against trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, the etiological agent of east african human trypanosomiasis (ic(50) = 0.1 microg/ml). this plant extract also exhibited noticeable activities against t. cruzi (chagas disease), leishmania don ...	2009	19431098
b7-h1 blockade increases survival of dysfunctional cd8(+) t cells and confers protection against leishmania donovani infections.	experimental visceral leishmaniasis (vl) represents an exquisite model to study cd8(+) t cell responses in a context of chronic inflammation and antigen persistence, since it is characterized by chronic infection in the spleen and cd8(+) t cells are required for the development of protective immunity. however, antigen-specific cd8(+) t cell responses in vl have so far not been studied, due to the absence of any defined leishmania-specific cd8(+) t cell epitopes. in this study, transgenic leishma ...	2009	19436710
presentation of leishmaniasis (leishmania infantum) in the skin of a patient with severe atopic dermatitis.		2009	19438451
arginine homeostasis and transport in the human pathogen leishmania donovani.	arginine is an essential amino acid for the human pathogen leishmania but not to its host. thus, the mechanism by which this protozoan parasite regulates cellular homeostasis of arginine is critical for its survival and virulence. in a previous study, we cloned and functionally characterized a high affinity arginine-specific transporter, ldaap3, from leishmania donovani. in this investigation, we have characterized the relationship between arginine transport via ldaap3 and amino acid availabilit ...	2009	19439418
6-br-5methylindirubin-3'oxime (5-me-6-bio) targeting the leishmanial glycogen synthase kinase-3 (gsk-3) short form affects cell-cycle progression and induces apoptosis-like death: exploitation of gsk-3 for treating leishmaniasis.	indirubins known to target mammalian cyclin-dependent kinases (cdks) and glycogen synthase kinase (gsk-3) were tested for their antileishmanial activity. 6-br-indirubin-3'-oxime (6-bio), 6-br-indirubin-3'acetoxime and 6-br-5methylindirubin-3'oxime (5-me-6-bio) were the most potent inhibitors of leishmania donovani promastigote and amastigote growth (half maximal inhibitory concentration (ic(50)) values < or =1.2 microm). since the 6-br substitution on the indirubin backbone greatly enhances the ...	2009	19445946
miltefosine promotes ifn-gamma-dominated anti-leishmanial immune response.	leishmania donovani, a protozoan parasite, resides and replicates as amastigotes within macrophages. the parasite inflicts the disease visceral leishmaniasis by suppressing host cell function. neither a therapeutic vaccine nor an effective anti-leishmanial drug to reverse the immunosuppression is available. although miltefosine (hexadecylphosphocholine or hpc) is a promising orally bioavailable anti-leishmanial drug, its efficacy is seriously compromised by contra-indications in pregnant women. ...	2009	19454711