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seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii in seabirds from abrolhos archipelago, brazil.toxoplasma gondii is a coccidian parasite that infects almost all warm-blooded animals, including birds. abrolhos is an archipelago of five islands, located in the atlantic ocean, 56 nautical kilometers from the south coast of the state of bahia, northeastern brazil. part of this archipelago is a national marine park, which is a conservation area protected by the brazilian government. the objective of this study was to determine the occurrence of t. gondii antibodies in sera of seabird's species ...201627514883
toxoplasma gondii infection potentiates cognitive impairments of alzheimer's disease in the balb/c mice.this study tests the hypothesis that in chronic toxoplasma gondii infection communication among immune cells promotes neuroinflammation through cytokine networks and potentiate cognitive impairments in balb/c mice with alzheimer's disease (ad). the animal model of toxoplasma infection was established by the intraperitoneal inoculation of 20-25 tissue cysts from the tehran strain of t. gondii . we injected amyloid-beta 1-42 peptide (aβ1-42, 1 and 2 μl) into the hippocampus of balb/c mice to estab ...201627513205
corrigendum to "the rop18 and rop5 gene allele types are highly predictive of virulence in mice across globally distributed strains of toxoplasma gondii" [int. j. parasitol. 46 (2016) 141-146]. 201627324470
an evolutionarily conserved ssna1/dip13 homologue is a component of both basal and apical complexes of toxoplasma gondii.microtubule-based cytoskeletal structures have fundamental roles in several essential eukaryotic processes, including transport of intracellular constituents as well as ciliary and flagellar mobility. temporal and spatial organisation of microtubules is determined by microtubule organising centers and a number of appendages and accessory proteins. members of the ssna1/dip13 family are coiled coil proteins that are known to localise to microtubular structures like centrosomes and flagella, but ar ...201627324377
toxoplasma gondii-derived synthetic peptides containing b- and t-cell epitopes from gra2 protein are able to enhance mice survival in a model of experimental toxoplasmosis.toxoplasmosis is a zoonosis distributed all over the world, which the etiologic agent is an intracellular protozoan parasite, toxoplasma gondii. this disease may cause abortions and severe diseases in many warm-blood hosts, including humans, particularly the immunocompromised patients. the parasite specialized secretory organelles, as micronemes, rhoptries and dense granules, are critical for the successful parasitism. the dense granule protein 2 (gra2) is a parasite immunogenic protein secreted ...201627313992
seroprevalence and genetic characterization of toxoplasma gondii in masked palm civet (paguma larvata) in hainan province, tropical china.in the present study, the seroprevalence, risk factors and genotyping of toxoplasma gondii in masked palm civet were investigated in tropical china. a total of 500 serum were collected from five administrative farms in tropical china, and assayed for t. gondii antibodies by modified agglutination test (mat). the brain samples of 20 aborted fetuses were examined by semi-nested-pcr, and positive aborted fetuses (50%) were necropsied to collect the brain tissue for molecular and bioassay examinatio ...201627311389
development of an orally available and central nervous system (cns) penetrant toxoplasma gondii calcium-dependent protein kinase 1 (tgcdpk1) inhibitor with minimal human ether-a-go-go-related gene (herg) activity for the treatment of toxoplasmosis.new therapies are needed for the treatment of toxoplasmosis, which is a disease caused by the protozoan parasite toxoplasma gondii. to this end, we previously developed a potent and selective inhibitor (compound 1) of toxoplasma gondii calcium-dependent protein kinase 1 (tgcdpk1) that possesses antitoxoplasmosis activity in vitro and in vivo. unfortunately, 1 has potent human ether-a-go-go-related gene (herg) inhibitory activity, associated with long q-t syndrome, and consequently presents a car ...201627309760
ocular manifestation of congenital toxoplasmosis, clinical implication - case report.the aim of this case report was to present extremely severe, ophthalmic complications in form of rare, congenital toxoplasmatic bilateral defect of eye-balls concomitant with advanced uveitis, microphthalmia and eye-multistructural developmental abnormalities leading to irreversible visual disability. the ocular diagnosis was confirmed in ret-cam ii and ultrasonography and it was accompanied with congenital multiorgan lesions including hepato-splenomegaly, thrombocytopenia, leukomalacia, hydroce ...201627306134
multi-scale occupancy approach to estimate toxoplasma gondii prevalence and detection probability in tissues: an application and guide for field sampling.increasingly, birds are recognised as important hosts for the ubiquitous parasite toxoplasma gondii, although little experimental evidence exists to determine which tissues should be tested to maximise the detection probability of t. gondii. also, arctic-nesting geese are suspected to be important sources of t. gondii in terrestrial arctic ecosystems, but the parasite has not previously been reported in the tissues of these geese. using a domestic goose model, we applied a multi-scale occupancy ...201627155329
risk factors of toxoplasma gondii infection in hunting, pet and watchdogs from southern spain and northern africa.dogs can act as reservoirs of toxoplasma gondii infections for humans and other hosts. here we determined seroprevalence and risk factors of t. gondii infection in dogs from andalusia (southern spain) and ceuta (northern africa). antibodies to t. gondii were detected in 235 out of 769 dogs (30.6%; ci95%: 27.3-33.8) by the modified agglutination test (mat, cut-off of 1:25) with titers of 1:25 in 91, 1:50 in 43, 1:100 in 84, and ≥1:500 in 17 dogs. the main risk factors associated with t. gondii in ...201627155133
is toxoplasma gondii infection a risk factor for leukemia? an evidence-based meta-analysis.background possible associations of parasite infection with cancer risk have recently attracted much attention. published studies concerning the association between toxoplasma gondii (t. gondii) infection and leukemia risk have generated inconsistent results. in the present study, we aimed to address this topic by conducting a quantitative meta-analysis. material and methods relevant publications were searched in electronic databases and eligible studies were rigorously screened and selected. es ...201627155015
tgerk7 is involved in the intracellular proliferation of toxoplasma gondii.toxoplasma gondii uses a unique mechanism to fulfill its asexual life cycles by which the parasite can infect all the warm-blooded animals including humans. mitogen-activated protein kinase (mapk) or extracellular signal-regulated kinase (erk) pathway widely existed in eukaryotic cells mediates the conversion of environmental stimuli to intracellular events such as proliferation and differentiation. their counterparts have been identified in apicomplexan parasites such as erk7 in t. gondii. to c ...201627150970
acute toxoplasmosis in pigs in brazil caused by toxoplasma gondii genotype chinese 1.this study reports the clinicopathological, immunohistochemical, and molecular findings from two cases of systemic toxoplasmosis in pigs showing apathy and dyspnea. in the post-mortem examination, severe diffuse necrotizing bronchointerstitial pneumonia with numerous intralesional tachyzoites of toxoplasma gondii was observed. the lungs had not collapsed but were diffusely reddened, and the parenchyma showed friable whitish subpleural nodules with multifocal to coalescent distribution and diamet ...201627150968
oocyst-derived extract of toxoplasma gondii serves as potent immunomodulator in a mouse model of birch pollen allergy.previously, we have shown that oral infection with toxoplasma gondii oocysts prevented type i allergy in mice. here we investigated whether the application of a t. gondii oocyst lysate antigen (ola) could also reduce allergy development. balb/c mice were immunised twice with ola followed by sensitisation with the major birch pollen (bp) allergen bet v 1 and an aerosol challenge with bp extract.201627149118
is toxoplasma gondii type related to clinical outcome in human congenital infection? systematic and critical review.in human congenital toxoplasmosis the effects of parasite burden and pregnancy time at infection on clinical outcome are well known, but there is controversy regarding the role of toxoplasma gondii type. through a systematic review of the literature, we aimed to discern if t. gondii type has a role on clinical outcome in human congenital toxoplasmosis. we built up a database of congenital toxoplasmosis from reports of cases, case series and screening-based cohorts, which had information about pa ...201627146878
dense granule trafficking in toxoplasma gondii requires a unique class 27 myosin and actin filaments.the survival of toxoplasma gondii within its host cell requires protein release from secretory vesicles, called dense granules, to maintain the parasite's intracellular replicative niche. despite the importance of dgs, nothing is known about the mechanisms underlying their transport. in higher eukaryotes, secretory vesicles are transported to the plasma membrane by molecular motors moving on their respective cytoskeletal tracks (i.e., microtubules and actin). because the organization of these cy ...201627146112
toxoplasmosis in blood donors: a systematic review and meta-analysis.transfusion-transmissible infections include pathogens that may cause severe and debilitating diseases. toxoplasmosis is a cosmopolitan neglected parasitic infection that can lead to severe complications including death in immune-compromised patients or following infection in utero. multiple studies have demonstrated the transmission of toxoplasma gondii by blood transfusion. the objective of this review was to comprehensively assess the seroprevalence rate of toxoplasma in blood donors from a w ...201627145927
is toxoplasma gondii a threat to the conservation of free-ranging australian marsupial populations?it has often been asserted that australian marsupial species are particularly susceptible to toxoplasma gondii infection and to clinical toxoplasmosis following infection. this implicates t. gondii as a potential threat to marsupial population viability, and contrasts to what is known of t. gondii in populations of several other host species. we reviewed the literature, and found a lack of scientifically robust evidence addressing the occurrence of t. gondii infection in free-ranging populations ...201627141439
attenuated toxoplasma gondii therapy of disseminated pancreatic cancer generates long-lasting immunity to pancreatic cancer.we have recently reported that treatment of disseminated pancreatic cancer with an attenuated toxoplasma gondii uracil auxotroph vaccine promoted antitumor cd8(+) t cell responses and long-term survival. here, we optimized the treatment strategy for disseminated pancreatic cancer and show that attenuated toxoplasma gondii therapy stimulated effective long-term immunity to pancreatic cancer through mechanisms involving cd4(+) t cells and pancreatic tumor-specific igg. our results suggest that cel ...201627141388
influence of toxoplasma gondii infection on symptoms and signs of menopause.some symptoms of menopause have also been described in patients with toxoplasmosis. whether toxoplasma gondii (t. gondii) infection has any influence on clinical manifestations of menopause is yet unknown. we sought to determine whether t. gondii exposure is associated with symptoms and signs of menopause. we performed a cross-sectional study of women attending a public health center in durango city, mexico. participants were examined for the presence of anti-toxoplasma igg and igm antibodies us ...201627141314
keep up the good (bench) work!professor silvia moreno studies toxoplasmosis, one of the most common parasitic infections in the world, caused by toxoplasma gondii. about one-third of the human population is chronically infected with t. gondii cysts, the dormant form of the parasite. although most immunocompetent infected individuals remain asymptomatic throughout life, serious complications such as loss of vision, mother-to-fetus transmission, and fatal cases can occur. the drugs currently available to treat toxoplasmosis ar ...201627133187
transcriptional changes of mouse splenocyte organelle components following acute infection with toxoplasma gondii.toxoplasmosis is a globally spread zoonosis. the pathogen toxoplasma gondii can hijack cellular organelles of host for replication. although a number of important cellular life events are controlled by cell organelles, very little is known of the transcriptional changes of host cellular organelles after infection with t. gondii. herein, we performed rna-sequencing (rna-seq) and bioinformatics analyses to study the global organelle component changes. it was found that many transcripts of the mous ...201627132051
seroprevalence and genotypes of toxoplasma gondii isolated from pigs intended for human consumption in liaoning province, northeastern china.genetic information for toxoplasma gondii isolates from pigs in eastern, south, and southwestern regions of china has been reported previously. however, there are no data from pigs in the northeastern area of the country. to better understand the epidemiology of t. gondii, we determined the seroprevalence and genotypes of t. gondii from pigs slaughtered for human consumption in liaoning province, northeastern china.201627129860
the impact of toxoplasma gondii on the mammalian genome.nobody doubts that infections have imposed specialisations on the mammalian genome. however sufficient information is usually missing to attribute a specific genomic modification to pressure from a specific pathogen. recent studies on mechanisms of mammalian resistance against the ubiquitous protozoan parasite, toxoplasma gondii, have shown that the small rodents presumed to be largely responsible for transmission of the parasite to its definitive host, the domestic cat, possess distinctive reco ...201627128504
detection of toxoplasma gondii in diabetic patients using the nested pcr assay via re and b1 genes.toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite that exists worldwide. various techniques have been developed for t. gondii detection.201627127588
shared immune and repair markers during experimental toxoplasma chronic brain infection and schizophrenia.chronic neurologic infection with toxoplasma gondii is relatively common in humans and is one of the strongest known risk factors for schizophrenia. nevertheless, the exact neuropathological mechanisms linking t gondii infection and schizophrenia remain unclear. here we utilize a mouse model of chronic t gondii infection to identify protein biomarkers that are altered in serum and brain samples at 2 time points during chronic infection. furthermore, we compare the identified biomarkers to those ...201626392628
identification of tgatg8-tgatg3 interaction in toxoplasma gondii.autophagy is a catabolic process in eukaryotic cells involved in the targeted degradation of cellular organelles and the cytoplasm. recent works in toxoplasma gondii suggest that the autophagy processes may serve as an important pathway in modulating parasite survival or death. as an important modulator of atg8 lipidation and autophagy, atg8-atg3 interaction has been attracting increasing attention. however, there is no direct evidence that tgatg8-tgatg3 interaction occurs in the parasite. in th ...201626407821
seroprevalence and serointensity of latent toxoplasma gondii in a sample of elderly adults with and without alzheimer disease.latent infection with toxoplasma gondii has been associated with behavioral and cognitive changes in animal models and in humans. early findings have suggested an association between latent toxoplasmosis and alzheimer disease (ad). on the basis of these factors, we sought to determine whether there is an association between latent toxoplasmosis and ad using a large, well-characterized sample of subjects with ad and age-matched and sex-matched controls without dementia.201626421353
infection and characterization of toxoplasma gondii in human induced neurons from patients with brain disorders and healthy controls.toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite capable of establishing persistent infection within the brain. serological studies in humans have linked exposure to toxoplasma to neuropsychiatric disorders. however, serological studies have not elucidated the related molecular mechanisms within neuronal cells. to address this question, we used human induced neuronal cells derived from peripheral fibroblasts of healthy individuals and patients with genetically-defined brain disorders (i.e. childhood-on ...201626432947
development of dual fluorescent stage specific reporter strain of toxoplasma gondii to follow tachyzoite and bradyzoite development in vitro and in vivo.toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan that infects 30% of humans as intermediate hosts. t sexual reproduction can occur only within the intestinal tract of felines, however, infection in other mammals and birds is associated with asexual replication and interconversion between the tachyzoite and bradyzoite stages. bradyzoites are slow growing forms found in tissue cysts in latent infection. recently, our group described the biological behavior of the egs strain that forms thick walled cysts spontaneo ...201626432517
effect of nigella sativa oil on experimental toxoplasmosis.toxoplasmosis is a parasitic infection caused by toxoplasma gondii protozoon. it is most commonly treated by pyrimethamine (pyr); however, this was intolerable by many patients. the aim of this study was to assess therapeutic effects of nigella sativa oil (nso) alone and combined with pyrimethamine (pyr) compared to a previous combination of clindamycin (cln) and (pyr). one hundred albino mice were used in the current study and were equally divided into five groups: normal (i), infected untreate ...201626446086
serological diagnosis of toxoplasma gondii infection: recommendations from the french national reference center for toxoplasmosis.toxoplasmosis manifests no clinical signs in 80% of cases in immunocompetent patient, causing immunization characterized by the persistence of cysts, particularly in brain, muscles, and retina. assessing the serological status, based on testing for serum toxoplasma igg and igm antibodies, is essential in cases that are increasingly at risk for the more severe disease forms, such as congenital or ocular toxoplasmosis. this disease also exposes immunosuppressed patients to reactivation, which can ...201626458281
seroprevalence, isolation, first genetic characterization of toxoplasma gondii, and possible congenital transmission in wild moose from minnesota, usa.toxoplasma gondii infections are widespread in white-tailed deer (odocoileus virginianus) but little is known of its prevalence in other cervids in the usa. moose (alces alces) is a popular large game animal, hunted for its meat and trophy antlers. here, we report seroprevalence, isolation, and genetic characterization of t. gondii from moose from minnesota. antibodies against t. gondii were detected in 8 of 79 (10%) moose tested by the modified agglutination test (mat 1:25 or higher). the myoca ...201626472716
apicomplexan energy metabolism: carbon source promiscuity and the quiescence hyperbole.the nature of energy metabolism in apicomplexan parasites has been closely investigated in the recent years. studies in plasmodium spp. and toxoplasma gondii in particular have revealed that these parasites are able to employ enzymes in non-traditional ways, while utilizing multiple anaplerotic routes into a canonical tricarboxylic acid (tca) cycle to satisfy their energy requirements. importantly, some life stages of these parasites previously considered to be metabolically quiescent are, in fa ...201626472327
roth spots in ocular toxoplasmosis.to report a case with unilateral preexisting ocular toxoplasmosis (ot) and newly occurred active retinochoroidal inflammation associated with white-centered retinal hemorrhages (roth spots) in the healthy eye.201626472315
survey for toxoplasma gondii by pcr detection in meat for human consumption in colombia.the overall risk for toxoplasmosis in meat produced in colombia is unknown. we analyzed by pcr assay meat samples for human consumption in two types of plants in colombia: 120 samples from class i plants (60 samples from chicken, 30 from swine and 30 from beef) and 60 from class ii plants (30 samples from beef and 30 from swine). presence of toxoplasma dna was established by targeted b1 nested pcr assay. we detected 79 (43%) samples that were positive by b1 nested pcr (33 from chicken, 22 from b ...201626481490
toxoplasma gondii infection promotes neuroinflammation through cytokine networks and induced hyperalgesia in balb/c mice.we hypothesized that in toxoplasma gondii infection, communication among immune cells promotes neuroinflammation through cytokine networks and induces pain sensitivity under conditions of neuropathic pain. the animal model of toxoplasma infection was established by the intraperitoneal inoculation of 20-25 tissue cysts from tehran strain of t. gondii to balb/c mice. amitriptyline (20 mg/kg, i.p., 1/day) administrated to animals for 7 days before behavioral tests. pain behavioral tests including t ...201626490968
evaluation of the basic functions of six calcium-dependent protein kinases in toxoplasma gondii using crispr-cas9 system.toxoplasma gondii, an important protozoan parasite, infects almost all warm-blooded animals and humans. although treatments in t. gondii are limited by the lack of effective drugs, some calcium-dependent kinases were demonstrated as the promising drug targets to chemotherapy against t. gondii due to their essential roles in t. gondii and absence from their hosts. the objectives of the present study were to investigate the functions of six calcium-dependent protein kinases (cdpk4, cdpk4a, cdpk5, ...201626499803
transcriptomic analysis of global changes in cytokine expression in mouse spleens following acute toxoplasma gondii infection.toxoplasma gondii is a global pathogen that infects a wide range of animals and humans. during t. gondii infection, the spleen plays an important role in coordinating the adaptive and innate immune responses. however, there is little information regarding the changes in global gene expression within the spleen following t. gondii infection. to address this gap in knowledge, we examined the transcriptome of the mouse spleen following t. gondii infection. we observed differential expression of 231 ...201626508008
metabolic cooperation of glucose and glutamine is essential for the lytic cycle of obligate intracellular parasite toxoplasma gondii.toxoplasma gondii is a widespread protozoan parasite infecting nearly all warm-blooded organisms. asexual reproduction of the parasite within its host cells is achieved by consecutive lytic cycles, which necessitates biogenesis of significant energy and biomass. here we show that glucose and glutamine are the two major physiologically important nutrients used for the synthesis of macromolecules (atp, nucleic acid, proteins, and lipids) in t. gondii, and either of them is sufficient to ensure the ...201626518878
partial protective immunity against toxoplasmosis in mice elicited by recombinant toxoplasma gondii malate dehydrogenase.toxoplasma gondii can infect humans and wildlife, sometimes causing serious clinical presentations. currently, no viable vaccine or effective drug strategies exist to prevent and control toxoplasmosis. t. gondii malate dehydrogenase (tgmdh) is a crucial enzyme in cellular redox reactions and has been shown to be an immunogenic compound that could be a potential vaccine candidate. here, we investigate the protective efficacy of recombinant tgmdh (rtgmdh) against t. gondii infection in balb/c mice ...201626514423
unmethylated cpg motifs in toxoplasma gondii dna induce tlr9- and ifn-β-dependent expression of α-defensin-5 in intestinal epithelial cells.the gut epithelial barrier is a strategic place to prevent, or at least to limit, parasite dissemination upon oral infection with toxoplasma gondii. innate immunity to this pathogen results from delicate interactions involving different components of the infecting agent and the host. we herein aimed to examine the molecular mechanism by which protozoan dna boosts the production of α-defensin-5 (defa-5), the main antimicrobial peptide at the target site of infection. the present study shows that ...201626522645
increased expressions of adamts-13 and apoptosis contribute to neuropathology during toxoplasma gondii encephalitis in mice.toxoplasma gondii (t. gondii) is a protozoan parasite with the potential of causing severe encephalitis among immunocompromised humans and animals. our previous study showed that t. gondii induces high nitric oxide (no) production, high glial activation (gfap) and neurofilament expressions, leading to severe neurodegeneration in toxoplasma encephalitis (te) in the central nervous system (cns). the aim of this experimental study was to investigate adamts-13 expression and apoptosis in cns and to ...201626542631
deletion of mitogen-activated protein kinase 1 inhibits development and growth of toxoplasma gondii.mitogen-activated protein kinases (mapks) regulate key signaling events in a variety of eukaryotic cells. toxoplasma gondii, the causative agents of toxoplasmosis, possesses a p38α mapk homologue, mapk1, which is an important manipulator of host immunity and virulence in mice. in this work, we showed an increased transcript level of mapk1 in t. gondii during bradyzoite differentiation induced by alkaline treatment and heat shock in vitro, suggesting that mapk1 may be associated with bradyzoite d ...201626526952
zebra mussel as a new tool to show evidence of freshwater contamination by waterborne toxoplasma gondii.the objective of this study was to evaluate if freshwater bivalves can be used to detect the presence of toxoplasma gondii in water bodies.201626551548
phosphorylation of αsnap is required for secretory organelle biogenesis in toxoplasma gondii.upon infection, apicomplexan parasites quickly invade host cells and begin a replicative cycle rapidly increasing in number over a short period of time, leading to tissue lysis and disease. the secretory pathway of these highly polarized protozoan parasites tightly controls, in time and space, the biogenesis of specialized structures and organelles required for invasion and intracellular survival. in other systems, regulation of protein trafficking can occur by phosphorylation of vesicle fusion ...201626566590
induction of depression-related behaviors by reactivation of chronic toxoplasma gondii infection in mice.although toxoplasma gondii (t. gondii) infection is relevant to many psychiatric disorders, the fundamental mechanisms of its neurobiological correlation with depression are poorly understood. here, we show that reactivation of chronic infection by an immunosuppressive regimen caused induction of depressive-like behaviors without obvious sickness symptoms. however, the depression-related behaviors in t. gondii-infected mice, specifically, reduced sucrose preference and increased immobility in th ...201626554725
analysis of mirna expression profiling in mouse spleen affected by acute toxoplasma gondii infection.toxoplasma gondii is a worldwide prevalent pathogen that infects most of the warm-blood vertebrates. to investigate the regulation network of splenic mirnas altered by acute infection with t. gondii, we herein investigated the changes of mirna profile in mouse spleen via next generation sequencing and bioinformatics analysis. a total of 379 mirnas was identified, 131 mirnas of them were differentially expressed (including 97 upregulated and 34 downregulated mirnas). 48 differentially expressed m ...201626569573
review on the identification and role of toxoplasma gondii antigenic epitopes.toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite with a broad range of hosts, and it causes severe toxoplasmasis in both humans and animals. it is well known that the progression and severity of a disease depend on the immunological status of the host. immunological studies on antigens indicate that antigens do not exert their functions through the entire protein molecule, but instead, specific epitopes are responsible for the immune response. protein antigens not only contain e ...201626581372
the rop18 and rop5 gene allele types are highly predictive of virulence in mice across globally distributed strains of toxoplasma gondii.the protozoan parasite toxoplasma gondii is one of the most successful known eukaryotic pathogens on earth. virulence of t. gondii strains varies greatly in mice, and mounting evidence suggests that such variations may be relevant to the manifestation of human toxoplasmosis. polymorphic rhoptry-secreted kinases and pseudokinases (rop) have been demonstrated to account for murine virulence among the archetypal clonal parasite lineages that dominate the populations of north america and europe. how ...201626699401
the il-12 response of primary human dendritic cells and monocytes to toxoplasma gondii is stimulated by phagocytosis of live parasites rather than host cell invasion.as a major natural host for toxoplasma gondii, the mouse is widely used for the study of the immune response to this medically important protozoan parasite. however, murine innate recognition of toxoplasma depends on the interaction of parasite profilin with tlr11 and tlr12, two receptors that are functionally absent in humans. this raises the question of how human cells detect and respond to t. gondii. in this study, we show that primary monocytes and dendritic cells from peripheral blood of he ...201626597011
combined toxoplasma gondii seropositivity and high blood kynurenine--linked with nonfatal suicidal self-directed violence in patients with schizophrenia.toxoplasma gondii (t. gondii) chronic infection and elevated kynurenine (kyn) levels have been individually associated with non-fatal suicidal self-directed violence (nf-ssdv). we aimed to test the hypothesis that the association between t. gondii seropositivity and history of nf-ssdv would be stronger in schizophrenia patients with high plasma kyn levels than in those with lower kyn levels. we measured anti-t. gondii igg antibodies and plasma kyn in 950 patients with schizophrenia, and used log ...201626594873
prevalence of anti-toxoplasma gondii antibody in domestic horses in japan.the present study is the first report that investigated the seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii infection in domestic horses in various prefectures of japan and analyzed risk factors for seropositivity. we performed a latex agglutination test for riding/racing horses from 11 prefectures in japan (783 samples) and 4 groups of japanese native horses (254 samples). the total seroprevalence of anti-t. gondii antibody in horses examined in this study was 4.24% (44/1037). as for riding/racing horses, ...201626593178
iga and igg1 reactivities assessed by flow cytometry mirror clinical aspects of infants with ocular congenital toxoplasmosis.this study intended to apply the flow cytometric analysis of iga and igg reactivity and intracytoplasmic cytokine analysis to understand and decode the clinical aspects of infants with ocular congenital toxoplasmosis. the toxoplasma gondii-infected infants (toxo) were subdivided according to their clinical aspects based on the absence (nrl), presence of active (arl), active/cicatricial (acrl) or cicatricial retinochoroidal lesions (crl) and compared to non-infected controls (ni). the reactivity ...201626592658
identification of direct kinase substrates using analogue-sensitive alleles.identifying the substrates of protein kinases remains a major obstacle in the elucidation of eukaryotic signaling pathways. promiscuity among kinases and their substrates coupled with the extraordinary plasticity of phosphorylation networks renders traditional genetic approaches or small-molecule inhibitors problematic when trying to determine the direct substrates of an individual kinase. here we describe methods to label, enrich, and identify the direct substrates of analogue-sensitive kinases ...201626584919
transcriptomic analysis of porcine pbmcs infected with toxoplasma gondii rh strain.toxoplasma gondii is an obligate, intracellular protozoan that can infect virtually all warm-blooded animals. humans can be infected through the consumption of undercooked meat of farm animals. however, there are few reports on pathogenic mechanism and immune regulation during the interaction between t. gondii and domesticated animals. rna extracted from pig peripheral blood mononuclear cells (pbmcs) infected with t. gondii rh strain at different time points (0 h, 8 h, 24 h, and 48 h) were rever ...201626603214
validation of the modified agglutination test for the detection of toxoplasma gondii in free-range chickens by using cat and mouse bioassay.the modified agglutination test (mat) is one of the most commonly used tests for the detection of antibodies to toxoplasma gondii in animal and human sera. the objective of the present study was to evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of the mat and bioassay in free-range/backyard (fr) chickens (gallus domesticus). previously-published t. gondii test results from 2066 chickens from 19 countries were compiled for the present study. the frequency of isolation of t. gondii increased for mat titres betw ...201626625933
seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii infection among patients with non-schizophrenic neurodevelopmental disorders in alexandria, egypt.toxoplasma gondii is an opportunistic parasite with neurotropic characteristics that can mediate neurodevelopmental disorders, including mental, behavioral and personality aspects of their hosts. therefore, the seroprevalence of anti-toxoplasma antibodies has been studied in patients with different neurological disorders from different localities. on searching online databases, however, we could not find published studies on the seroprevalence of anti-toxoplasma antibodies among patients with ne ...201626656562
genetic characterization of toxoplasma gondii isolates from pigs in jilin province, northeastern china.toxoplasma gondii is prevalent in humans and animals worldwide. the present study aimed to determine the genetic diversity of t. gondii isolates from pigs in jilin province, northeastern china. a total of 100 dna samples were extracted from the hilar lymph nodes of slaughtered pigs, and 9 (9.0%, 95% confidence interval: 3.4-14.6%) were detected positive for t. gondii b1 gene by a nested polymerase chain reaction (pcr). the positive dna samples were typed at 11 genetic markers, including 10 nucle ...201626682614
an ensemble of specifically targeted proteins stabilizes cortical microtubules in the human parasite toxoplasma gondii.although all microtubules within a single cell are polymerized from virtually identical subunits, different microtubule populations carry out specialized and diverse functions, including directional transport, force generation, and cellular morphogenesis. functional differentiation requires specific targeting of associated proteins to subsets or even subregions of these polymers. the cytoskeleton of toxoplasma gondii, an important human parasite, contains at least five distinct tubulin-based str ...201626680740
extracellular toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites metabolize and incorporate unnatural sugars into cellular proteins.toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite that infects all nucleated cell types in diverse warm-blooded organisms. many of the surface antigens and effector molecules secreted by the parasite during invasion and intracellular growth are modified by glycans. glycosylated proteins in the nucleus and cytoplasm have also been reported. despite their prevalence, the complete inventory and biological significance of glycosylated proteins in toxoplasma remain unknown. in this study, we ai ...201626687036
a lipolytic lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase secreted by toxoplasma facilitates parasite replication and egress.the protozoan parasite toxoplasma gondii develops within a parasitophorous vacuole (pv) in mammalian cells, where it scavenges cholesterol. when cholesterol is present in excess in its environment, the parasite expulses this lipid into the pv or esterifies it for storage in lipid bodies. here, we characterized a unique t. gondii homologue of mammalian lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (lcat), a key enzyme that produces cholesteryl esters via transfer of acyl groups from phospholipids to the 3 ...201626694607
co-administration of interleukins 7 and 15 with dna vaccine improves protective immunity against toxoplasma gondii.toxoplasma gondii is an obligatory intracellular parasite, which can infect all warm-blooded animals including humans. cytokines, including il-15 and il-7, play a critical role in the regulation of the homeostasis of naive and memory t cells. co-administration the dna vaccine with cytokines may improve its efficacy. il-7 and il-15 from splenic tissues of kunming mice were cloned, and eukaryotic plasmid pvax-il-7-il-15 was constructed. kunming mice were administrated with dna vaccine expressing t ...201626706605
[relevant principles in the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of toxoplasmosis during pregnancy].a retrospective survey of the prevalence of torch infections among pregnant women was performed in the perinatal center, m. a. tverye military sanitary unit nine (perm), in june 2010 to december 2013. the survey covered 2060 women: they were all examined for cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex virus, and toxoplasma. antibodies to toxoplasma gondii were detected in 28.68% (591/2060); 98.62% were found to have antibodies to herpes simplex; antibodies to cytomegalovirus were identified in 87.13% (1795/ ...201626720963
[expected consequences of targeted human behavior modulation upon exposure to toxoplasma gondii].the paper shows that there are more seropositive people in a group of those who have experienced road accidents (ra) and who are responsible for the latter than in a control group. the investigations have indicated that chronic toxoplasmosis may be regarded as a potential increased risk factor of ra.201626720962
voltammetric detection of sequence-selective dna hybridization related to toxoplasma gondii in pcr amplicons.this work describes the single-use electrochemical dna biosensor technology developed for voltammetric detection of sequence selective dna hybridization related to important human and veterinary pathogen; toxoplasma gondii. in the principle of electrochemical label-free detection assay, the duplex of dna hybrid formation was detected by measuring guanine oxidation signal occured in the presence of dna hybridization. the biosensor design consisted of the immobilization of an inosine-modified (gua ...201626717837
mental health and latent toxoplasmosis: comparison of individuals with and without anti-toxoplasma antibodies.there is evidence to suggest that the protozoan toxoplasma gondii affects the mental health of people who are infected with it. the aim of the present study was to examine the relationship between t. gondii and mental health.201628332976
role of vertical transmission of toxoplasma gondii in prevalence of infection.the parasite, toxoplasma gondii, is a highly successful pathogen that infects around 30% of the global human population. additionally, it is able to infect all warm blooded animals with high prevalence. this is surprising as it is a parasite of the cat and can only complete its full sexual cycle in that host. this review examines the important key routes of transmission: infective oocysts from the cat, ingestion of raw infected tissue and vertical transmission. the latter route of transmission h ...201626807498
removal of extracellular toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites from suspended cell culture.tachyzoites of toxoplasma gondii, an obligate intracellular parasite, actively invade a broad spectrum of cell types. t. gondii infects leukocytes and spreads to distant organs such as the brain, lungs and muscles. however, the mechanism of t. gondii transmission from infected leukocytes to peripheral organs is unknown. to show the dynamics of infected leukocytes and intracellular parasites in vivo, previous studies have prepared t. gondii-infected leukocytes and injected them into circulation i ...201626806654
presentation and rehabilitation in a patient with toxoplasmosis encephalitis: a case study and review.toxoplasma gondii is an opportunistic infection that often presents in the setting of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. the infection can cause severe and potentially fatal encephalitis because of the reactivation of latent infections in the setting of immune suppression. diagnosing toxoplasmosis encephalitis (te) in immunocompromised patients often is difficult because the signs and symptoms can be nonspecific, but making a diagnosis of te is even more challenging in a patient who is not know ...201626805910
immunodiagnosis and molecular validation of toxoplasma gondii-recombinant dense granular (gra) 7 protein for the detection of toxoplasmosis in patients with cancer.serological assays for the diagnosis of toxoplasmosis mostly rely on the tachyzoite specific antigens of toxoplasma gondii, which are difficult to produce by conventional methods. the aim of this study was to clone and express of gra7 protein of t. gondii and evaluate its potential for immunodiagnosis of toxoplasmosis in cancer patients. as well as validate the results using a new molecular assay, lamp technique. the gra7 gene was successfully cloned, expressed and purified by affinity chromatog ...201626805618
evaluation of immune responses induced by rhoptry protein 5 and rhoptry protein 7 dna vaccines against toxoplasma gondii.infection with the protozoan parasite toxoplasma gondii is widespread, and the organism can cause congenital infections in humans. the horizontal transmission of toxoplasma is even more common than congenital. an effective vaccine strategy brings the prospect of improving toxoplasma disease control. rhoptry protein 5 (rop5) and rop7 are potential stimulators of humoral and cellular immune responses. in this study, we constructed a multi-antigenic dna vaccine expressing rop5 and rop7 of t. gondii ...201626802673
the utility of diversity profiling using illumina 18s rrna gene amplicon deep sequencing to detect and discriminate toxoplasma gondii among the cyst-forming coccidia.next-generation sequencing (ngs) has the capacity to screen a single dna sample and detect pathogen dna from thousands of host dna sequence reads, making it a versatile and informative tool for investigation of pathogens in diseased animals. the technique is effective and labor saving in the initial identification of pathogens, and will complement conventional diagnostic tests to associate the candidate pathogen with a disease process. in this report, we investigated the utility of the diversity ...201626801593
toxoplasma gondii infection: relationship with aggression in psychiatric subjects.toxoplasma gondii (t. gondii), a protozoan parasite that persists in host tissues, including brain, has been associated with several psychiatric disorders and with suicidal behavior. we sought to test the hypothesis that latent t. gondii infection, as manifest by circulating immunoglobulin g (igg) antibodies to t. gondii, is associated with both categorical and dimensional measures of aggression.201627046307
follow-up of the 1977 georgia outbreak of toxoplasmosis.in 1977, an outbreak of toxoplasmosis occurred among 37 persons associated with exposure to an indoor horse arena. cat feces containing the organism were most likely stirred up when horses ran on the dirt floor, and were inhaled or ingested by riders and observers. after 25 or more years, we attempted to locate persons from the outbreak and offer them an eye examination. of the 37 persons in the outbreak, 18 (49%) were located; four had died, and the remaining 14 agreed to an examination. among ...201627044565
the known and missing links between toxoplasma gondii and schizophrenia.toxoplasma gondii, an intracellular protozoan parasite, has a striking predilection for infecting the central nervous system and has been linked to an increased incidence of a number of psychiatric diseases. several in vitro and in vivo studies have shown that t. gondii infection can affect the structure, bioenergetics and function of brain cells, and alters several host cell processes, including dopaminergic, tryptophan-kynurenine, gabaergic, akt1, jak/stat, and vasopressinergic pathways. these ...201627041387
an alternative nested-pcr assay for the detection of toxoplasma gondii strains based on gra7 gene sequences.toxoplasma gondii is a widespread parasite able to infect virtually any nucleated cells of warm-blooded hosts. in some cases, t. gondii detection using already developed pcr primers can be inefficient in routine laboratory tests, especially to detect atypical strains. here we report a new nested-pcr protocol able to detect virtually all t. gondii isolates. analyzing 685 sequences available in genbank, we determine that gra7 is one of the most conserved genes of t. gondii genome. based on an alig ...201627036222
high prevalence of toxoplasmosis in free-range chicken of the fernando de noronha archipelago, brazil.the present study aimed to determine the prevalence of toxoplasmosis in free-range chickens of the fernando de noronha archipelago, brazil and to identify risk factors associated with toxoplasma gondii infection. blood samples were collected from all the adult chickens raised in the archipelago and screened by indirect fluorescent antibody test (430 samples, in total). univariate analysis (chi-square) and logistic regression were used to investigate the relationship between various variables pos ...201627032879
gitr activation positively regulates immune responses against toxoplasma gondii.toxoplasma gondii is a widespread parasite responsible for causing clinical diseases especially in pregnant and immunosuppressed individuals. glucocorticoid-induced tnf receptor (gitr), which is also known as tnfrs18 and belongs to the tnf receptor superfamily, is found to be expressed in various cell types of the immune system and provides an important costimulatory signal for t cells and myeloid cells. however, the precise role of this receptor in the context of t. gondii infection remains elu ...201627027302
toxoplasma gondii rop18: potential to manipulate host cell mitochondrial apoptosis.toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite that may manipulate host cell mitochondrial apoptosis pathways. in our experiment, 293t cells were transfected with the p3×flag-cmv-myc-rop18 vector and expressed the rop18-myc fusion protein. cell apoptosis was induced by 0.5 μg/ml actinomycin d (actd) and was detected by annexin v-fitc/pi assay. the cell mitochondrial membrane potential was determined by jc-1. cytochrome c (cyto-c) from mitochondria and the cytoplasm was measured by weste ...201627021182
toxoplasma gondii inhibits differentiation of c17.2 neural stem cells through wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway.toxoplasma gondii is a major cause of congenital brain disease. t. gondii infection in the developing fetus frequently results in major neural developmental damage; however, the effects of the parasite infection on the neural stem cells, the key players in fetal brain development, still remain elusive. this study is aiming to explore the role of t. gondii infection on differentiation of neural stem cells (nscs) and elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms that regulate the inhibited differe ...201627012204
survey of toxoplasma gondii antibodies in magellanic penguins (spheniscus magellanicus forster, 1781).magellanic penguins (spheniscus magellanicus) breed on the atlantic and pacific coasts of the southernmost parts of south america and migrate northward as far as peru and brazil. serum samples (n = 100) from magellanic penguins from three zoos and two rehabilitation centers (rcs) in brazil were assayed for the presence of antibodies to toxoplasma gondii by means of the modified agglutination test (mat, cut-off ≥ 20). the penguins were categorized as young (≤4 yr old) or adults (≥4 yr old) and se ...201627010304
multiplexed anti-toxoplasma igg, igm, and iga assay on plasmonic gold chips: towards making mass screening possible with dye test precision.toxoplasmosis is an infection caused by the protozoan parasite toxoplasma gondii that can lead to severe sequelae in the fetus during pregnancy. definitive serologic diagnosis of the infection during gestation is made mostly by detecting t. gondii-specific antibodies, including igg and igm, individually in a single serum sample by using commercially available kits. the iga test is used by some laboratories as an additional marker of acute infection. most of the commercial tests have failed to re ...201627008879
occurrence of anti-toxoplasma gondii antibodies and parasite dna in backyard chicken breeding in northeast, brazil.the aim of the present study was to investigate the occurrence of anti-toxoplasma gondii antibodies and parasite dna in backyard chickens bred in the metropolitan area of recife, brazil. in total, 212 serum samples were collected from 16 properties, and 12 backyard chickens were collected in the six sanitary districts of recife. an indirect immunofluorescence assay (ifa) was used to investigate the occurrence of anti-toxoplasma gondii antibodies. polymerase chain reaction (pcr) was used to detec ...201627007250
effects of (+)-usnic acid and (+)-usnic acid-liposome on toxoplasma gondii.toxoplasma gondii pathogen is a threat to human health that results in economic burden. unfortunately, there are very few high-efficiency and low-toxicity drugs for toxoplasmosis in the clinic. (+)-usnic acid derived from lichen species has been reported to have anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, anti-parasitology, and even anti-cancer activities. herein, the systematic effect of (+)-usnic acid and (+)-usnic acid-liposome on toxoplasma were studied in vitro and in vivo. the viability of toxoplasm ...201627004468
seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii infection among patients admitted to al-zahra hospital, isfahan, iran.toxoplasma gondii (t. gondii) infection is one of the most common parasitic infections among humans and other warm-blooded animals worldwide. the aim of this study was to evaluate toxoplasmosis status in patients admitted to al-zahra hospital, isfahan, iran.201627004318
surface binding properties of aged and fresh (recently excreted) toxoplasma gondii oocysts.the surfaces of aged (10 years) and fresh (recently excreted) oocysts of toxoplasma gondii were investigated using monoclonal antibody (mab) and lectin-binding assays. fresh oocysts bound a wall-specific mab labelled with fluorescein isothiocyanate while aged oocysts did not. in contrast, the walls of aged oocysts bound a lectin (wheat germ agglutinin, wga), but not the walls of fresh oocysts. exposure of oocysts to detergent solutions or trypsin did not affect the binding properties of the wall ...201627003461
proteomic profiling of mouse liver following acute toxoplasma gondii infection.toxoplasma gondii remains a global public health problem. however, its pathophysiology is still not-completely understood particularly the impact of infection on host liver metabolism. we performed itraq-based proteomic analysis to evaluate early liver protein responses in balb/c mice following infection with t. gondii pys strain (genotype toxodb#9) infection. our data revealed modification of protein expression in key metabolic pathways, as indicated by the upregulation of immune response and d ...201627003162
antiparasitic effects of oxymatrine and matrine against toxoplasma gondii in vitro and in vivo.toxoplasma gondii (t. gondii) is an important pathogen which can causes serious public health problems. since the current therapeutic drugs for toxoplasmosis present serious host toxicity, research on effective and new substances of relatively low toxicity is urgently needed. this study was carried out to evaluate the anti-parasitic effect of oxymatrine (om) and matrine (me) against t. gondii in vitro and in vivo. in our study, the anti-t. gondii activities of me and om were evaluated in vitro u ...201626993085
kinetics of acute infection with toxoplasma gondii and histopathological changes in the duodenum of rats.toxoplasma gondii crosses the intestinal barrier to spread into the body. we investigate the intestinal wall and epithelial cells of the duodenum of rats infected with t. gondii during different time points of acute infection. male wistar rats, 60 days of age, were assigned into groups that were orally inoculated with 5000 sporulated oocysts t. gondii for 6 h (g6), 12 h (g12), 24 h (g24), 48 h (g48), 72 h (g72), 7 days (g7d), and 10 days (g10d). the control group (cg) received saline. the rats w ...201626993084
toxoplasma gondii infection in seagull chicks is related to the consumption of freshwater food resources.understanding the spread of toxoplasma gondii (t. gondii) in wild birds, particularly in those with opportunistic feeding behavior, is of interest for elucidating the epidemiological involvement of these birds in the maintenance and dissemination of the parasite. overall, from 2009 to 2011, we collected sera from 525 seagull chicks (yellow-legged gull (larus michahellis) and audouin's gull (l. audouinii)) from 6 breeding colonies in spain and tested them using the modified agglutination test (ma ...201626974667
a three-dimensional culture system recapitulates placental syncytiotrophoblast development and microbial resistance.in eutherians, the placenta acts as a barrier and conduit at the maternal-fetal interface. syncytiotrophoblasts, the multinucleated cells that cover the placental villous tree surfaces of the human placenta, are directly bathed in maternal blood and are formed by the fusion of progenitor cytotrophoblasts that underlie them. despite their crucial role in fetal protection, many of the events that govern trophoblast fusion and protection from microbial infection are unknown. we describe a three-dim ...201626973875
three-year retrospective analysis of the incidence of toxoplasma gondii infection in pregnant women living in the greater romagna area (northeastern italy).the aim of this study was to assess the incidence of toxoplasma gondii infection in a population of pregnant women living in the romagna area of the emilia-romagna region. from 1 january 2012 to 31 december 2014, 36 876 pregnant women were tested to evaluate the igg- and igm-specific anti-t. gondii response. the average incidence was 0.192%, underlining the need for an appropriate and active screening for toxoplasmosis during pregnancy.201626970048
genotyping of toxoplasma gondii: dna extraction from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded autopsy tissues from aids patients who died by severe disseminated toxoplasmosis.this study investigated the genetic features of toxoplasma gondii isolated directly in autopsies of hiv-infected patients who died with severe disseminated toxoplasmosis. this retrospective analysis was conducted in a cohort of 15 hiv-infected patients with clinical and laboratory data. they had previous cerebral toxoplasmosis at least 6 months before the disseminated toxoplasmosis episode. the hypothesis was that they were infected with highly virulent parasites due to the condition in which th ...201626969767
anti-nmda receptor autoantibodies and associated neurobehavioral pathology in mice are dependent on age of first exposure to toxoplasma gondii.toxoplasma gondii is a pathogen implicated in psychiatric disorders. as elevated antibodies to t. gondii are also present in non-symptomatic individuals, we hypothesized that the age during first exposure to the pathogen may affect symptom manifestation. we tested this hypothesis by evaluating neurobehavioral abnormalities and the immune response in mice following adolescent or adult t. gondii infection.201626969530
toxoplasma gondii isolates from chickens in an area with human toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis.the aim of this study was to detect, isolate and genetically characterize toxoplasma gondii from tissues obtained from free range chickens which were breed in farms from patients with toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis in misiones, argentina. thirty three samples of head (refrigerated = 18 and frozen = 15) from free range chickens were processed. refrigerated (n = 18) chicken central nervous systems (cns) were bioassay in mice. dna was obtained from all samples (n = 33) and pcr was performed using to ...201626968777
seroepidemiology of toxoplasmosis in rural and urban communities from los rios region, chile.toxoplasmosis is a prevalent protozoan infection with a complex lifecycle and wide profile of risk factors. the impact of congenital infection is well documented; however, there is increasing evidence of a much broader range of potential health outcomes and the need to improve our understanding of the transmission patterns and infection sources in the overall population. this study examined the epidemiology of toxoplasmosis in distinct community types from a highly endemic area of chile.201626968154
toxoplasma gondii antibody prevalence and two new genotypes of the parasite in endangered hawaiian geese (nene: branta sandvicensis).toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite transmitted by domestic cats ( felis catus ) that has historically caused mortality in native hawaiian birds. to estimate how widespread exposure to the parasite is in nene (hawaiian geese, branta sandvicensis), we did a serologic survey for t. gondii antibody and genetically characterized parasite dna from the tissues of dead birds that had confirmed infections by immunohistochemistry. of 94 geese sampled, prevalence on the island of kauai, maui, and mo ...201626967138
role of oxidative stress in the pathophysiology of toxoplasma gondii infection.oxidative stress (os) plays an essential role in the pathogenesis of common neurodegenerative diseases. we have previously shown that toxoplasma gondii (t. gondii) induces high nitric oxide (no) production, glial activation, and apoptosis that altogether cause severe neuropathology in toxoplasma encephalitis (te). the objective of this study was to investigate the cytotoxic effect of os and to identify a correlation between the causes of t. gondii induced neuropathology. expression levels of glu ...201626966143
impact of environmental factors on the emergence, transmission and distribution of toxoplasma gondii.toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular protozoan that poses a great threat to human health and economic well-being worldwide. the effects of environmental factors such as changing climate and human activities on the ecology of this protozoan are being discovered. accumulated evidence shows that changes of these environmental factors can exert influence on the occurrence, transmission and distribution of t. gondii. this article reviews studies from different geographical regions with vary ...201626965989
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