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virucidal activity of 2 alcohol-based formulations proposed as hand rubs by the world health organization.the virucidal activity of 2 hand rubs proposed by the world health organization was studied in a quantitative suspension test for chemical disinfectants and antiseptics in human medicine (en 14476). these formulations are recommended if no hand rubs with declared microbiological activity are available in health care settings. formulation i, based on ethanol, inactivated bovine viral diarrhea virus (bvdv), hepatitis c virus (hcv), adenovirus, and murine norovirus as a surrogate for human noroviru ...201019900740
experimental evidence of recombination in murine noroviruses.based on sequencing data, norovirus (nov) recombinants have been described, but no experimental evidence of recombination in novs has been documented. using the murine norovirus (mnv) model, we investigated the occurrence of genetic recombination between two co-infecting wild-type mnv isolates in raw cells. the design of a pcr-based genotyping tool allowed accurate discrimination between the parental genomes and the detection of a viable recombinant mnv (rec mnv) in the progeny viruses. genetic ...201020702654
in vitro effects of pomegranate juice and pomegranate polyphenols on foodborne viral surrogates.pomegranate juice (pj) has gained popularity because of its associated antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory properties. however, its effects against epidemiologically significant foodborne viruses have not been investigated. in the absence of culturable human noroviruses, feline calicivirus (fcv-f9), murine norovirus (mnv-1), and ms2 (ssrna) bacteriophage were used as foodborne viral surrogates. the aim of this research was to study the effects of pj and pomegranate poly ...201020807113
fate of human enteric viruses during dairy manure-based composting.murine norovirus 1 (mnv-1), aichi virus (aiv), and human adenovirus 41 (ad41) were seeded in dairy manure and composted for 60 days, and both the stability of virus genomes and infectious viruses were evaluated. for compost started in late fall, pile temperature reached approximately 54.5 degrees c on day 1 and remained between 55 and 60 degrees c for 3 days. for viral genomes, aiv had an approximate 1.4-log loss of viral genome after 1 day and more than a 3.1-log loss after 2 days; while for mn ...201020819370
evaluation of various methods for recovering human norovirus and murine norovirus from vegetables and ham.we evaluated and optimized each step in an analytical method for detecting norovirus from various foods. we characterized the buffers needed for eluting norovirus from foods such as ham and lettuce. two different concentration methods, polyethylene glycol (peg) precipitation and hollow fiber ultrafiltration (huf), were compared using both murine norovirus (mnv) and human norovirus (hunov). for peg precipitation, an elution buffer containing 3% beef extract (ph 7.1) was more suitable than 0.05 m ...201020828471
antiviral effects of cranberry juice and cranberry proanthocyanidins on foodborne viral surrogates--a time dependence study in vitro.cranberry juice (cj) and cranberry proanthocyanidins (pac) are widely known for their antibacterial, antiviral, and pharmacological activities. the effect of cj and cranberry pac on the infectivity of foodborne viral surrogates, murine norovirus (mnv-1), feline calicivirus (fcv-f9), ms2 (ssrna) bacteriophage, and ϕx-174 (ssdna) bacteriophage after 0 min to 1h at room temperature was evaluated. viruses at titers of ∼5log(10)pfu/ml were mixed with equal volumes of cj at ph 2.6, cj at ph 7.0, 0.30 ...201020832675
inactivation of human and murine norovirus by high-pressure processing.the effect of high hydrostatic pressure (hpp) was evaluated for inactivation of murine norovirus (mnv), a propagable norovirus (nov), and human nov genogroup ii.4. inactivation of mnv was assessed by viral culturing (50% tissue culture infectious dose [tcid(50)]) and real-time reverse-transcription-polymerase chain reaction (rt-qpcr), whereas nov survival was determined only by rt-qpcr. a treatment of 450 mpa for 15 min at 45°c was sufficient to inactivate 6.5 log(10) of infectious mnv in cultur ...201021034235
evaluation of a norovirus detection methodology for soft red fruits.in the present study, a proposed methodology for detection of gi and gii noroviruses (nov) in soft red fruits was evaluated. the murine norovirus-1 (mnv-1), a recently described cultivable nov surrogate was integrated in the detection methodology as full process control, reverse transcription control and real-time pcr internal amplification control. both the performance and robustness of the proposed methodology were analyzed. firstly, the performance of the method was examined by analysis of th ...201021056775
tangential-flow ultrafiltration with integrated inhibition detection for recovery of surrogates and human pathogens from large-volume source water and finished drinking water.tangential-flow ultrafiltration was optimized for the recovery of escherichia coli, enterococcus faecalis, clostridium perfringens spores, bacteriophages ms2 and prd1, murine norovirus, and poliovirus seeded into 100-liter surface water (sw) and drinking water (dw) samples. sw and dw collected from two drinking water treatment plants were then evaluated for human enteric viruses.201021075885
the effect of cranberry juice and cranberry proanthocyanidins on the infectivity of human enteric viral surrogates.the effect of cranberry juice (cj) and cranberry proanthocyanidins (pac) on the infectivity of human enteric virus surrogates, murine norovirus (mnv-1), feline calicivirus (fcv-f9), ms2(ssrna) bacteriophage, and phix-174(ssdna) bacteriophage was studied. viruses at high (approximately 7 log(10) pfu/ml) or low (approximately 5 log(10) pfu/ml) titers were mixed with equal volumes of cj, 0.30, 0.60, and 1.20 mg/ml final pac concentration, or water and incubated for 1 h at room temperature. viral in ...201020417404
characterization of a cross-reactive monoclonal antibody against norovirus genogroups i, ii, iii and v.noroviruses cause the majority of epidemic outbreaks of acute viral gastroenteritis worldwide. in a previous study of monoclonal antibodies against norovirus gii/4 strain, we identified a continuous epitope (55)wirnnf(60) that was recognized by mab n2c3. subsequent studies found that this mab could recognize several different strains of noroviruses, not just gii/4. in the present study, we used homology modeling to confirm that the epitope of n2c3 was exposed on the surface of gii/4 capsid prote ...201020417671
survival of murine norovirus and hepatitis a virus in different types of manure and biosolids.noroviruses and hepatitis a virus (hav) are common causes of foodborne disease. they are usually shed in feces and have been found in sewage water, biosolids, and animal manures. with the wide application of manure and biosolids on agricultural lands, there is an increasing interest in investigating virus survival in manure and biosolids. in this study, murine norovirus-1 (mnv) and hav were inoculated into different types of animal manure and three types of differently treated biosolids at 20 de ...201020455755
[investigation of in vitro and in vivo efficacy of a novel alcohol based hand rub, mr06b7].alcohol based hand rubs have been used for hand hygiene in health-care settings. compared with hand scrubbing, using suitable alcohol based hand rub provides several advantages like usability in a ward with no tap, requiring less time and mildly-irritating. alcohol provides immediate activity, but poor virucidal activity against certain viruses including norovirus. it is important to develop further improved alcohol based hand rubs which have characteristics of sufficient effectiveness, skin-saf ...201020460874
chlorine inactivation of human norovirus, murine norovirus and poliovirus in drinking water.to evaluate the reduction of human norovirus (hunov) by chlorine disinfection under typical drinking water treatment conditions.201020536708
(e)-2-styrylchromones as potential anti-norovirus agents.human noroviruses (nov) are now recognized as the most frequent cause of outbreaks and sporadic cases of acute gastroenteritis. despite the significant economic impact and considerable morbidity of norovirus disease, no drug or vaccine is currently available to treat or prevent this disease, therefore the discovery of anti-norovirus drugs is urgent. in the present work, a total of 12 structure related chromone and (e)-2-styrylchromones were evaluated for their potential anti-norovirus activity u ...201020554208
effects of source water quality on chlorine inactivation of adenovirus, coxsackievirus, echovirus, and murine norovirus.more information is needed on the disinfection efficacy of chlorine for viruses in source water. in this study, chlorine disinfection efficacy was investigated for usepa contaminant candidate list viruses coxsackievirus b5 (cvb5), echovirus 1 (e1), murine norovirus (mnv), and human adenovirus 2 (hadv2) in one untreated groundwater source and two partially treated surface waters. disinfection experiments using ph 7 and 8 source water were carried out in duplicate, using 0.2 and 1 mg/liter free ch ...201020562285
inactivation of human enteric virus surrogates by high-intensity ultrasound.foodborne viruses, especially human noroviruses, are recognized as leading causes of nonbacterial gastroenteritis worldwide. development of effective inactivation methods is of great importance to control their spread. in this study, the effect of high-intensity ultrasound (hius) on the infectivity of three foodborne virus surrogates was investigated. the three surrogates, murine norovirus (mnv-1), feline calicivirus (fcv-f9), and ms2 bacteriophage, were diluted in phosphate-buffered saline (pbs ...201020575674
indirect elisa and indirect immunofluorescent antibody assay for detecting the antibody against murine norovirus s7 in mice.to evaluate murine norovirus (mnv) infection in laboratory mice, we attempted to develop an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (elisa) system and an indirect immunofluorescent antibody (ifa) assay for detecting the anti-mnv-s7 antibody in mice. mnv-s7, which was isolated in japan, was used in both assays. the antigen for elisa was prepared by ultracentrifugation of culture supernatants of raw 264 cells infected with mnv-s7. positive sera were obtained from 6-week-old, female c57bl/6jjcl mice inoc ...201020224169
high-resolution x-ray structure and functional analysis of the murine norovirus 1 capsid protein protruding domain.murine noroviruses (mnv) are closely related to the human noroviruses (hunov), which cause the majority of nonbacterial gastroenteritis. unlike hunov, mnv grow in culture and in a small-animal model that represents a tractable model to study norovirus biology. to begin a detailed investigation of molecular events that occur during norovirus binding to cells, the crystallographic structure of the murine norovirus 1 (mnv-1) capsid protein protruding (p) domain has been determined. crystallization ...201020335262
endocytosis of murine norovirus 1 into murine macrophages is dependent on dynamin ii and cholesterol.although noroviruses cause the vast majority of nonbacterial gastroenteritis in humans, little is known about their life cycle, including viral entry. murine norovirus (mnv) is the only norovirus to date that efficiently infects cells in culture. to elucidate the productive route of infection for mnv-1 into murine macrophages, we used a neutral red (nr) infectious center assay and pharmacological inhibitors in combination with dominant-negative (dn) and small interfering rna (sirna) constructs t ...201020375172
effects of murine norovirus infection on a mouse model of diet-induced obesity and insulin resistance.murine norovirus (mnv) is prevalent in spf mouse facilities in the united states, and we currently lack sufficient data to determine whether it should be eliminated. it is generally accepted that the virus does not cause clinical symptoms in immuno-competent mice. however, we previously reported that mnv infection alters the phenotype of a mouse model of bacteria-induced inflammatory bowel disease in part through its effects on dendritic cells. the tropism of mnv toward macrophages and dendritic ...201020579433
development and application of a broadly reactive real-time reverse transcription-pcr assay for detection of murine noroviruses.murine norovirus (mnv) is a viral agent newly identified in laboratory mice and a large number of genetically diverse mnv strains have been reported to date. a broadly reactive taqman-based real-time reverse transcription (rt)-polymerase chain reaction (pcr) assay was developed for mnvs. novel primers and a taqman mgb probe were designed targeting highly conserved sequences among mnv strains, which are located in the open reading frames 1 (orf1)-orf2 junction region. the quantitative range of th ...201020670657
comparative murine norovirus studies reveal a lack of correlation between intestinal virus titers and enteric pathology.human noroviruses are significant emerging pathogens, causing the majority of non-bacterial gastroenteritis outbreaks worldwide. the recent discovery of 30 murine norovirus strains is beginning to facilitate a detailed investigation of norovirus pathogenesis. here, we have performed an in vivo comparative analysis of two murine norovirus strains, mnv-1 and mnv-3. in immunocompetent mice, mnv-1 caused modest intestinal pathology whereas mnv-3 was attenuated compared to mnv-1. surprisingly though, ...201122018636
VPg-Primed RNA Synthesis of Norovirus RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerases by Using a Novel Cell-Based Assay.Molecular studies of human noroviruses (NoV) have been hampered by the lack of a permissive cell culture system. We have developed a sensitive and reliable mammalian cell-based assay for the human NoV GII.4 strain RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). The assay is based on the finding that RNAs synthesized by transiently expressed RdRp can stimulate retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I)-dependent reporter luciferase production via the beta interferon promoter. Comparable activities were observed ...201121994457
critical review of norovirus surrogates in food safety research: rationale for considering volunteer studies.the inability to propagate human norovirus (nov) or to clearly differentiate infectious from noninfectious virus particles has led to the use of surrogate viruses, like feline calicivirus (fcv) and murine norovirus-1 (mnv), which are propagatable in cell culture. the use of surrogates is predicated on the assumption that they generally mimic the viruses they represent; however, studies are proving this concept invalid. in direct comparisons between fcv and mnv, their susceptibility to temperatur ...201122408689
new interventions against human norovirus: progress, opportunities, and challenges.human norovirus (hunov) is the leading causative agent of foodborne disease outbreaks worldwide. hunov is highly stable, contagious, and only a few virus particles can cause illness. however, hunov is difficult to study because of the lack of an efficient in vitro cell culture system or a small animal model. to date, there is very limited information available about the biology of hunov, with most data coming from the study of surrogates, such as hunov virus-like particle (vlp), murine norovirus ...201122385167
murine norovirus increases atherosclerotic lesion size and macrophages in ldlr(-/-) mice.murine norovirus (mnv) is prevalent in rodent facilities in the united states. because mnv has a tropism for macrophages and dendritic cells, we hypothesized that it may alter phenotypes of murine models of inflammatory diseases, such as obesity and atherosclerosis. we examined whether mnv infection influences phenotypes associated with diet-induced obesity and atherosclerosis by using ldlr(-/-) mice. male ldlr(-/-) mice were maintained on either a diabetogenic or high-fat diet for 16 wk, inocul ...201122330248
antiviral effect of korean red ginseng extract and ginsenosides on murine norovirus and feline calicivirus as surrogates for human norovirus.korean red ginseng has been studied various biological activities such as immune, anti-oxidative, anti-microbial, and anticancer activities but antiviral mechanism needs further studies. in this study, we aimed to examine the antiviral effects of korea red ginseng extract and ginsenosides on norovirus surrogate, including murine norovirus (mnv) and feline calicivirus (fcv). we evaluated the pre-, co-, and post-treatment effects of korean red ginseng (krg), ginsenosides rb1 and rg1. to measure th ...201123717088
diversity of murine norovirus strains isolated from asymptomatic mice of different genetic backgrounds within a single u.s. research institute.antibody prevalence studies in laboratory mice indicate that murine norovirus (mnv) infections are common, but the natural history of these viruses has not been fully established. this study examined the extent of genetic diversity of murine noroviruses isolated from healthy laboratory mice housed in multiple animal facilities within a single, large research institute- the national institute of allergy and infectious diseases of the national institutes of health (niaid-nih) in bethesda, maryland ...201121738664
inactivation of murine norovirus, feline calicivirus and echovirus 12 as surrogates for human norovirus (nov) and coliphage (f+) ms2 by ultraviolet light (254 nm) and the effect of cell association on uv inactivation.to determine inactivation profiles of three human norovirus (nov) surrogate viruses and coliphage ms2 by ultraviolet (uv) irradiation and the protective effect of cell association on uv inactivation.201121214604
screening of fruit products for norovirus and the difficulty of interpreting positive pcr results.despite recent norovirus (nov) outbreaks related to consumption of fruit products, little is known regarding the nov load on these foods. therefore, 75 fruit products were screened for nov presence by using an evaluated in-house nov detection methodology consisting of a nov extraction method and a reverse transcription quantitative pcr assay. additionally, the fruit samples were screened for bacterial pathogens and bacterial hygiene indicators. results of the nov screening showed that 18 of 75 s ...201121375879
trisodium phosphate for foodborne virus reduction on produce.human noroviruses (novs) are recognized as the major cause of acute nonbacterial foodborne gastroenteritis outbreaks in both developed and developing countries. they are resistant to most chemical inactivation processes, and can survive in the environment for long periods. the aim of this research was to apply trisodium phosphate (tsp) on spiked produce (lettuce and peppers) for the reduction of foodborne nov surrogates, feline calicivirus (fcv-f9), and murine norovirus (mnv-1). washed and dried ...201121381924
inactivation of a human norovirus surrogate, human norovirus virus-like particles, and vesicular stomatitis virus by gamma irradiation.gamma irradiation is a nonthermal processing technology that has been used for the preservation of a variety of food products. this technology has been shown to effectively inactivate bacterial pathogens. currently, the fda has approved doses of up to 4.0 kgy to control food-borne pathogens in fresh iceberg lettuce and spinach. however, whether this dose range effectively inactivates food-borne viruses is less understood. we have performed a systematic study on the inactivation of a human norovi ...201121441330
simultaneous comparison of murine norovirus, feline calicivirus, coliphage ms2, and gii.4 norovirus to evaluate the efficacy of sodium hypochlorite against human norovirus on a fecally soiled stainless steel surface.abstract free chlorine as hypochlorite is recommended to decontaminate fecally contaminated surfaces to control human norovirus (nov). we evaluated the efficacy of sodium hypochlorite to decontaminate gii.4 nov and three surrogates of human novs, feline calicivirus (fcv), murine norovirus (mnv), and coliphage ms2, on a fecally soiled stainless steel surface. reduction of infectivity of fcv, mnv, and ms2 was measured by plaque assay and the decline of genomic copy numbers of gii.4 nov by reverse ...201121457050
crystal structures of murine norovirus-1 rna-dependent rna polymerase.norovirus is one of the leading agents of gastroenteritis and is a major public health concern. in this study, the crystal structures of recombinant rna-dependent rna polymerase (rdrp) from murine norovirus-1 (mnv-1) and its complex with 5-fluorouracil (5fu) were determined at 2.5 a resolution. crystals with c2 symmetry revealed a dimer with half a dimer in the asymmetric unit and the protein exists predominantly as a monomer in solution in equilibrium with a smaller population of dimers, trimer ...201121471315
grape seed extract for the control of human enteric viruses.grape seed extract (gse) is reported to have many pharmacological benefits, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic, and antimicrobial properties. however, the effect of this inexpensive rich source of natural phenolic compounds on human enteric viruses has not been well documented. in the present study, the effect of commercial gse, gravinol-s, on the infectivity of human enteric virus surrogates (feline calicivirus, fcv-f9; murine norovirus, mnv-1; bacteriophage ms2) and hep ...201121498749
internalization of murine norovirus 1 by lactuca sativa during irrigation.romaine lettuce (lactuca sativa) was grown hydroponically or in soil and challenged with murine norovirus 1 (mnv) under two conditions: one mimicking a severe one-time contamination event and another mimicking a lower level of contamination occurring over time. in each condition, lettuce was challenged with mnv delivered at the roots. in the first case, contamination occurred on day one with 5 × 10(8) reverse transcriptase quantitative pcr (rt-qpcr) u/ml mnv in nutrient buffer, and irrigation wa ...201121296944
high hydrostatic pressure processing of murine norovirus 1-contaminated oysters inhibits oral infection in stat-1(-/-)-deficient female mice.we have previously demonstrated that high pressure processing (hpp) is effective in preventing in vitro replication of murine norovirus strain 1 (mnv-1), a human norovirus surrogate, in a monocyte cell line following extraction from mnv-1-contaminated oysters. in the present study, the efficacy of hpp to prevent in vivo replication within mice fed hpp-treated mnv-1-seeded oyster extracts was evaluated. oyster homogenate extracts seeded with mnv-1 were given 5-min, 400-mpa (58,016-psi) treatments ...201121333139
evaluation of a norovirus detection methodology for ready-to-eat foods.despite recent norovirus (nov) foodborne outbreaks related to consumption of ready-to-eat (rte) foods, a standardized assay to detect nov in these foods is not available yet. therefore, the robustness of a methodology for nov detection in rte foods was evaluated. the nov detection methodology consisted of direct rna extraction with an eventual concentration step, followed by rna purification and a multiplex rt-qpcr assay for the detection of gi and gii nov and the murine norovirus-1 (mnv-1), the ...201121333370
Comparison of chlorine and peroxyacetic-based disinfectant to inactivate Feline calicivirus, Murine norovirus and Hepatitis A virus on lettuce.In recent years, raw fruits and vegetables have frequently been involved in foodborne transmission to humans of enteric viruses, particularly noroviruses and hepatitis A virus (HAV). Although viral contamination can occur during all steps of food processing, primary production is a critical stage on which prevention measures must be focused to minimize the risk of infection to consumers. Postharvest sanitation may be a valid technological solution for decreasing the bacterial load on fresh raw m ...201121924791
Virucidal activity of different alcohols against murine norovirus, a surrogate of human norovirus. 201121862176
effect of food residues on norovirus survival on stainless steel surfaces.in households and food processing plants, minute food residues left behind from improper cleaning may influence the survivability of human norovirus on surfaces. in this study, the survivability of norovirus on desiccated food residue-attached stainless steel coupons was investigated.201121887215
Diversity of murine norovirus in wild rodent populations: species-specific associations suggest an ancient divergence.A survey of wild rodent populations has revealed that murine norovirus (MNV) is present and diverse in wild house mice Mus musculus. This virus is genetically similar to MNV infecting show mice and previously described variants circulating in laboratory mice. The detection of MNV in wild mouse populations suggests that MNV infection of laboratory mice and show mice (from which laboratory mice are derived) derives from contact with or their origins from wild mouse progenitors. The survey addition ...201122071511
design and application of nucleic acid standards for quantitative detection of enteric viruses by real-time pcr.synthetic multiple-target rna and dna oligonucleotides were constructed for use as quantification standards for nucleic acid amplification assays for human norovirus genogroup i and ii, hepatitis e virus, murine norovirus, human adenovirus, porcine adenovirus and bovine polyomavirus. this approach overcomes the problems related to the difficulty of obtaining practical quantities of viral rna and dna from these viruses. the quantification capacity of assays using the standards was excellent in ea ...201121765877
electron-beam inactivation of a norovirus surrogate in fresh produce and model systems.norovirus remains the leading cause of foodborne illness, but there is no effective intervention to eliminate viral contaminants in fresh produce. murine norovirus 1 (mnv-1) was inoculated in either 100 ml of liquid or 100 g of food. the inactivation of mnv-1 by electron-beam (e-beam), or high-energy electrons, at varying doses was measured in model systems (phosphate-buffered saline [pbs], dulbecco's modified eagle's medium [dmem]) or from fresh foods (shredded cabbage, diced strawberries). e-b ...201121740718
critical studies on binding-based rt-pcr detection of infectious noroviruses.attempts were made to discriminate between infectious and non-infectious noroviruses (novs) based on their viral binding properties followed by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (rt-pcr). murine norovirus-1 (mnv-1) was employed as a surrogate to test the principle. detection of both infectious and inactivated mnv-1 was investigated by the plaque assay, rt-pcr and binding-based rt-pcrs. the cell line raw 264.7 and the ganglioside gd1a were used as binding receptors respectively in c ...201121843552
lack of effect of murine norovirus infection on a mouse model of bacteria-induced colon cancer.murine norovirus (mnv) is endemic in mouse research facilities in the united states and europe, with a prevalence as high as 58% to 64%. because of mnv's orofecal route of infection, clinically silent persistent infections in some mouse strains, and proclivity for macrophage and dendritic cells, its presence in mouse colonies has potential to alter phenotypes in experimental mouse models, particularly those involving inflammation and immunologic responses. although mnv is subclinical, not causin ...201121819691
eliminating murine norovirus by cross-fostering.murine norovirus (mnv) is a newly discovered and extremely prevalent pathogen of laboratory mouse colonies. mnv causes severe disease in some immunocompromised mouse strains and can cause persistent infections even in immunocompetent mice. despite the fact that immunocompetent mice are generally asymptomatic, the possibility that mnv infection might alter immune responses makes its eradication a potentially useful goal for many facilities. initial attempts by others to use a strategy of testing ...201121838978
development of duplex rt-pcr-elisa for the simultaneous detection of hepatitis a virus and hepatitis e virus.this study aimed to develop a specific and sensitive duplex reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (duplex rt-pcr-elisa) for hepatitis a virus (hav) and hepatitis e virus (hev). duplex rt-pcr-elisa could detect and differentiate hav and hev with specific probes. when elisa technique was used to detect probe-bound rt-pcr products, duplex rt-pcr-elisa could detect as little as 0.1ng/μl hav and hev from clinical samples. human norovirus, enterovirus, polio ...201121565222
survival of human norovirus surrogates in milk, orange, and pomegranate juice, and juice blends at refrigeration (4 °c).fresh fruits, juices, and beverages have been implicated in human noroviral and hepatitis a virus outbreaks. the purpose of this study was to determine the survival of human norovirus surrogates (murine norovirus, mnv-1; feline calicivirus, fcv-f9; and bacteriophage ms2) in juices (orange and pomegranate juices), juice blends (pomegranate and orange juice) and milk over 0, 1, 2, 7, 14, and 21 days at refrigeration (4 °c). juices, juice blends, and milk were inoculated with each virus over 21 day ...201121569952
validation of internal controls for nucleic acid extraction and amplification of enteric viruses in water samples.inhibitors that reduce viral nucleic acid extraction efficiency and interfere with cdna synthesis and/or polymerase activity affect the molecular detection of viruses in aquatic environments. to overcome the significant problem, we developed a methodology for assessing nucleic acid yields and dna amplification efficiencies for environmental water samples. this involved adding particles of adenovirus type 5 and murine norovirus and newly developed primer sharing controls, which are amplified with ...201121602369
enhanced sanitization of a human norovirus surrogate in fresh vegetables and fruits by a combination of surfactants and sanitizers.fruits and vegetables are a major vehicle for transmission of foodborne enteric viruses since they are easily contaminated at pre- and post-harvest stages and they undergo little or no processing. however, commonly used sanitizers are relatively ineffective for removing human norovirus surrogates from fresh produce. in this study, we systematically evaluated the effectiveness of surfactants on sanitization of a human norovirus surrogate, murine norovirus 1 (mnv-1), from fresh produce. we showed ...201121622782
detection of murine norovirus-1 by using tat peptide-delivered molecular beacons.a tat peptide-delivered molecular beacon was developed and utilized to enumerate murine norovirus 1, a human norovirus (nov) surrogate, in raw 264.7 cells. this allowed the detection of a single infective virus within 6 h, a 12-fold improvement in time required for viral detection and quantification compared to that required by the conventional plaque assay.201121652740
viral infection augments nod1/2 signaling to potentiate lethality associated with secondary bacterial infections.secondary bacterial infection is a common sequela to viral infection and is associated with increased lethality and morbidity. however, the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. we show that the tlr3/mda5 agonist poly i:c or viral infection dramatically augments signaling via the nlrs nod1 and nod2 and enhances the production of proinflammatory cytokines. enhanced nod1 and nod2 signaling by poly i:c required the tlr3/mda5 adaptors trif and ips-1 and was mediated by type i ifns. mechan ...201121669398
time-dependent effects of pomegranate juice and pomegranate polyphenols on foodborne viral reduction.abstract pomegranate juice (pj) and pomegranate polyphenolic extracts (pp) have antiviral effects against hiv-1, influenza, herpes, and poxviruses, and we recently demonstrated their effect against human noroviral surrogates. in the present study, the time-dependent effects of two commercial brands of pj and pp at two concentrations (2 and 4?mg/ml) on the infectivity of foodborne viral surrogates (feline calicivirus fcv-f9, murine norovirus mnv-1, and ms2 bacteriophage) at room temperature for u ...201121777065
ozone inactivation of norovirus surrogates on fresh produce.preharvest contamination of produce by foodborne viruses can occur through a variety of agents, including animal feces/manures, soil, irrigation water, animals, and human handling. problems of contamination are magnified by potential countrywide distribution. postharvest processing of produce can involve spraying, washing, or immersion into water with disinfectants; however, disinfectants, including chlorine, have varying effects on viruses and harmful by-products pose a concern. the use of ozon ...201121549058
evaluation of electropositive filtration for recovering norovirus in water.the virus adsorption-elution (viradel) technique has been widely used in the recovery of various enteric viruses in water, and an electropositive filter such as 1 mds has been commonly applied. however, effective methods of monitoring waterborne norovirus (nov) have not yet been well characterized and optimized. hence, in this study, the viradel technique was evaluated and optimized for effectively detecting nov in water by two commonly used electropositive filters (1mds and nanoceram filter). v ...201121301112
virucidal efficacy of hydrogen peroxide vapour disinfection.viral contamination of surfaces is thought to be important in transmission. chemical disinfection can be an effective means of intervention, but little is known about the virucidal efficacy of hydrogen peroxide vapour (hpv) against enteric and respiratory viruses.201122153909
hemocytes are sites of enteric virus persistence within oysters.the goal of this study was to determine how enteric viruses persist within shellfish tissues. several lines of novel evidence show that phagocytic blood cells (hemocytes) of eastern oysters (crassostrea virginica) play an important role in the retention of virus particles. our results demonstrated an association of virus contamination with hemocytes but not with hemolymph. live oysters contaminated overnight with hepatitis a virus (hav) and murine norovirus (mnv) had 56% and 80% of extractable v ...201121948840
evaluation of murine norovirus persistence in environments relevant to food production and processing.human norovirus (nov) causes outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis associated with many ready-to-eat foods, including fresh produce. effective inactivation procedures must consider virus survival under conditions of produce production and processing. this study aimed to investigate the persistence of nov in a variety of environments, using murine nov (mnv) as a surrogate for nov. mnv was incubated for up to 42 days at room temperature on stainless steel disks, on lettuce, on soil, and in potable w ...201122054184
comparison of reduction in foodborne viral surrogates by high pressure homogenization.with the increasing global spread of human noroviral infections and the emergence of highly virulent noroviral strains, novel inactivation methods are needed to control foodborne outbreaks. high pressure homogenization (hph) is a novel method that can be applied for foodborne virus reduction in fluids being continuously processed. our objective in the present study was to compare the titer reduction by hph between feline calicivirus strain f9 (fcv-f9) and murine norovirus 1 (mnv-1) as surrogate ...201122054183
characterization of intestinal dendritic cells in murine norovirus infection.we have shown that respiratory viral infections drive allergic disease through dendritic cells, whether gastrointestinal viruses induce allergies is not known. norovirus infections are a major cause of gastroenteritis in humans. we used murine norovirus (mnv) to explore the effect of mnv infection on gastrointestinal conventional dcs (cdcs) and plasmacytoid dcs (pdcs). mnv infection induced disparate effects on cdcs and pdcs in lymphoid tissues of the small intestine and draining mesenteric lymp ...201122162983
Norovirus Regulation of the Innate Immune Response and Apoptosis Occurs via the Product of the Alternative Open Reading Frame 4.Small RNA viruses have evolved many mechanisms to increase the capacity of their short genomes. Here we describe the identification and characterization of a novel open reading frame (ORF4) encoded by the murine norovirus (MNV) subgenomic RNA, in an alternative reading frame overlapping the VP1 coding region. ORF4 is translated during virus infection and the resultant protein localizes predominantly to the mitochondria. Using reverse genetics we demonstrated that expression of ORF4 is not requir ...201122174679
persistence of human norovirus in reconstituted pesticides--pesticide application as a possible source of viruses in fresh produce chains.the consumption of fresh produce is frequently associated with outbreaks of human norovirus (hnov) disease. to prevent the contamination of fresh produce with hnov, knowledge of the possible introduction sources of the viruses, such as water, is needed to be able to implement appropriate and efficient preventive measures. contaminated water used to reconstitute pesticides could be a relevant source of infectious hnov, determined by the initial level of virus contamination and the persistence of ...201223290241
use of a new, simple, laboratory method for screening the antimicrobial and antiviral properties of hand sanitizers.to develop a simple, laboratory method for screening the antimicrobial/antiviral activity of hand sanitizers, to replace the more time consuming use of human volunteers.201223409622
antiviral activity of a small molecule deubiquitinase inhibitor occurs via induction of the unfolded protein response.ubiquitin (ub) is a vital regulatory component in various cellular processes, including cellular responses to viral infection. as obligate intracellular pathogens, viruses have the capacity to manipulate the ubiquitin (ub) cycle to their advantage by encoding ub-modifying proteins including deubiquitinases (dubs). however, how cellular dubs modulate specific viral infections, such as norovirus, is poorly understood. to examine the role of dubs during norovirus infection, we used wp1130, a small ...201222792064
nondegradative role of atg5-atg12/ atg16l1 autophagy protein complex in antiviral activity of interferon gamma.host resistance to viral infection requires type i (α/β) and ii (γ) interferon (ifn) production. another important defense mechanism is the degradative activity of macroautophagy (herein autophagy), mediated by the coordinated action of evolutionarily conserved autophagy proteins (atg). we show that the atg5-atg12/atg16l1 protein complex, whose prior known function is in autophagosome formation, is required for ifnγ-mediated host defense against murine norovirus (mnv) infection. importantly, the ...201222520467
critical role for interferon regulatory factor 3 (irf-3) and irf-7 in type i interferon-mediated control of murine norovirus replication.human noroviruses (hunov) are the major cause of epidemic, nonbacterial gastroenteritis in the world. the short course of hunov-induced symptoms has implicated innate immunity in control of norovirus (nov) infection. studies using murine norovirus (mnv) confirm the importance of innate immune responses during nov infection. type i alpha and beta interferons (ifn-α/β) limit hunov replicon function, restrict mnv replication in cultured cells, and control mnv replication in vivo. therefore, the cel ...201223035219
structural basis for broad detection of genogroup ii noroviruses by a monoclonal antibody that binds to a site occluded in the viral particle.human noroviruses are genetically and antigenically highly divergent. monoclonal antibodies raised in mice against one kind of norovirus virus-like particle (vlp), however, were found to have broad recognition. in this study, we present the crystal structure of the antigen-binding fragment (fab) for one of these broadly reactive monoclonal antibodies, 5b18, in complex with the capsid-protruding domain from a genogroup ii genotype 10 (gii.10) norovirus at 3.3-å resolution and, also, the cryo-elec ...201222278249
A single method for recovery and concentration of enteric viruses and bacteria from fresh-cut vegetables.Fresh-cut vegetables are prone to be contaminated with foodborne pathogens during growth, harvest, transport and further processing and handling. As most of these products are generally eaten raw or mildly treated, there is an increase in the number of outbreaks caused by viruses and bacteria associated with fresh vegetables. Foodborne pathogens are usually present at very low levels and have to be concentrated (i.e. viruses) or enriched (i.e. bacteria) to enhance their detection. With this aim, ...201222036077
natural plant essential oils do not inactivate non-enveloped enteric viruses.the application of plant essential oils (eos) (hyssop and marjoram) was evaluated for inactivation of non-enveloped viruses using murine norovirus and human adenovirus as models. no significant reduction of virus titres (tcid(50)) was observed when eos were used at different temperatures and times.201223412892
identification of rna-protein interaction networks involved in the norovirus life cycle.human noroviruses are one of the major causes of acute gastroenteritis in the developed world, yet our understanding of their molecular mechanisms of genome translation and replication lags behind that for many rna viruses. due to the nonculturable nature of human noroviruses, many related members of the caliciviridae family of small rna viruses are often used as model systems to dissect the finer details of the norovirus life cycle. murine norovirus (mnv) has provided one such system with which ...201222933270
survival and inactivation of human norovirus surrogates in blueberry juice by high-pressure homogenization.human noroviruses (hnov) have been implicated in gastrointestinal outbreaks associated with fresh produce, juices, and ready-to-eat foods. in order to determine the risk of hnov transmission by contaminated blueberry juice, survival characteristics of cultivable hnov surrogates (murine norovirus, mnv-1; feline calicivirus, fcv-f9; and bacteriophage ms2) in blueberry juice (ph = 2.77) after 0, 1, 2, 7, 14, and 21 days at refrigeration temperatures (4°c) were studied. high-pressure homogenization ...201223113725
efficacies of sodium hypochlorite and quaternary ammonium sanitizers for reduction of norovirus and selected bacteria during ware-washing operations.cross-contamination of ready-to-eat (rte) foods with pathogens on contaminated tableware and food preparation utensils is an important factor associated with foodborne illnesses. to prevent this, restaurants and food service establishments are required to achieve a minimum microbial reduction of 5 logs from these surfaces. this study evaluated the sanitization efficacies of ware-washing protocols (manual and mechanical) used in restaurants to clean tableware items. ceramic plates, drinking glass ...201223227163
inactivation of human norovirus surrogates by benzalkonium chloride, potassium peroxymonosulfate, tannic acid, and gallic acid.novel methods to effectively disinfect contact surfaces and prevent human norovirus transmission are essential. the effect of benzalkonium chloride (bac), potassium peroxymonosulfate (kpms), tannic acid (ta), and gallic acid (ga) on enteric virus surrogates, murine norovirus (mnv-1), feline calicivirus (fcv-f9), and bacteriophage ms2 was studied. viruses at high (∼7 log₁₀ pfu/ml) or low (∼5 log₁₀ pfu/ml) titers were mixed with equal volumes of bac (0.2, 0.5, and 1 mg/ml), kpms (5, 10, and 20 mg/ ...201222897744
hand hygiene regimens for the reduction of risk in food service environments.pathogenic strains of escherichia coli and human norovirus are the main etiologic agents of foodborne illness resulting from inadequate hand hygiene practices by food service workers. this study was conducted to evaluate the antibacterial and antiviral efficacy of various hand hygiene product regimens under different soil conditions representative of those in food service settings and assess the impact of product formulation on this efficacy. on hands contaminated with chicken broth containing e ...201222980014
grape seed extract for foodborne virus reduction on produce.grape seed extract (gse) is reported to have antibacterial properties with few current studies on antiviral activity. recently, we reported the effects of gse against foodborne viral surrogates in vitro. this study evaluated the application of gse (commercial gravinol-s) against hepatitis a virus (hav) and human norovirus surrogates, feline calicivirus (fcv-f9) and murine norovirus (mnv-1), on model produce. washed and air-dried lettuce (3 × 3 cm(2)) and jalapeno peppers (25-30 g) were inoculate ...201223498171
the fate of murine norovirus and hepatitis a virus during preparation of fresh produce by cutting and grating.human noroviruses and hepatitis a virus (hav) are commonly associated with outbreaks occurring in restaurant establishments and catered events. food handlers are major contributing factors to foodborne illnesses initiated in the kitchen setting. in this study, transfer of hav and murine norovirus (mnv-1), a human norovirus surrogate, between produce (cucumbers, strawberries, tomatoes, cantaloupes, carrots, and honeydew melons) and common kitchen utensils (graters and knives) was investigated. th ...201223412721
comparative uptake of enteric viruses into spinach and green onions.root uptake of enteric pathogens and subsequent internalization has been a produce safety concern and is being investigated as a potential route of pre-harvest contamination. the objective of this study was to determine the ability of hepatitis a virus (hav) and the human norovirus surrogate, murine norovirus (mnv), to internalize in spinach and green onions through root uptake in both soil and hydroponic systems. hav or mnv was inoculated into soil matrices or into two hydroponic systems, float ...201223412715
age-associated variability in susceptibility of swiss webster mice to mpv and other excluded murine pathogens.detection of mouse parvovirus (mpv) and other murine pathogens in research colonies is dependent on the transmissibility of the agents and the sensitivity of sentinels to those agents. transmissibility is based on several agent-dependent properties including mode of transmission, infectivity, and environmental stability, whereas host susceptibility can vary according to mouse age, strain, and sex. in this study, 4-wk-old, 12-wk-old, and aged swiss webster female sentinel mice were compared for t ...201223294885
sanitizer efficacy against murine norovirus, a surrogate for human norovirus, on stainless steel surfaces when using three application methods.human noroviruses are major etiologic agents of epidemic gastroenteritis. outbreaks are often accompanied by contamination of environmental surfaces, but since these viruses cannot be routinely propagated in laboratory cultures, their response to surface disinfectants is predicted by using surrogates, such as murine norovirus 1 (mnv-1). this study compared the virucidal efficacies of various liquid treatments (three sanitizer liquids, 5% levulinic acid plus 2% sds [lev/sds], 200 ppm chlorine, an ...201223263949
Effect of high hydrostatic pressure processing on norovirus infectivity and genome stability in strawberry puree and mineral water.We report an evaluation of the effect of various combinations of pressures and times on the inactivation of norovirus (NoV) in two types of matrices that are important in NoV transmission: water and soft fruits. The human NoV surrogate murine norovirus was used as the model virus. The effect of HHP on the viral genome was evaluated by using RT real-time PCR (RT-qPCR), and infectivity assay was used to assess effects on the ability of the virus to attach to and replicate in cells. HHP treatments ...201222044732
chlorine treatment to inactivate norovirus on food contact surfaces.this study was conducted to determine the concentration and optimal treatment time of chlorine for reducing feline calicivirus (fcv) and murine norovirus (mnv) as surrogates of norovirus (nov) on stainless steel surfaces and to develop a predictive inactivation method using a response surface methodology. the reduction levels of fcv vr-782 and mnv on stainless steel surfaces after treatment with various concentrations of chlorine (0 to 5,000 ppm) for various times (0 to 5 min) were measured. th ...201222221376
using propidium monoazide to distinguish between viable and nonviable bacteria, ms2 and murine norovirus.the ability to distinguish between viable and/or infectious micro-organisms and inactivated cells is extremely important for correctly performing microbial risk assessments. in this study, we evaluated whether propidium monoazide (pma)-qpcr could distinguish between viable and nonviable bacteria and viruses.201222690653
inherent structural disorder and dimerisation of murine norovirus ns1-2 protein.human noroviruses are highly infectious viruses that cause the majority of acute, non-bacterial epidemic gastroenteritis cases worldwide. the first open reading frame of the norovirus rna genome encodes for a polyprotein that is cleaved by the viral protease into six non-structural proteins. the first non-structural protein, ns1-2, lacks any significant sequence similarity to other viral or cellular proteins and limited information is available about the function and biophysical characteristics ...201222347381
cdna cloning of korean human norovirus and nucleotidylylation of vpg by norovirus rna-dependent rna polymerase.norovirus, a member of the caliciviridae family, is a major causative agent of gastroenteritis worldwide. the cdna of the entire genome of human norovirus (hunv) was cloned using the rna extracted from the stool sample of a korean patient. the rna genome consists of 7,559 nucleotides, carries 3 open reading frames (orfs), 5 and 3 noncoding regions, and a poly(a) tail at the 3 end. phylogenic analysis of the nucleotide sequence indicated that it belongs to gii.4, the most dominant genogroup. to a ...201222923111
using limes and synthetic psoralens to enhance solar disinfection of water (sodis): a laboratory evaluation with norovirus, escherichia coli, and ms2.we investigated the use of psoralens and limes to enhance solar disinfection of water (sodis) using an uv lamp and natural sunlight experiments. sodis conditions were replicated using sunlight, 2 l polyethylene terephthalate (pet) bottles, and tap water with escherichia coli, ms2 bacteriophage, and murine norovirus (mnv). psoralens and lime acidity both interact synergistically with uv radiation to accelerate inactivation of microbes. escherichia coli was ablated > 6.1 logs by sodis + lime slurr ...201222492137
duplex rt-qpcr for the detection of hepatitis e virus in water, using a process control.human hepatitis e virus (hev) causes acute hepatitis in humans, predominantly by contamination of food and water. hev, in particular genotype iii, is currently considered to be an emerging pathogen in industrialized countries. because of the low infectious dose, an efficient and rapid virus concentration method is required to detect low amounts of hev in food and water samples for routine control. because of the absence of a reliable cell culture method for the main enteric viruses most involved ...201222633799
human norovirus surrogate reduction in milk and juice blends by high pressure homogenization.novel processing technologies such as high pressure homogenization (hph) for the inactivation of foodborne viruses in fluids that retain nutritional attributes are in high demand. the objectives of this research were (i) to determine the effects of hph alone or with an emulsifier (lecithin) on human norovirus surrogates-murine norovirus (mnv-1) and feline calicivirus (fcv-f9)-in skim milk and orange juice, and (ii) to determine hph effects on fcv-f9 and mnv-1 in orange and pomegranate juice blen ...201223127707
comparison of virucidal activity of alcohol-based hand sanitizers versus antimicrobial hand soaps in vitro and in vivo.three ethanol-based sanitizers were compared with three antimicrobial liquid soaps for their efficacy to inactivate polio-, adeno-, vaccinia- and bovine viral diarrhoea virus (bvdv) as well as feline calicivirus (fcv) and murine norovirus (mnv) as surrogates for human norovirus in a suspension test. additionally, sanitizers and soaps were examined against mnv in a modified fingerpad method. all sanitizers sufficiently inactivated the test viruses in the suspension test whereas two soaps were act ...201223009803
secretory pathway antagonism by calicivirus homologues of norwalk virus nonstructural protein p22 is restricted to noroviruses.our previous report that the norwalk virus nonstructural protein p22 is an antagonist of the cellular secretory pathway suggests a new aspect of norovirus/host interaction. to explore conservation of function of this highly divergent calicivirus protein, we examined the effects of p22 homologues from four human and two murine noroviruses, and feline calicivirus on the secretory pathway.201222943503
efficacy of a levulinic acid plus sodium dodecyl sulfate-based sanitizer on inactivation of human norovirus surrogates.human noroviruses are the most common etiologic agent of foodborne illness in the united states. the inability to culture human noroviruses in the laboratory necessitates the use of surrogate viruses such as murine norovirus (mnv-1) and feline calicivirus (fcv) for inactivation studies. in this study, a novel sanitizer of organic acid (levulinic acid) plus the anionic detergent sodium dodecyl sulfate (sds) was evaluated. viruses were treated with levulinic acid (0.5 to 5%), sds (0.05 to 2%), or ...201222856583
effectiveness of chitosan on the inactivation of enteric viral surrogates.chitosan is known to have bactericidal and antifungal activity. although human noroviruses are the leading cause of non-bacterial gastroenteritis, information on the efficacy of chitosan against foodborne viruses is very limited. the objective of this work was to determine the effectiveness of different molecular weight chitosans against the cultivable human norovirus and enteric virus surrogates, feline calicivirus, fcv-f9, murine norovirus, mnv-1, and bacteriophages, ms2 and phix174. five puri ...201222850374
high-pressure inactivation of human norovirus virus-like particles provides evidence that the capsid of human norovirus is highly pressure resistant.human norovirus (nov) is the leading cause of nonbacterial acute gastroenteritis epidemics worldwide. high-pressure processing (hpp) has been considered a promising nonthermal processing technology to inactivate food- and waterborne viral pathogens. due to the lack of an effective cell culture method for human nov, the effectiveness of hpp in inactivating human nov remains poorly understood. in this study, we evaluated the effectiveness of hpp in disrupting the capsid of human nov based on the s ...201222635990
inactivation of feline calicivirus and murine norovirus during dongchimi fermentation.among the traditional fermented vegetables in korea, dongchimi is a type of kimchi with a large water base. we aimed to investigate the survival of norovirus surrogates during dongchimi fermentation. dongchimi spiked with feline calicivirus (fcv) or murine norovirus (mnv) was prepared following a traditional recipe. dongchimi was initially fermented at room temperature overnight and then kept at 4 °c. the number of lactic acid bacteria, ph, acidity, and virus titer were measured 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7 ...201222608225
removal and transfer of viruses on food contact surfaces by cleaning cloths.contamination of food contact surfaces with pathogens is considered an important vehicle for the indirect transmission of food-borne diseases. five different cleaning cloths were assessed for the ability to remove viruses from food contact surfaces (stainless steel surface and nonporous solid surface) and to transfer viruses back to these surfaces. cleaning cloths evaluated include two different cellulose/cotton cloths, one microfiber cloth, one nonwoven cloth, and one cotton terry bar towel. fo ...201222327573
comparison of two extraction methods for the detection of hepatitis a virus in semi-dried tomatoes and murine norovirus as a process control by duplex rt-qpcr.enteric viruses are important agents of foodborne diseases. due to their low infectious doses and low concentrations in food samples, an efficient and rapid virus concentration method is required for routine control. because of the absence of a reliable cell culture method for most of the enteric viruses involved in outbreaks, reverse transcription quantitative real-time pcr (rt-qpcr) is now widely used for the detection of rna viruses in food samples. one of the general requirements for viral d ...201222608230
inactivation of norovirus surrogates on surfaces and raspberries by steam-ultrasound treatment.human disease outbreaks caused by norovirus (nov) following consumption of contaminated raspberries are an increasing problem. an efficient method to decontaminate the fragile raspberries and the equipment used for processing would be an important step in ensuring food safety. a potential surface treatment that combines pressurized steam and high-power ultrasound (steam-ultrasound) was assessed for its efficacy to inactivate human nov surrogates: coliphage (ms2), feline calicivirus (fcv), and mu ...201222289601
antiviral effects of black raspberry (rubus coreanus) juice on foodborne viral surrogates.abstract human noroviruses (hunovs) are the most frequent cause of foodborne viral gastroenteritis, causing approximately 90% of non-bacterial epidemic outbreaks around the world. rubus coreanus is a species of black raspberry, rich in polyphenols, and known to exert anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antiviral activities. in the present study, the antiviral effects of r. coreanus juice (black raspberry [brb] juice) on foodborne viral surrogates, murine norovirus-1 (mnv-1) and feline calicivi ...201222924523
[possibilities and the assignments for infection control of norovirus: the verification and the limit of inactivation efficacy by surrogate viruses].norovirus (nov) was isolated from the feces of patients were infected during the outbreak of enteritis in ohio in the early 1970s. subsequent experimental studies on volunteers proved that nov was the enteric virus that caused diarrhea, vomiting, and fever. however, the culture of nov has been unsuccessful, because the mechanism of nov propagating in cells, nov infection routes, and methods for preventing nov infection are unclear. therefore, from the 1980s, feline calicivirus (fcv), which is cu ...201222894060
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