Publications

catarrhine primate divergence dates estimated from complete mitochondrial genomes: concordance with fossil and nuclear dna evidence.	accurate divergence date estimates improve scenarios of primate evolutionary history and aid in interpretation of the natural history of disease-causing agents. while molecule-based estimates of divergence dates of taxa within the superfamily hominoidea (apes and humans) are common in the literature, few such estimates are available for the cercopithecoidea (old world monkeys), the sister taxon of the hominoids in the primate infraorder catarrhini. to help fill this gap, we have sequenced the en ...	2005	15737392
mhc-f dna sequences in bonobo, gorilla and orangutan.	the major histocompatibility complex (mhc)-f class ib locus shows a limited polymorphism, and the function of its mainly intracellular protein is not clear. we have identified human leucocyte antigen (hla)-f orthologous dna sequences in pongidae in order to study the mhc-f gene evolution and its products' function. hla-f orthologous cdna transcripts are found in chimpanzee and in the new primate species studied (bonobo, gorilla and orangutan). analyses of the predicted amino acid sequences and t ...	2005	16185322
gorillas (gorilla gorilla) and orangutans (pongo pygmaeus) encode relevant problem features in a tool-using task.	two important elements in problem solving are the abilities to encode relevant task features and to combine multiple actions to achieve the goal. the authors investigated these 2 elements in a task in which gorillas (gorilla gorilla) and orangutans (pongo pygmaeus) had to use a tool to retrieve an out-of-reach reward. subjects were able to select tools of an appropriate length to reach the reward even when the position of the reward and tools were not simultaneously visible. when presented with ...	2005	15740427
australopithecus anamensis: a finite-element approach to studying the functional adaptations of extinct hominins.	australopithecus anamensis is the stem species of all later hominins and exhibits the suite of characters traditionally associated with hominins, i.e., bipedal locomotion when on the ground, canine reduction, and thick-enameled teeth. the functional consequences of its thick enamel are, however, unclear. without appropriate structural reinforcement, these thick-enameled teeth may be prone to failure. this article investigates the mechanical behavior of a. anamensis enamel and represents the firs ...	2005	15747349
osteocalcin protein sequences of neanderthals and modern primates.	we report here protein sequences of fossil hominids, from two neanderthals dating to approximately 75,000 years old from shanidar cave in iraq. these sequences, the oldest reported fossil primate protein sequences, are of bone osteocalcin, which was extracted and sequenced by using maldi-tof/tof mass spectrometry. through a combination of direct sequencing and peptide mass mapping, we determined that neanderthals have an osteocalcin amino acid sequence that is identical to that of modern humans. ...	2005	15753298
the hominoid proximal radius: re-interpreting locomotor behaviors in early hominins.	studies of fossil hominins are traditionally taxonomically narrow and often exclude comparisons with hylobatids. hence, results of functional analyses of postcrania, interpreted as indicating that early hominins are "african-ape-like" in their postcranial skeletons and positional behaviors, may reflect an artifact of inadequate taxonomic and morphological breadth of the comparative sample. to address this problem and better understand early hominin positional behaviors, this study included hylob ...	2005	15788187
knuckle-walking anteater: a convergence test of adaptation for purported knuckle-walking features of african hominidae.	appeals to synapomorphic features of the wrist and hand in african apes, early hominins, and modern humans as evidence of knuckle-walking ancestry for the hominin lineage rely on accurate interpretations of those features as adaptations to knuckle-walking locomotion. because gorilla, pan, and homo share a relatively close common ancestor, the interpretation of such features is confounded somewhat by phylogeny. the study presented here examines the evolution of a similar locomotor regime in new w ...	2005	15861420
evidence for natural selection in the havcr1 gene: high degree of amino-acid variability in the mucin domain of human havcr1 protein.	the family of genes encoding t-cell immunoglobulin and mucin-domain containing proteins (tim), which are cell-surface molecules expressed in cd4(+) t helper cells, has important roles in the immune system. here, we report three unusual patterns of genetic variation in the human hepatitis a virus cellular receptor 1 gene (havcr1) that are similar to patterns observed in major histocompatibility complex loci. first, levels of polymorphism in exon 4 of havcr1 were exceptionally high in humans (nucl ...	2005	15889130
sexual dimorphism in the japanese cranial base: a fourier-wavelet representation.	an approach, computational shape analysis (csa), is presented here which utilizes a fourier-wavelet representation to numerically describe shape features of biological forms. two elements are involved: 1) elliptical fourier functions (effs), to provide estimates of global aspects, and 2) continuous wavelet transforms (cwts) to generate an objective estimate of localized features. effs are computed, using a set of pseudohomologous points, to create a precise analog of the boundary. this computed ...	2005	15895430
growing number of drug resistant strains dominates at retroviruses conference. drug resistance is an 800-pound gorilla.	the new york city man who recently was infected with multidrug resistant hiv and progressed rapidly to aids continues to fascinate and worry hiv clinicians, researchers, and public health officials. while officials debate the wisdom of widely publicizing this case, they agree that it brings into focus the need for continued prevention messages and surveillance of new infections.	2005	15912613
a comparative analysis of temporomandibular joint morphology in the african apes.	a number of researchers have suggested a functional relationship between dietary variation and temporomandibular joint (tmj) morphology, yet few studies have evaluated tmj form in the african apes. in this study, i compare tmj morphology in adults and during ontogeny in gorilla (g.g. beringei, g.g. graueri, and g.g. gorilla) and pan (p. paniscus, p. troglodytes troglodytes, p.t. schweinfurthii, and p.t. verus). i test two hypotheses: first, compared to all other african apes, g.g. beringei exhib ...	2005	15927660
mountain gorilla tug-of-war: silverbacks have limited control over reproduction in multimale groups.	to determine who fathers the offspring in wild mountain gorilla groups containing more than one adult male silverback, we genotyped nearly one-fourth (n = 92) of the mountain gorillas (gorilla beringei beringei) living in the virunga volcanoes region of africa. paternity analysis of 48 offspring born into four groups between 1985 and 1999 revealed that, although all infants were sired by within-group males, the socially dominant silverback did not always monopolize reproduction within his group. ...	2005	15964984
punctuated duplication seeding events during the evolution of human chromosome 2p11.	primate genomic sequence comparisons are becoming increasingly useful for elucidating the evolutionary history and organization of our own genome. such studies are particularly informative within human pericentromeric regions--areas of particularly rapid change in genomic structure. here, we present a systematic analysis of the evolutionary history of one approximately 700-kb region of 2p11, including the first autosomal transition from pericentromeric sequence to higher-order alpha-satellite dn ...	2005	15965031
comparison of arthritis characteristics in lowland gorilla gorilla and mountain gorilla beringei.	gorilla gorilla and the less-studied g. beringei occupy very different, geographically separate habitats. we studied the occurrence of various forms of arthritis to examine possible nature/nurture causality. the macerated skeletons of 38 g. beringei and 99 g. gorilla individuals were examined macroscopically for the presence of articular and osseous pathologies. contrasting with only isolated osteoarthritis and infectious arthritis was the frequent occurrence of a form of erosive arthritis assoc ...	2005	16015662
progressive proximal expansion of the primate x chromosome centromere.	previous studies of the pericentromeric region of the human x chromosome short arm (xp) revealed an age gradient from ancient dna that contains expressed genes to recent human-specific dna at the functional centromere. we analyzed the finished sequence of this human genomic region to investigate its evolutionary history. phylogenetic analysis of >1,500 alpha-satellite monomers from the region revealed the presence of five physical domains, each containing monomers from a distinct phylogenetic cl ...	2005	16030148
a 3d quantitative comparison of trapezium and trapezoid relative articular and nonarticular surface areas in modern humans and great apes.	the structure and functions of the modern human hand are critical components of what distinguishes homo sapiens from the great apes (gorilla, pan, and pongo). in this study, attention is focused on the trapezium and trapezoid, the two most lateral bones of the distal carpal row, in the four extant hominid genera, representing the first time they have been quantified and analyzed together as a morphological-functional complex. our objective is to quantify the relative articular and nonarticular s ...	2005	16085278
glucocerebrosidase recombinant allele: molecular evolution of the glucocerebrosidase gene and pseudogene in primates.	glucocerebrosidase is a lysosomal enzyme that hydrolyses the beta-glycosidic linkage of glucocerebroside, a ubiquitous sphingolipid present in the plasma membrane of mammalian cells. deleterious mutations in the glucocerebrosidase gene result in gaucher disease, the most prevalent lysosomal storage disease. humans have one glucocerebrosidase functional gene and pseudogene that were located 16 kb apart on chromosome 1q21 and share 96% overall sequence similarity. recombination between the two gen ...	2005	16102985
flow cytometric sorting of fresh and frozen-thawed spermatozoa in the western lowland gorilla (gorilla gorilla gorilla).	we adapted flow cytometry technology for high-purity sorting of x chromosome-bearing spermatozoa in the western lowland gorilla (gorilla gorilla gorilla). our objectives were to develop methodologies for liquid storage of semen prior to sorting, sorting of liquid-stored and frozen-thawed spermatozoa, and assessment of sorting accuracy. in study 1, the in vitro sperm characteristics of gorilla ejaculates from one male were unchanged (p > 0.05) after 8 hr of liquid storage at 15 degrees c in a non ...	2005	16104034
a genomic region evolving toward different gc contents in humans and chimpanzees indicates a recent and regionally limited shift in the mutation pattern.	dna sequences evolving differently in the human and chimpanzee genomes signal recent and regionally limited changes in the process of dna sequence evolution. here we present the comparison of 90 kb from the nonrecombining part of the human y chromosome to the corresponding part of the chimpanzee genome using gorilla as out-group. our results reveal a significant difference in the region-specific substitution process among the human and chimpanzee lineages. as a consequence, this region experienc ...	2005	15703238
neural connectivity and cortical substrates of cognition in hominoids.	cognitive functions and information processing recruit discrete neural systems in the cortex and white matter. we tested the idea that specific regions in the cerebrum are differentially enlarged in humans and that some of the neural reorganizational events that took place during hominoid evolution were species-specific and independent of changes in absolute brain size. we used magnetic resonance images of the living brains of 10 human and 17 ape subjects to obtain volumetric estimates of region ...	2005	16076478
species and sex identification of western lowland gorillas (gorilla gorilla gorilla), eastern lowland gorillas (gorilla beringei graueri) and humans.	methods for the identification of the sex and species of individuals from samples non-invasively taken from humans and gorillas were established. amplification of a segment of amelogenin (amg), which is an x-y homologous gene, using two pairs of primers from human amg, revealed both x- and y-specific bands. the possibility of sex identification was examined by typing the amg gene using hair and fecal samples from captive western lowland gorillas (gorilla gorilla gorilla) in japan and hair sample ...	2005	15635453
nuclear insertions help and hinder inference of the evolutionary history of gorilla mtdna.	numts are fragments of mitochondrial dna (mtdna) that have been translocated to the nucleus, where they can persist while their mitochondrial counterparts continue to rapidly evolve. thus, numts represent 'molecular fossils' useful for comparison with mitochondrial variation, and are particularly suited for studies of the fast-evolving hypervariable segment of the mitochondrial control region (hv1). here we used information from numts found in western gorillas (gorilla gorilla) and eastern goril ...	2005	15643961
3d-kinematics of vertical climbing in hominoids.	vertical climbing has played an important role in theories about the evolution of habitual bipedalism in early hominids and of locomotor specialization in hominoids. however, empirical data on vertical climbing in nonhuman primates are scarce, especially regarding kinematics. in this paper, the kinematics of flexed-elbow vertical climbing of four hominoid species are reported: western lowland gorillas (gorilla gorilla gorilla), bonobos (pan paniscus), sumatran orangutans (pongo pygmaeus abelii), ...	2005	15386239
alveolar echinococcosis in the zoological garden basle.	alveolar echinococcosis (ae) is a rare, but potentially severe zoonotic disease caused by echinococcus (e.) multilocularis. recent findings indicated an increasing importance of ae for non-human primates living in regions endemic for e. multilocularis. the death of five cynomolgus monkeys (macaca fascicularis) and a lowland gorilla (gorilla g. gorilla) due to ae raised concern about the incidence of this parasite in the basle zoo. consequently, a project was initiated to investigate the prevalen ...	2005	16315852
ophthalmic examination of the captive western lowland gorilla (gorilla gorilla gorilla).	this study examined the captive western lowland gorilla (gorilla gorilla gorilla) eye as compared and contrasted with the human eye. bilateral ophthalmic examinations of western lowland gorillas (n = 5) while under general anesthesia were performed opportunistically, including slit-lamp biomicroscopy, dilated fundus examination, cycloplegic retinoscopy, schiotz tonometry, corneal diameter and thickness measurements, a-scan and b-scan ultrasonography, keratometry, and cultures of the eyelid margi ...	2005	17312760
clostridium septicum myositis in a western lowland gorilla (gorilla gorilla gorilla).	a 10-yr-old male gorilla (gorilla gorilla gorilla) with a history of conspecific bite wounds was evaluated for acute onset of depression, anorexia, and right hemiparesis. the animal was immobilized for diagnostic examination and treatment for suspected toxic shock from a necrotizing, emphysematous wound infection, but was euthanized due to complications during recovery. gross and histopathologic examination revealed acute necrotizing myositis, fasciitis, cellulitis, and emphysema in the affected ...	2005	17312773
retrospective evaluation of measles antibody titers in vaccinated captive gorillas (gorilla gorilla gorilla).	retrospective analyses of banked serum samples and medical records from captive western lowland gorillas (gorilla gorilla gorilla) at lincoln park zoo showed that vaccination of gorillas with a human vaccine induced antibody production. no significant relationship was found between the groups that received one, two, or three vaccinations and the probability of seroconversion. these data also suggested that antibodies in western lowland gorillas persist for at least 11 yr. this information is use ...	2005	17323559
evolutionary divergence of the pre-promotor region of ribosomal dna in the great apes.	the human ribosomal intergenic spacer (rigs) differs considerably on nucleotide sequence and regulatory elements positioning from their counterparts in the mouse, rat and xenopus laevis. in the present study, we have pcr amplified, cloned and sequenced the rigs fragments of about 4.5 kb length, located approximately 2 kb upstream of the rrna transcription start point for the great apes, pan paniscus, pan troglodytes, gorilla gorilla and pongo pygmaeus. alignment of the primates' orthologic nucle ...	2006	17343212
decaying wood is a sodium source for mountain gorillas.	like several other non-human primates, mountain gorillas (gorilla beringei beringei) in bwindi impenetrable national park, uganda consume decaying wood, an interesting but puzzling behaviour. this wood has little obvious nutritional value; it is low in protein and sugar, and high in lignin compared to other foods. we collected pieces of wood eaten and avoided by gorillas, and other foods consumed by gorillas, and measured their sodium content. wood was substantially higher in sodium than other d ...	2006	17148393
preliminary evaluation of blood lipid profiles in captive western lowland gorillas (gorilla gorilla gorilla).	published serum cholesterol values in captive western lowland gorillas (gorilla gorilla gorilla) are much higher than human ranges, with a national mean of 7.36 mmol/l (284 mg/dl, n = 863). complete blood lipid profiles were examined in 15 captive gorillas. high-density lipoprotein (hdl) was found to decrease more rapidly with age than total cholesterol, resulting in an increasing ratio of cholesterol hdl with age. the ratio of apolipoprotein b to apolipoprotein al also increased with age. estab ...	2006	17312789
resolution of a hyperprolactinemia in a western lowland gorilla (gorilla gorilla gorilla).	prolactin-secreting pituitary adenomas are one of the most common causes of infertility in women. prolactin plays an important role in lactation and is involved in producing some of the normal mammalian breeding and maternal behaviors. elevated serum prolactin concentrations can adversely affect the reproductive cycle in females by inhibiting the normal lutenizing hormone surge that stimulates ovulation. a 17-year-old western lowland gorilla (gorilla gorilla gorilla) presented with low fertility ...	2006	17315448
cholesterol values in free-ranging gorillas (gorilla gorilla gorilla and gorilla beringei) and bornean orangutans (pongo pygmaeus).	cholesterol concentrations in captive gorillas and orangutans vary widely within species and average approximately 244 mg/dl for gorillas and 169 mg/dl for orangutans as published previously. the international species inventory system reports higher concentrations of 275 and 199 mg/dl for gorillas and orangutans, respectively. it is unknown whether these values were typical, influenced by captive management, or both. to answer this question, banked serum samples from free-ranging mountain gorill ...	2006	17319127
a new bacillus anthracis found in wild chimpanzees and a gorilla from west and central africa.		2006	16738706
expansion of gaa trinucleotide repeats in mammals.	we have previously shown that gaa trinucleotide repeats have undergone significant expansion in the human genome. here we present the analysis of the length distribution of all 10 nonredundant trinucleotide repeat motifs in 20 complete eukaryotic genomes (6 mammalian, 2 nonmammalian vertebrates, 4 arthropods, 4 fungi, and 1 each of nematode, amoebozoa, alveolate, and plant), which showed that the abundance of large expansions of gaa trinucleotide repeats is specific to mammals. analysis of human ...	2006	16316739
density-based load estimation using two-dimensional finite element models: a parametric study.	a parametric investigation was conducted to determine the effects on the load estimation method of varying: (1) the thickness of back-plates used in the two-dimensional finite element models of long bones, (2) the number of columns of nodes in the outer medial and lateral sections of the diaphysis to which the back-plate multipoint constraints are applied and (3) the region of bone used in the optimization procedure of the density-based load estimation technique. the study is performed using two ...	2006	17132530
gorilla conservation project takes 'one-health' approach. benefits extend beyond endangered apes.		2006	17133698
recent integrations of mammalian hmg retropseudogenes.	we propose that select retropseudogenes of the high mobility group nonhistone chromosomal protein genes have recently integrated into mammalian genomes on the basis of the high sequence identity of the copies to the cdna sequences derived from the original genes. these include the hmg1 gene family in mice and the hmgn2 family in humans. we investigated orthologous loci of several strains and species of mus for presence or absence of apparently young hmg1 retropseudogenes. three of four analysed ...	2006	17406091
ebola outbreak killed 5000 gorillas.	over the past decade, the zaire strain of ebola virus (zebov) has repeatedly emerged in gabon and congo. each human outbreak has been accompanied by reports of gorilla and chimpanzee carcasses in neighboring forests, but both the extent of ape mortality and the causal role of zebov have been hotly debated. here, we present data suggesting that in 2002 and 2003 zebov killed about 5000 gorillas in our study area. the lag between neighboring gorilla groups in mortality onset was close to the zebov ...	2006	17158318
fetal ultrasonography: biometric data from four african primate species.	nonhuman primates are raised in large numbers in research centers and zoos. reproductive monitoring is required to improve breeding performances. ultrasonography is a safe method to determine gestational age and to estimate the date of parturition. however only few data are available in nonhuman primates.	2006	16430494
lumbar diskectomy in a human-habituated mountain gorilla (gorilla beringei beringei).	the authors report a case of a human-habituated mountain gorilla, alvila, resident at the san diego zoo, who was found to have a herniated intervertebral lumbar disc after being attacked by the gorilla troop's silverback male gorilla. ultimately, the gorilla required surgical intervention for her disease and made a full recovery. to our knowledge, this is the only known case of spine surgery. a 36-year-old female human-habituated mountain gorilla (gorilla beringei beringei), resident at the san ...	2006	16412845
metric variation and sexual dimorphism in the dentition of ouranopithecus macedoniensis.	the fossil sample attributed to the late miocene hominoid taxon ouranopithecus macedoniensis is characterized by a high degree of dental metric variation. as a result, some researchers support a multiple-species taxonomy for this sample. other researchers do not think that the sample variation is too great to be accommodated within one species. this study examines variation and sexual dimorphism in mandibular canine and postcanine dental metrics of an ouranopithecus sample. bootstrapping (resamp ...	2006	16413596
how the great apes (pan troglodytes, pongo pygmaeus, pan paniscus, and gorilla gorilla) perform on the reversed contingency task: the effects of food quantity and food visibility.	s. t. boysen and g. g. berntson (1995) found that chimpanzees performed poorly on a reversed contingency task in which they had to point to the smaller of 2 food quantities to acquire the larger quantity. the authors compared the performance of 4 great ape species (pan troglodytes, pongo pygmaeus, pan paniscus, and gorilla gorilla) on the reversed contingency task while manipulating food quantity (0-4 or 1-4) and food visibility (visible pairs or covered pairs). results showed no systematic spec ...	2006	16435965
a contact algorithm for density-based load estimation.	an algorithm, which includes contact interactions within a joint, has been developed to estimate the dominant loading patterns in joints based on the density distribution of bone. the algorithm is applied to the proximal femur of a chimpanzee, gorilla and grizzly bear and is compared to the results obtained in a companion paper that uses a non-contact (linear) version of the density-based load estimation method. results from the contact algorithm are consistent with those from the linear method. ...	2006	16439233
human endogenous retrovirus (herv)-r family in primates: chromosomal location, gene expression, and evolution.	hitherto, full-length endogenous retrovirus (herv)-r has been located at human chromosome 7q11.2, and mrna and envelope proteins have been detected in placenta and a variety of other cell types. in the present study, using a probe derived from the gorilla fosmid library, we detected the paralogous locus (7q31.3) of the herv-r env gene in human chromosome 7q11.2, and also determined the chromosomal location in apes and old world monkeys. the herv-r gene was not detected in new world monkeys or pr ...	2006	16443335
captive female gorilla agonistic relationships with clumped defendable food resources.	minimal feeding competition among female mountain gorillas (gorilla gorilla beringei) has resulted in egalitarian social relationships with poorly defined agonistic dominance hierarchies. thus, gorillas are generally viewed as non-competitive egalitarian folivores that have had little need to develop effective competitive strategies to access food resources. however, this generalization is inconsistent with more recent research indicating that most gorillas are frugivorous, feeding on patchily d ...	2006	16467958
living in nonbreeding groups: an alternative strategy for maturing gorillas.	the one-male reproductive strategy implies that maturing males are temporarily excluded from reproduction. in gorillas, these excluded males live either solitarily or in nonbreeding groups (nbgs) that are devoid of adult females. the dynamics of nbgs are not well known. in this study, which was conducted on a gorilla population (gorilla gorilla gorilla) of 377 individuals that visited the lokoué clearing in the republic of congo, we detail how the nbgs formed, and analyze their dynamics accordin ...	2006	16477595
comparison of different enzyme-immunoassays for assessment of adrenocortical activity in primates based on fecal analysis.	most studies published to date that used fecal glucocorticoid measurements to assess adrenocortical activity in primate (and many nonprimate) species applied a specific cortisol or corticosterone assay. however, since these native glucocorticoids are virtually absent in the feces of most vertebrates, including primates, the validity of this approach has recently been questioned. therefore, the overall aim of the present study was to assess the validity of four enzyme-immunoassays (eias) using an ...	2006	16477600
characterization of bacillus anthracis-like bacteria isolated from wild great apes from cote d'ivoire and cameroon.	we present the microbiological and molecular characterization of bacteria isolated from four chimpanzees and one gorilla thought to have died of an anthrax-like disease in côte d'ivoire and cameroon. these isolates differed significantly from classic bacillus anthracis by the following criteria: motility, resistance to the gamma phage, and, for isolates from cameroon, resistance to penicillin g. a capsule was expressed not only after induction by co(2) and bicarbonate but also under normal growt ...	2006	16855222
plant choice in the construction of night nests by gorillas in the bwindi impenetrable national park, uganda.	we investigated the choice of plants in nest sites and individual night nests of a group of gorillas (gorilla beringei) in bwindi impenetrable national park, uganda. most of the nests were built on the ground in secondary forest or canopy gaps. the gorillas used 62 plant genera in their nests out of a possible 108 plant genera available in the immediate environment. this group of bwindi gorillas chose nest sites nonrandomly with respect to habitat type and selected nest sites in which pteridium ...	2006	16534805
nutritional chemistry of foods eaten by gorillas in bwindi impenetrable national park, uganda.	foods eaten by gorillas (gorilla beringei) in bwindi impenetrable national park (binp), uganda, were analyzed for their nutrient content. the goal of the study was to assess the amounts of fiber, protein, and sugars in the foods eaten by the bwindi gorillas, and to determine whether condensed tannins and cyanide are present in these foods. a total of 127 food plant parts representing 84 plant species eaten by two groups of bwindi gorillas were collected, processed, and analyzed for their chemica ...	2006	16550527
anthrax in western and central african great apes.	during the period of december 2004 to january 2005, bacillus anthracis killed three wild chimpanzees (pan troglodytes troglodytes) and one gorilla (gorilla gorilla gorilla) in a tropical forest in cameroon. while this is the second anthrax outbreak in wild chimpanzees, this is the first case of anthrax in gorillas ever reported. the number of great apes in central africa is dramatically declining and the populations are seriously threatened by diseases, mainly ebola. nevertheless, a considerable ...	2006	16900500
clinical response decision tree for the mountain gorilla (gorilla beringeii) as a model for great apes.	disease is one of the main threats to the remaining great ape populations of the world. the decision to intervene in the health of the great apes for population sustainability is controversial. humans' increasing negative influence on great ape health has mandated the reevaluation of current management policies. the mountain gorilla veterinary project (mgvp) has been making health intervention decisions since 1986. the decision to intervene has often been made subjectively due to poorly defined ...	2006	16900503
identification of the ancestral killer immunoglobulin-like receptor gene in primates.	killer immunoglobulin-like receptors (kir) are essential immuno-surveillance molecules. they are expressed on natural killer and t cells, and interact with human leukocyte antigens. kir genes are highly polymorphic and contribute vital variability to our immune system. numerous kir genes, belonging to five distinct lineages, have been identified in all primates examined thus far and shown to be rapidly evolving. since few kir remain orthologous between species, with only one of them, kir2dl4, sh ...	2006	16911775
evolution of an intronic microsatellite polymorphism in toll-like receptor 2 among primates.	nonhuman primates express varying responses to mycobacterium tuberculosis: new world monkeys appear to be resistant to tuberculosis (tb) while old world monkeys seem to be particularly susceptible. the aim of this study was to elucidate the presence of the regulatory guanine-thymine (gt) repeat polymorphisms in intron 2 of toll-like receptor 2 (tlr2) associated with the development of tb in humans and to determine any variations in these microsatellite polymorphisms in primates. we sequenced the ...	2006	16912902
patterns of craniofacial integration in extant homo, pan, and gorilla.	brain size increased greatly during pleistocene human evolution, while overall facial and dentognathic size decreased markedly. this mosaic pattern is due to either selective forces that acted uniquely on each functional unit in a modularized, developmentally uncoupled craniofacial complex, or alternatively, selection that acted primarily on one unit, with the other responding passively as part of a coevolved set of ontogenetically and evolutionarily integrated structures. using conditional inde ...	2006	16552733
natural selection and molecular evolution in primate pax9 gene, a major determinant of tooth development.	large differences in relation to dental size, number, and morphology among and within modern human populations and between modern humans and other primate species have been observed. molecular studies have demonstrated that tooth development is under strict genetic control, but, the genetic basis of primate tooth variation remains unknown. the pax9 gene, which codes for a paired domain-containing transcription factor that plays an essential role in the development of mammal dentition, has been a ...	2006	16585527
functional morphology of the first cervical vertebra in humans and nonhuman primates.	the cervical vertebral column bears or balances the weight of the head supported by the nuchal muscles that partly originate from the cervical vertebrae. the position of the head relative to the vertebral column, and consequently locomotion and posture behavior, could thus be associated with the form of the cervical vertebrae. in spite of this assumption and some empirical indications along these lines, primate vertebral morphologies have been reported to be very similar and not clearly related ...	2006	16955497
food transfers in immature wild western lowland gorillas (gorilla gorilla gorilla).	the transfer of food items between individuals has been described in primates as serving an informative purpose in addition to supplementing the diet of immature individuals. this behaviour has yet to be described in western lowland gorillas (gorilla gorilla gorilla), and results are presented here of observations of food transfers in immature gorillas at mbeli bai, republic of congo. the frequency of food transfers decreased with increasing immature age, while the frequency of independent feedi ...	2006	16596463
application of an image-based weighted measure of skeletal bending stiffness to great ape mandibles.	traditional measures of structural stiffness in the primate skeleton do not consider the heterogeneous material stiffness distribution of bone. this assumption of homogeneity introduces an unknown degree of error in estimating stiffness in skeletal elements. measures of weighted stiffness can be developed by including heterogeneous grayscale variations evident in computed tomographic (ct) images. since gray scale correlates with material stiffness, the distribution of bone quality and quantity c ...	2006	16596598
how great apes perform on a modified trap-tube task.	to date, neither primates nor birds have shown clear evidence of causal knowledge when attempting to solve the trap tube task. one factor that may have contributed to mask the knowledge that subjects may have about the task is that subjects were only allowed to push the reward away from them, which is a particularly difficult action for primates in certain problem solving situations. we presented five orangutans (pongo pygmaeus), two chimpanzees (pan troglodytes), two bonobos (pan paniscus), and ...	2006	16612632
a fossil hominoid proximal femur from kikorongo crater, southwestern uganda.	the external morphology of a fragmentary right proximal femur from southwestern uganda is described here. discovered in the kikorongo crater of queen elizabeth national park in 1961, this specimen was informally assigned to homo sapiens (although never described) and tentatively dated to the late pleistocene. however, because aspects of the external morphology of the femur align the fossil with the african great apes, we suggest that the kikorongo femur may be the first postcranial fossil of the ...	2006	16620913
commentary: culture in epidemiology--the 800 pound gorilla?		2006	16303802
the behavioral ecology of sympatric african apes: implications for understanding fossil hominoid ecology.	the behavioral ecology of the great apes is key evidence used in the reconstruction of the behavior of extinct ape and hominid taxa. chimpanzees and gorillas have been studied in detail in the wild, and some studies of their behavioral ecology in sympatry have also been been carried out. although the two ape species have divergent behavior and ecology in important respects, recent studies have shown that the interspecific differences are not as stark as previously thought and subsequently urge n ...	2006	16283423
dental microwear and diets of african early homo.	conventional wisdom ties the origin and early evolution of the genus homo to environmental changes that occurred near the end of the pliocene. the basic idea is that changing habitats led to new diets emphasizing savanna resources, such as herd mammals or underground storage organs. fossil teeth provide the most direct evidence available for evaluating this theory. in this paper, we present a comprehensive study of dental microwear in plio-pleistocene homo from africa. we examined all available ...	2006	16226788
diet and seasonal changes in sympatric gorillas and chimpanzees at kahuzi-biega national park.	based on 8 years of observations of a group of western lowland gorillas (gorilla beringei graueri) and a unit-group of chimpanzees (pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) living sympatrically in the montane forest at kahuzi-biega national park, we compared their diet and analyzed dietary overlap between them in relation to fruit phenology. data on fruit consumption were collected mainly from fecal samples, and phenology of preferred ape fruits was estimated by monitoring. totals of 231 plant foods (116 ...	2006	16142424
the role of taste in food selection by african apes: implications for niche separation and overlap in tropical forests.	ripe fruit eating shapes the behavior of most of the apes. gorillas (gorilla gorilla) and chimpanzees (pan troglodytes) are very different sizes and, consequently, have been traditionally viewed as ecologically distinct, but few studies have explored the behavioral and physiological foundations of their diets. debate continues on the extent that large-bodied gorillas may be less selective and more opportunistic fruit eaters than chimpanzees. taste responses have been predicted to relate to body ...	2006	16151604
size and shape dimorphism in great ape mandibles and implications for fossil species recognition.	sexual dimorphism is an important source of morphological variation, and species differences in dimorphism may be reflected in magnitude, pattern, or both. while the extant great apes are commonly used as a reference sample for distinguishing between sexual dimorphism and intertaxic variation in the fossil record, few studies have evaluated mandibular dimorphism in these taxa. in this study, percentage, degree, and pattern of mandibular dimorphism are evaluated in pongo, gorilla, and pan. mandib ...	2006	16161147
structural variation of the monoamine oxidase a gene promoter repeat polymorphism in nonhuman primates.	by conferring allele-specific transcriptional activity on the monoamine oxidase a (maoa) gene in humans, length variation of a repetitive sequence [(variable number of tandem repeat (vntr)] in the maoa promoter influences a constellation of personality traits related to aggressive and antisocial behavior and increases the risk of neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders. here, we have analyzed the presence and variability of this maoa promoter repeat in several species of nonhuman primates. ...	2006	16436187
identification by full-coverage array cgh of human dna copy number increases relative to chimpanzee and gorilla.	duplication of chromosomal segments and associated genes is thought to be a primary mechanism for generating evolutionary novelty. by comparative genome hybridization using a full-coverage (tiling) human bac array with 79-kb resolution, we have identified 63 chromosomal segments, ranging in size from 0.65 to 1.3 mb, that have inferred copy number increases in human relative to chimpanzee. these segments span 192 ensembl genes, including 82 gene duplicates (41 reciprocal best blast matches). syno ...	2006	16365383
ssadh variation in primates: intra- and interspecific data on a gene with a potential role in human cognitive functions.	in the present study we focus on the nucleotide and the inferred amino acid variation occurring in humans and other primate species for mitochondrial nad(+)-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, a gene recently supposed to contribute to cognitive performance in humans. we determined 2527 bp of coding, intronic, and flanking sequences from chimpanzee, bonobo, gorilla, orangutan, gibbon, and macaque. we also resequenced the entire coding sequence on 39 independent chromosomes from italian ...	2006	16786440
identification of large-scale human-specific copy number differences by inter-species array comparative genomic hybridization.	copy number differences (cnds), and the concomitant differences in gene number, have contributed significantly to the genomic divergence between humans and other primates. to assess its relative importance, the genomes of human, common chimpanzee, bonobo, gorilla, orangutan and macaque were compared by comparative genomic hybridization using a high-resolution human bac array (acgh). in an attempt to avoid potential interference from frequent intra-species polymorphism, pooled dna samples were us ...	2006	16395594
differential use of attentional and visual communicative signaling by orangutans (pongo pygmaeus) and gorillas (gorilla gorilla) in response to the attentional status of a human.	in this study we investigated the communicative abilities of 10 orangutans (pongo pygmaeus) and seven western lowland gorillas (gorilla gorilla gorilla), and particularly focused on their sensitivity to the attentional state of a human experimenter when choosing from a repertoire of both auditory and visual communication strategies. in experiment 1 a banana was placed in front of the subject's cage and a human experimenter was either present or absent. the subject's behavior was recorded for 60 ...	2006	16967515
genomic structure of swine taste receptor family 1 member 3, tas1r3, and its expression in tissues.	taste receptor family 1 member 3, tas1r3, is shown to be involved in sweet and umami tastes in mouse, and the nucleotide sequence of the gene has been reported in rat, gorilla, and human. pigs are frequently used as models for human diseases, and are also considered to be source animals for xenotransplantation to humans due to their anatomical and physiological similarities to humans. therefore, in the present study, the genomic structure of the swine tas1r3 gene was determined, and tas1r3 expre ...	2006	16974084
a juvenile early hominin skeleton from dikika, ethiopia.	understanding changes in ontogenetic development is central to the study of human evolution. with the exception of neanderthals, the growth patterns of fossil hominins have not been studied comprehensively because the fossil record currently lacks specimens that document both cranial and postcranial development at young ontogenetic stages. here we describe a well-preserved 3.3-million-year-old juvenile partial skeleton of australopithecus afarensis discovered in the dikika research area of ethio ...	2006	16988704
focusing on comparative ape population genetics in the post-genomic age.	the initial human and chimpanzee genome sequences have been published, and additional primate genomes, including those of gorilla and orang-utan, are in progress. with these new resources, we can now address what makes our species unique, by focusing on the underlying genetic differences associated with phenotypes. comparative primate population genomics, including studies of structural changes, mobile elements, gene expression and functional analyses, will shed light on how natural selection an ...	2006	17010600
nature of allelic sequence polymorphism at the kir3dl3 locus.	kir3dl3 is a framework gene of the leukocyte receptor complex, present in all individuals and haplotypes analysed to date. we describe 17 novel kir3dl3 alleles, including seven single nucleotide polymorphic (snp) positions within the coding region. sequence variation within introns included a vntr within intron 1. as kir3dl3 mrna is known to be expressed in decidual nk cells, we investigated the impact of kir3dl3 allelic variation on pre-eclampsia. no statistical difference in allele frequency o ...	2006	16823588
gorilla susceptibility to ebola virus: the cost of sociality.		2006	16824905
pcdh11 is x/y homologous in homo sapiens but not in gorilla gorilla and pan troglodytes.	protocadherin x (pcdhx) and protocadherin y (pcdhy) are cell-surface adhesion molecules expressed predominantly in brain. the human pcdh11x/y gene pair is located in the non-pseudoautosomal x-y homologous region (xq21.3/yp11.2). the possible existence of pcdh11 gene dosage differences between human and non-human primates is of evolutionary significance with respect to species differences and escape from x inactivation, and has been repeatedly debated. previous investigations on the x/y homologou ...	2006	16825765
shining the light on the "800-lb gorilla" of professional rivalry in case management.		2006	17135871
adaptive selection of mitochondrial complex i subunits during primate radiation.	mammalian oxidative phosphorylation (oxphos) complexes i, iii, iv and v are assembled from both mitochondrial dna (mtdna) and nuclear dna (ndna) encoded subunits, with complex i encompassing 39 ndna and seven mtdna subunits. yet the sequence variation of the mtdna genes is more than ten fold greater than that of the ndna encoded genes of the oxphos complexes and the mtdna proteins have been found to be influenced by positive (adaptive) selection. to maintain a functional complex i, ndna and mtdn ...	2006	16828987
tracking the displacement of objects: a series of tasks with great apes (pan troglodytes, pan paniscus, gorilla gorilla, and pongo pygmaeus) and young children (homo sapiens).	the authors administered a series of object displacement tasks to 24 great apes and 24 30-month-old children (homo sapiens). objects were placed under 1 or 2 of 3 cups by visible or invisible displacements. the series included 6 tasks: delayed response, inhibition test, a not b, rotations, transpositions, and object permanence. apes and children solved most tasks performing at comparable levels except in the transposition task, in which apes performed better than children. ape species performed ...	2006	16834492
a whole genome long-range haplotype (wglrh) test for detecting imprints of positive selection in human populations.	the identification of signatures of positive selection can provide important insights into recent evolutionary history in human populations. current methods mostly rely on allele frequency determination or focus on one or a small number of candidate chromosomal regions per study. with the availability of large-scale genotype data, efficient approaches for an unbiased whole genome scan are becoming necessary.	2006	16845142
bootstrap tests of significance and the case for humanlike skeletal-size dimorphism in australopithecus afarensis.	most estimates of sexual size dimorphism in australopithecus afarensis indicate that this early hominin was more dimorphic than modern humans. in contrast, a recent study reported that size variation in a. afarensis, as represented by postcranial remains from hadar and maka, ethiopia, is statistically most similar to that of modern humans, indicating a humanlike level of sexual dimorphism. here, we evaluate the evidence for humanlike dimorphism in a. afarensis. we argue that statistical support ...	2006	16846631
postconflict behavior in captive western lowland gorillas (gorilla gorilla gorilla).	postconflict (pc) behaviors, including reconciliation and consolation, have been observed in many primate and several nonprimate species. using the pc-matched control (mc) method, pc behavior was examined in two groups (n=13) of captive western lowland gorillas, a species for which no conflict resolution data have been published. analyses of 223 conflicts showed significantly more affiliation between former opponents after a conflict when compared to control periods, indicating reconciliation. r ...	2006	16847973
accelerated evolution of protocadherin11x/y: a candidate gene-pair for cerebral asymmetry and language.	it has been argued that cerebral asymmetry (the "torque") is the characteristic that defines the human brain and that morphological findings in psychosis are consistent with a deviation in this sex-dependent dimension of brain growth. evidence from sex chromosome aneuploidies and an association within families between sex and handedness is consistent with the presence of a determinant of cerebral asymmetry (a possible correlate of language) on the x and the y chromosomes. during hominid evolutio ...	2006	16874762
clavicle, a neglected bone: morphology and relation to arm movements and shoulder architecture in primates.	in spite of its importance for movements of the upper limbs, the clavicle is an infrequently studied shoulder bone. the present study compares clavicular morphology among different extant primates. methods have included the assessment of clavicular curvatures projected on two perpendicular planes that can be assessed overall as cranial and dorsal primary curvatures. results showed that in cranial view, three morphologies can be defined. one group exhibited an external curvature considerably more ...	2006	16894572
impacts of roads and hunting on central african rainforest mammals.	road expansion and associated increases in bunting pressure are a rapidly growing threat to african tropical wildlife. in the rainforests of southern gabon, we compared abundances of larger (>1 kg) mammal species at varying distances from forest roads and between hunted and unhunted treatments (comparing a 130-km2 oil concession that was almost entirely protected from bunting with nearby areas outside the concession that had moderate hunting pressure). at each of 12 study sites that were evenly ...	2006	16922241
fecal bacterial diversity in a wild gorilla.	we describe the bacterial diversity in fecal samples of a wild gorilla by use of a 16s rrna gene clone library and terminal-restriction fragment length polymorphism (t-rflp). clones were classified as firmicutes, verrucomicrobia, actinobacteria, lentisphaerae, bacteroidetes, spirochetes, and planctomycetes. our data suggest that fecal populations did not change temporally, as determined by t-rflp.	2006	16672537
sequencing and haplotype analysis of the activator of crem in the testis (act) gene in populations of fertile and infertile males.	camp-responsive element modulator (crem) is a key transcription factor in the differentiation of round spermatids into mature spermatozoa. during spermiogenesis, crem is regulated in part by activator of crem in the testis (act), which activates crem in a phosphorylation-independent fashion. we hypothesized that the act gene, which is expressed exclusively in the testis, could be involved in male factor infertility in patients with idiopathic-impaired spermatogenesis. to test this hypothesis, we ...	2006	16687568
size and shape variation in australopithecus afarensis proximal femora.	the degree of size and shape variation in the a. afarensis fossil sample has been interpreted in a variety of ways. size variation has been described as exceeding that of extant hominoids, similar to that of strongly sexually dimorphic hominoids, and best matched to modern humans. the degree of shape variation has been characterized both as great and negligible. recent fieldwork has increased the proximal femoral sample, providing new data with which to examine variation. the proximal femur of a ...	2006	16712903
molar microwear in praeanthropus afarensis: evidence for dietary stasis through time and under diverse paleoecological conditions.	molar microwear fabrics in extant mammals vary with diet and, more particularly, the physical properties of the items that are consumed. praeanthropus afarensis is well represented in the fossil record over a prolonged and radiometrically controlled temporal span, and reasonably robust paleoecological reconstructions are available for the various localities from which it is known. we therefore examined molar microwear in this species to determine whether diet varied in relation to time or in res ...	2006	16750841
morphological analysis of the hindlimb in apes and humans. i. muscle architecture.	we present quantitative data on the hindlimb musculature of pan paniscus, gorilla gorilla gorilla, gorilla gorilla graueri, pongo pygmaeus abelii and hylobates lar and discuss the findings in relation to the locomotor habits of each. muscle mass and fascicle length data were obtained for all major hindlimb muscles. physiological cross-sectional area (pcsa) was estimated. data were normalized assuming geometric similarity to allow for comparison of animals of different size/species. muscle mass s ...	2006	16761973
morphological analysis of the hindlimb in apes and humans. ii. moment arms.	flexion/extension moment arms were obtained for the major muscles crossing the hip, knee and ankle joints in the orang-utan, gibbon, gorilla (eastern and western lowland) and bonobo. moment arms varied with joint motion and were generally longer in proximal limb muscles than distal limb muscles. the shape of the moment arm curves (i.e. the plots of moment arm against joint angle) differed in different hindlimb muscles and in the same muscle in different subjects (both in the same and in differen ...	2006	16761974
evidence for involvement of tre-2 (usp6) oncogene, low-copy repeat and acrocentric heterochromatin in two families with chromosomal translocations.	we report clinical findings and molecular cytogenetic analyses for two patients with translocations [t(14;17)(p12;p12) and t(15;17)(p12;p13.2)], in which the chromosome 17 breakpoints map at a large low-copy repeat (lcr) and a breakage-prone tre-2 (usp6) oncogene, respectively. in family 1, a 6-year-old girl and her 5-year-old brother were diagnosed with mental retardation, short stature, dysmorphic features, and charcot-marie-tooth disease type 1a (cmt1a). g-banding chromosome analysis showed a ...	2006	16791615
identification, characterization and comparative genomics of chimpanzee endogenous retroviruses.	retrotransposons, the most abundant and widespread class of eukaryotic transposable elements, are believed to play a significant role in mutation and disease and to have contributed significantly to the evolution of genome structure and function. the recent sequencing of the chimpanzee genome is providing an unprecedented opportunity to study the functional significance of these elements in two closely related primate species and to better evaluate their role in primate evolution.	2006	16805923
phylogeny of primate t lymphotropic virus type 1 (ptlv-1) including various new asian and african non-human primate strains.	to further unravel intra- and interspecies ptlv-1 evolution in asia and africa, we phylogenetically analysed 15 new stlv-1 ltr and env sequences discovered in eight different asian and african non-human primate species. we show that orang-utan stlv-1s form a tight, deeply branching monophyletic cluster between asian stlv-1 macaque species clades, suggesting natural cross-species transmission. novel viruses of macaca maura, macaca nigra and siamang cluster with other sulawesian stlv-1s, demonstra ...	2007	16931175
relationship of bone utilization and biomechanical competence in hominoid mandibles.	this investigation explores regional variation in bone mass in the mandibles of large-bodied hominoids with respect to the masticatory biomechanical environment. cortical area, subperiosteal area, mandibular length, maximum and minimum area moments of inertia are sampled at 7 sections along the mandibular corpus in 20 specimens each of homo sapiens, pan troglodytes, pongo pygmaeus and gorilla gorilla. the null hypothesis is that bone is utilized similarly among species, between sexes and among c ...	2007	17045235
variations of the mandibular shape in extant hominoids: generic, specific, and subspecific quantification using elliptical fourier analysis in lateral view.	while a number of studies have documented the mandibular variations in hominoids, few focused on evaluating the variation of the whole outline of this structure. using an efficient morphometrical approach, i.e. elliptical fourier analysis, mandibular outlines in lateral view from 578 adult hominoids representing the genera hylobates, pongo, gorilla, pan, and homo were quantified and compared. this study confirms that elliptical fourier analysis provides an accurate characterization of the shape ...	2007	17063462
the complex evolutionary history of gorillas: insights from genomic data.	relatively little is known about the evolutionary and demographic histories of gorillas, one of our closest living relatives. in this study, we used samples from both western (gorilla gorilla) and eastern (gorilla beringei) gorillas to infer the timing of the split between these geographically disjunct populations and to elaborate the demographic history of gorillas. here we present dna sequences from 16 noncoding autosomal loci from 15 western gorillas and 3 eastern gorillas, including 2 noninv ...	2007	17065595
the orang-utan mating system and the unflanged male: a product of increased food stress during the late miocene and pliocene?	the orang-utan is unique among apes in having an unusually long male developmental period and two distinct adult male morphs (flanged and unflanged), which generally, but not exclusively, employ different reproductive strategies (call-and-wait vs. sneak-and-rape). both morphs have recently been shown to have roughly similar levels of reproductive success in the one site where such a study has been conducted. this is in stark contrast to the unimale polygynous gorilla, in which dominant males sir ...	2007	17083968