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seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii infection in pigs in jiangxi province, southeastern china.toxoplasma gondii is the causative agent of toxoplasmosis in humans and a wide range of animal species. in the current study, a serological investigation using an indirect hemagglutination (iha) test was carried out to determine the seroprevalence of t. gondii infection in pigs in jiangxi province, southeastern china. a total of 1232 serum samples were collected from pigs in 10 administrative districts in jiangxi, and specific antibodies were detected in 282 pigs (22.9%) with the titers ≥1:64. p ...201424552150
isolation and pathogenicity of toxoplasma gondii in naturally infected (rustic farm) pigs in southern brazil.this study reported a serological test for toxoplasma gondii infection in 100 pigs from 58 rural farms in the state of rio grande do sul, brazil. thirty-six pigs were seropositive (ifat≥1:64). bioassays were performed for all 36 seropositive pigs, and 17 isolates were obtained (47.2%). seven of these isolates (41.2%) were highly pathogenic to mice, as clinical signs of acute infection were observed, and tachyzoites were found in the peritoneal exudates, livers, and lungs. the remaining 10 isolat ...201424612744
toxoplasma gondii induce apoptosis of neural stem cells via endoplasmic reticulum stress pathway.toxoplasma gondii is a major cause of congenital brain disease; however, the underlying mechanism of neuropathogenesis in brain toxoplasmosis remains elusive. to explore the role of t. gondii in the development of neural stem cells (nscs), nscs were isolated from gd14 embryos of icr mice and were co-cultured with tachyzoites of t. gondii rh strain. we found that apoptosis levels of the nscs co-cultured with 1×106 rh tachyzoites for 24 and 48 h significantly increased in a dose-dependent manner, ...201424612639
the inner membrane complex through development of toxoplasma gondii and plasmodium.plasmodium spp. and toxoplasma gondii are important human and veterinary pathogens. these parasites possess an unusual double membrane structure located directly below the plasma membrane named the inner membrane complex (imc). first identified in early electron micrograph studies, huge advances in genetic manipulation of the apicomplexa have allowed the visualization of a dynamic, highly structured cellular compartment with important roles in maintaining the structure and motility of these para ...201424612102
risk factors for acute toxoplasma gondii diseases in taiwan: a population-based case-control study.although human toxoplasmosis is a notifiable disease in taiwan since 2007, little is known about its risk factors. this study aimed to investigate the risk factors for acute toxoplasma gondii diseases in taiwan. we conducted a nationwide population-based case-control study. cases of acute human toxoplasmosis notified to the taiwan centers for diseases control (taipei, taiwan) during 2008-2013 were compared with controls that were randomly selected from healthy t. gondii-seronegative blood donors ...201424609112
detection of toxoplasma gondii by pcr and mouse bioassay in rodents of ahvaz district, southwestern iran.toxoplasma gondii is obligate coccidian zoonotic parasite. felidae family is definitive and wide ranges of warm-blooded vertebrates are intermediate hosts for the parasite. rodents are measured as an important source of t. gondii infection for the definitive host. thus, this study aimed to investigate toxoplasm infection in rodents of ahvaz district, southwest of iran. a total of 100 rodents (73 rattus norvegicus, 21 rattus rattus, and 6 mus musculus) were collected and studied by gra6pcr and mo ...201424605327
toxoplasma gondii: protective immunity induced by rhoptry protein 9 (tgrop9) against acute toxoplasmosis.toxoplasma gondii rhoptry protein 9 (rop9) is involved in the early stages of host invasion, and contains b cell epitopes. the aim of this study was to evaluate the immune protective efficacy of a dna vaccine encoding tgrop9 gene against acute t. gondii infection in mice. a dna vaccine (pvax-rop9) encoding tgrop9 inserted into eukaryotic expression vector pvax i was constructed, and the efficacy of intramuscular vaccination of kunming mice with pvax-rop9 was analyzed. mice immunized with pvax-ro ...201424602875
overlapping toxoplasma gondii genotypes circulating in domestic animals and humans in southeastern brazil.although several toxoplasma gondii genotyping studies have been performed in brazil, studies of isolates from animals in the state of minas gerais are rare. the objective of this study was to conduct a genotypic characterization of t. gondii isolates obtained from dogs, free-range chickens, and humans in minas gerais and to verify whether the t. gondii genotypes circulating in domestic animals correspond to the genotypes detected in humans. genetic variability was assessed by restricted fragment ...201424587295
assembly of the novel five-component apicomplexan multi-aminoacyl-trna synthetase complex is driven by the hybrid scaffold protein tg-p43.in toxoplasma gondii, as in other eukaryotes, a subset of the amino-acyl-trna synthetases are arranged into an abundant cytoplasmic multi-aminoacyl-trna synthetase (mars) complex. through a series of genetic pull-down assays, we have identified the enzymes of this complex as: methionyl-, glutaminyl-, glutamyl-, and tyrosyl-trna synthetases, and we show that the n-terminal gst-like domain of a partially disordered hybrid scaffold protein, tg-p43, is sufficient for assembly of the intact complex. ...201424586818
toxoplasma gondii inhibits apoptosis via a novel stat3-mir-17-92-bim pathway in macrophages.in order to accomplish their life cycles, intracellular pathogens, including the apicomplexan toxoplasma gondii, subvert the innate apoptotic response of infected host cells. however, the precise mechanisms of parasite interference with the apoptotic pathway remain unclear. micrornas (mirnas) regulate gene expression at the posttranscriptional level. using t. gondii strain tgctwh3, which was isolated from felids and possesses the predominant genotype china 1 (toxodb(#)9) in china, we analyzed th ...201424583285
epidemiology of toxoplasmosis in white tailed deer (odocoileus virginianus): occurrence, congenital transmission, correlates of infection, isolation, and genetic characterization of toxoplasma gondii.the prevalence of toxoplasma gondii in white tailed deer (wtd) in the usa is high but little is known of the epidemiology of toxoplasmosis in this host. in the present study, we compared t. gondii seroprevalence from 749 wtd collected in 2012 and 2013 from a metropolitan park in ohio and 487 wtd deer shot in minnesota during 2008, 2009, and 2010. serum samples were tested for antibodies to t. gondii by the modified agglutination test (cut-off titer, 25). additionally myocardial samples from 123 ...201424582734
cross-sectional analysis of the seropositivity and risk factors of toxoplasma gondii infection among veterinarians, in relation to their public professional activities.toxoplasma gondii is a zoonotic pathogen that can infect most warm-blooded animals and humans. although numerous epidemiological studies of t. gondii have been published, very limited data exist on the prevalence of t. gondii infection among veterinarians. in this study, a survey was used to analyze the seropositivity of and risk factors for t. gondii infection among public veterinarians (pv) and veterinarians in veterinary service laboratories (vvsl). blood samples were collected from individua ...201424582526
seroprevalence and genetic characterization of toxoplasma gondii in three species of pet birds in china.toxoplasmosis, caused by the protozoan parasite toxoplasma gondii, is one of the most common zoonosis worldwide, affecting a wide range of warm-blooded mammals and birds worldwide. however, no information on t. gondii infection in pet birds in china is available. therefore, this study was performed to determine the prevalence of t. gondii infection in pet birds in gansu province, china.201424690251
synergy of mil-21 and mil-15 in enhancing dna vaccine efficacy against acute and chronic toxoplasma gondii infection in mice.the synergistic protective efficacy of murine interleukin 21 (mil-21) and mil-15 administrated with dna vaccine against acute and chronic toxoplasma gondii infection in mice was investigated using t. gondii mic8 (tgmic8) as a model. we cloned mil-21 and mil-15 from splenic tissues of kunming mice, and constructed eukaryotic plasmid pvax/mil-15, pvax/mil-21, and pvax/mil-21/mil-15, respectively. after immunizing with pvax/tgmic8 in the presence or absence of these cytokines, immune responses were ...201424690150
crtam controls residency of gut cd4+cd8+ t cells in the steady state and maintenance of gut cd4+ th17 during parasitic infection.retention of lymphocytes in the intestinal mucosa requires specialized chemokine receptors and adhesion molecules. we find that both cd4(+)cd8(+) and cd4(+) t cells in the intestinal epithelium, as well as cd8(+) t cells in the intestinal mucosa and mesenteric lymph nodes, express the cell adhesion molecule class i-restricted t cell-associated molecule (crtam) upon activation, whereas the ligand of crtam, cell adhesion molecule 1 (cadm1), is expressed on gut cd103(+)dcs. lack of crtam-cadm1 inte ...201424687959
bumped kinase inhibitor 1294 treats established toxoplasma gondii infection.toxoplasma gondii is a unicellular parasite that causes severe brain and eye disease. current drugs for t. gondii are limited by toxicity. bumped kinase inhibitors (bkis) selectively inhibit calcium-dependent protein kinases of the apicomplexan pathogens t. gondii, cryptosporidia, and plasmodia. a lead anti-toxoplasma bki, 1294, has been developed to be metabolically stable and orally bioavailable. herein, we demonstrate the oral efficacy of 1294 against toxoplasmosis in vivo.201424687502
alox12 in human toxoplasmosis.alox12 is a gene encoding arachidonate 12-lipoxygenase (12-lox), a member of a nonheme lipoxygenase family of dioxygenases. alox12 catalyzes the addition of oxygen to arachidonic acid, producing 12-hydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic acid (12-hpete), which can be reduced to the eicosanoid 12-hete (12-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid). 12-hete acts in diverse cellular processes, including catecholamine synthesis, vasoconstriction, neuronal function, and inflammation. consistent with effects on these fundamen ...201424686056
comparative efficacy of a multi-epitope dna vaccine via intranasal, peroral, and intramuscular delivery against lethal toxoplasma gondii infection in mice.toxoplasmosis is an important zoonosis, being a cause of congenital disease and abortion in animals and humans. dna vaccination as a promising vaccine remains a challenge for an improved delivery system.201424685150
characterization of tgpuf1, a member of the puf family rna-binding proteins from toxoplasma gondii.puf proteins act as translational regulators and affect many cellular processes in a wide range of eukaryotic organisms. although puf proteins have been well characterized in many model systems, little is known about the structural and functional characteristics of puf proteins in the parasite toxoplasma gondii.201424685055
first report of genotyping of toxoplasma gondii in free-living microtus fortis in northeastern china.toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular protozoan parasite which imperils the health of almost all warm-blooded animals, including humans. the objective of this study was to determine genetic characterization of t. gondii in free-living microtus fortis (reed vole) in jilin province, northeastern china. a total of 104 dna samples, 74 from gongzhuling and 30 from baicheng, were extracted from lung tissues of m. fortis , and 56 (53.8%) of them were positive for t. gondii by semi-nested polymerase cha ...201424684624
the first report of toxoplasma gondii antibodies in free-living european bison (bison bonasus bonasus linnaeus).toxoplasma gondii nicolle et manceaux, 1908 is an apicomplexan parasite with a worldwide distribution. it is of great medical and veterinary importance because it may cause abortion or congenital disease in its intermediate hosts, including man. the european bison, the largest herbivorous animal in europe, is a species that has been saved from extinction. twenty-four of 95 examined sera of the european bison (bison bonasus bonasus) from the białowieza forest, poland collected from 2008 to 2011 w ...201424684049
seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii infection in sows in hunan province, china.toxoplasma gondii infections are prevalent in animals and humans worldwide. although the prevalence of t. gondii has been reported in many animals in china, little is known of t. gondii infection in sows. antibodies to t. gondii in sows in hunan province, subtropical china, were examined using indirect hemagglutination test (ihat). overall, 31.3% (373/1191) of the examined sows were seropositive for t. gondii. among 11 representative regions of hunan province, the seroprevalence ranged from 14.8 ...201424683331
impact of traditional practices on food safety: a case of acute toxoplasmosis related to the consumption of contaminated raw pork sausage in italy.a case of acute toxoplasmosis in an adolescent girl, almost certainly related to the consumption of raw sausage, is described. the girl suffered of fever and weakness and presented a swollen lymph node in the submandibular region. serology analysis was positive for toxoplasma gondii and excluded other infections. further analysis, with avidity test and immunoblot, confirmed the acute toxoplasmosis. she reported that about a month before the appearance of the symptoms, she had eaten a piece of ra ...201424680078
phylogeny and virulence divergency analyses of toxoplasma gondii isolates from china.toxoplasma gondii (t. gondii) is a very successful parasite that can infect virtually all warm blooded animals with a worldwide distribution. it causes a large range of clinical manifestations in both humans and domesticated animals. in addition, marked biological differences exist among t. gondii strains in the pathogenicity and geographical distribution. molecular epidemiology studies primarily based on restriction fragment length polymorphism (rflp) method revealed that three main types are p ...201424678633
high seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii infection in inmates: a case control study in durango city, mexico.the seroprevalence of infection with the parasite toxoplasma gondii and the association with risk factors has not been determined in inmates. through a case-control study, 166 inmates from a state correctional facility in durango city, mexico and 166 age- and gender-matched non-incarcerated subjects were examined for the presence of anti-t. gondii igg and igm antibodies using enzyme-linked immunoassays.201424678408
spinal cord pathology in chronic experimental toxoplasma gondii infection.infection with the protozoan toxoplasma (t.) gondii causes chronic infection of the central nervous system and can lead to life-threatening encephalomyelitis in immunocompromised patients. while infection with t. gondii has long time been considered asymptomatic in immunocompetent hosts, this view is challenged by recent reports describing links between seropositivity and behavioral alterations. however, past and current researches are mainly focused on the brain during toxoplasma encephalitis, ...201424678407
the inner membrane complex sub-compartment proteins critical for replication of the apicomplexan parasite toxoplasma gondii adopt a pleckstrin homology fold.toxoplasma gondii, an apicomplexan parasite prevalent in developed nations, infects up to one-third of the human population. the success of this parasite depends on several unique structures including an inner membrane complex (imc) that lines the interior of the plasma membrane and contains proteins important for gliding motility and replication. of these proteins, the imc sub-compartment proteins (isps) have recently been shown to play a role in asexual t. gondii daughter cell formation, yet t ...201424675080
immune profiling of pregnant toxoplasma-infected us and colombia patients reveals surprising impacts of infection on peripheral blood cytokines.in north america (na) and europe, the majority of toxoplasmosis cases are benign and generally asymptomatic, whereas in south america (sa) toxoplasmosis is associated with much more severe symptoms in adults and congenitally infected children. the reasons for these differences remain unknown; currently, there is little information from patients in either region on how the immune system responds to infection with toxoplasma gondii. here, we report the relative abundance of 51 serum cytokines from ...201424664173
proteomic characterization of the subpellicular cytoskeleton of toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites.toxoplasma, the causative agent of toxoplasmosis in animals and humans, has a subpellicular cytoskeleton that is involved in motility, cell shape and invasion. knowledge of components of the cytoskeleton is necessary to understand the invasion mechanisms as well as for the identification of possible therapeutic targets. to date, most cytoskeletal components of toxoplasma remain unidentified due mainly to the lack of reproducible methods for their isolation. based on the successful isolation of t ...201424662527
congenital toxoplasmosis in a reference center of paraná, southern brazil.this study describes the characteristics of 31 children with congenital toxoplasmosis children admitted to the university hospital of londrina, southern brazil, from 2000 to 2010. in total, 23 (85.2%) of the mothers received prenatal care but only four (13.0%) were treated for toxoplasmosis. birth weight was <2500g in 37.9% of the infants. during the first month of life, physical examination was normal in 34.5%, and for those with clinical signs and symptoms, the main manifestations were hepatom ...201424662141
overproduction of toxoplasma gondii cyclophilin-18 regulates host cell migration and enhances parasite dissemination in a ccr5-independent manner.toxoplasma gondii hijacks host cells to allow it to disseminate throughout a host animal; however, the migratory machinery involved in this process has not been well characterized. we examined the functional role of t. gondii cyclophilin 18 (tgcyp18) in host cell recruitment using recombinant parasites transfected with tgcyp18.201424661782
[seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii in sheep in silopi district by using indirect fluorescent antibody test (ifat)].in the present study, it was aimed to detect seropositivity of t. gondii in sheep raised in the silopi district.201424659692
microrna-132 dysregulation in toxoplasma gondii infection has implications for dopamine signaling pathway.congenital toxoplasmosis and toxoplasmic encephalitis can be associated with severe neuropsychiatric symptoms. however, which host cell processes are regulated and how toxoplasma gondii affects these changes remain unclear. micrornas (mirnas) are small noncoding rna sequences critical to neurodevelopment and adult neuronal processes by coordinating the activity of multiple genes within biological networks. we examined the expression of over 1000 mirnas in human neuroepithelioma cells in response ...201424657774
the effect of artemether on psychotic symptoms and cognitive impairment in first-episode, antipsychotic drug-naive persons with schizophrenia seropositive to toxoplasma gondii.the objective was to evaluate the efficacy and safety of add-on artemether in first-episode, untreated people with schizophrenia, who were toxoplasma gondii seropositive, and explore the change in t. gondii antibodies during treatment. in this eight-week, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial, 100 t. gondii seropositive participants with schizophrenia were randomized to either the artemether or placebo group. participants in the artemether group received 80 mg artemether once per da ...201424656425
continuum approaches to understanding ion and peptide interactions with the membrane.experimental and computational studies have shown that cellular membranes deform to stabilize the inclusion of transmembrane (tm) proteins harboring charge. recent analysis suggests that membrane bending helps to expose charged and polar residues to the aqueous environment and polar head groups. we previously used elasticity theory to identify membrane distortions that minimize the insertion of charged tm peptides into the membrane. here, we extend our work by showing that it also provides a nov ...201424652510
toxoplasma gondii virulence factor rop18 inhibits the host nf-κb pathway by promoting p65 degradation.the obligate intracellular parasite toxoplasma gondii secretes effector molecules into the host cell to modulate host immunity. previous studies have shown that t. gondii could interfere with host nf-κb signaling to promote their survival, but the effectors of type i strains remain unclear. the polymorphic rhoptry protein rop18 is a key serine/threonine kinase that phosphorylates host proteins to modulate acute virulence. our data demonstrated that the n-terminal portion of rop18 is associated w ...201424648522
sero-epidemiological survey for brucellosis, leptospirosis, and toxoplasmosis in free-ranging alouatta caraya and callithrix penicillata from são paulo state, brazil.sera were tested for brucella spp., leptospira spp. and toxoplasma gondii antibodies in 68 free-ranging new world monkeys from a forest fragment of the brazilian cerrado.201424646216
effectiveness of a novel immunogenic nanoparticle platform for toxoplasma peptide vaccine in hla transgenic mice.we created and produced a novel self-assembling nanoparticle platform for delivery of peptide epitopes that induces cd8(+) and cd4(+)t cells that are protective against toxoplasma gondii infection. these self-assembling polypeptide nanoparticles (sapns) are composed of linear peptide (lp) monomers which contain two coiled-coil oligomerization domains, the dense granule 7 (gra720-28 lpqfataat) peptide and a universal cd4(+)t cell epitope (derived from padre). purified lps assemble into nanopartic ...201424736000
avirulent strains of toxoplasma gondii infect macrophages by active invasion from the phagosome.unlike most intracellular pathogens that gain access into host cells through endocytic pathways, toxoplasma gondii initiates infection at the cell surface by active penetration through a moving junction and subsequent formation of a parasitophorous vacuole. here, we describe a noncanonical pathway for t. gondii infection of macrophages, in which parasites are initially internalized through phagocytosis, and then actively invade from within a phagosomal compartment to form a parasitophorous vacuo ...201424733931
toxoplasmosis and pregnancy.question congenital toxoplasmosis is a dangerous fetal infection. why is routine screening for toxoplasma gondii infection during pregnancy not available for most canadians? answer low prevalence of the infection, high cost associated with testing, low sensitivity of screening tests, false-positive test results, and limitations of treatment effectiveness are all cited as reasons for not routinely screening for t gondii infection in canada. currently, screening for the detection of t gondii is on ...201424733322
isolation and molecular characterization of the shikimate dehydrogenase domain from the toxoplasma gondii arom complex.the apicomplexan parasite toxoplasma gondii, the etiologic agent of toxoplasmosis, is estimated to infect 10-80% of different human populations. t. gondii encodes a large pentafunctional polypeptide known as the arom complex which catalyzes five reactions in the shikimate pathway, a metabolic pathway required for the biosynthesis of the aromatic amino acids and a promising target for anti-parasitic agents. here, we present the isolation, cloning and kinetic characterization of the shikimate dehy ...201424731949
novel synergistic protective efficacy of atovaquone and diclazuril on fetal-maternal toxoplasmosis.over 1 billion people globally are estimated to be infected with toxoplasma gondii with severe or unknown consequences and no safe and effective therapies are available against congenital or persistent chronic infection. we propose that atovaquone and diclazuril synergistically protect against fetal-maternal toxoplasmosis.201425210646
pcr-based detection of toxoplasma gondii dna in blood and ocular samples for diagnosis of ocular toxoplasmosis.pcr detection of toxoplasma gondii in blood has been suggested as a possibly efficient method for the diagnosis of ocular toxoplasmosis (ot) and furthermore for genotyping the strain involved in the disease. to assess this hypothesis, we performed pcr with 121 peripheral blood samples from 104 patients showing clinical and/or biological evidence of ocular toxoplasmosis and from 284 (258 patients) controls. we tested 2 different extraction protocols, using either 200 μl (small volume) or 2 ml (la ...201425210066
differentiation of type 1 ilcs from a common progenitor to all helper-like innate lymphoid cell lineages.innate lymphoid cells (ilcs) are a recently recognized group of lymphocytes that have important functions in protecting epithelial barriers against infections and in maintaining organ homeostasis. ilcs have been categorized into three distinct groups, transcriptional circuitry and effector functions of which strikingly resemble the various t helper cell subsets. here, we identify a common, id2-expressing progenitor to all interleukin 7 receptor-expressing, "helper-like" ilc lineages, the chilp. ...201424725403
parasite fate and involvement of infected cells in the induction of cd4+ and cd8+ t cell responses to toxoplasma gondii.during infection with the intracellular parasite toxoplasma gondii, the presentation of parasite-derived antigens to cd4+ and cd8+ t cells is essential for long-term resistance to this pathogen. fundamental questions remain regarding the roles of phagocytosis and active invasion in the events that lead to the processing and presentation of parasite antigens. to understand the most proximal events in this process, an attenuated non-replicating strain of t. gondii (the cpsii strain) was combined w ...201424722202
implications of false positive serology of toxoplasma gondii in a pre-transplant patient.a 21-year-old white male with cystic fibrosis.201424719987
border maneuvers: deployment of mucosal immune defenses against toxoplasma gondii.toxoplasma gondii is a highly prevalent protozoan pathogen that is transmitted through oral ingestion of infectious cysts. as such, mucosal immune defenses in the intestine constitute the first and arguably most important line of resistance against the parasite. the response to infection is now understood to involve complex three-way interactions between toxoplasma, the mucosal immune system, and the host intestinal microbiota. productive outcome of these interactions ensures resolution of infec ...201424717355
new findings: depression, suicide, and toxoplasma gondii infection.this article provides an overview of the evidence of a potential pathophysiological relationship between depression, suicide, and the toxoplasma gondii (t. gondii) infection. it discusses the role of inflammatory processes in depressive illness and the infection theory of psychiatric disease. it also provides guidelines for the screening, diagnosis, and treatment of depression for nurse practitioners (nps).201424715687
serologic evidence of toxoplasma gondii infection in wild birds and mammals from southeast brazil.in this study, serum samples of 53 wild animals from two different states from the southeast region of brazil were analyzed for the presence of anti-toxoplasma gondii antibodies by the modified agglutination test (mat), with a cut-off of 1: 5 for birds and of 1: 25 for mammals. out of the sampled animals, 27 were birds and 26 were mammals, and from this total, 83% (n = 44) were free-living animals. antibodies were found in 13 mammals, from which 11 were free-living animals, and in five birds, al ...201424712186
gra25 is a novel virulence factor of toxoplasma gondii and influences the host immune response.the obligate intracellular parasite toxoplasma gondii is able to infect a broad range of hosts and cell types due, in part, to the diverse arsenal of effectors it secretes into the host cell. here, using genetic crosses between type ii and type iii toxoplasma strains and quantitative trait locus (qtl) mapping of the changes they induce in macrophage gene expression, we identify a novel dense granule protein, gra25. encoded on chromosome ix, gra25 is a phosphoprotein that is secreted outside the ...201424711568
toxoplasma gondii seroprevalence in the united states 2009-2010 and comparison with the past two decades.toxoplasma gondii is a ubiquitous parasite that can cause neurologic and ocular disease. we tested sera from 7,072 people ≥ 6 years of age in the 2009-2010 national health and nutrition examination survey (nhanes) for immunoglobulin g antibodies and compared these results with two previous nhanes studies. the overall t. gondii antibody seroprevalence among persons ≥ 6 years of age in 2009-2010 was 13.2% (95% confidence limit [cl] 11.8%, 14.5%) and age-adjusted seroprevalence was 12.4% (95% cl 11 ...201424710615
lack of association between toxoplasma gondii infection and hypertensive disorders in pregnancy: a case-control study in a northern mexican population.the outcome of pregnancy is often threatened by hypertension disorders, i.e. eclampsia. rate of infection with the protozoan parasite toxoplasma gondii can be as high as 80% in pregnant women, and infection acquired during pregnancy can lead to fetal death. very little is known about a potential association between infections, i.e. those with toxoplasma gondii, and hypertensive disorders during pregnancy.201424708729
detection and genotyping of toxoplasma gondii dna in the blood and milk of naturally infected donkeys (equus asinus).toxoplasma gondii is a worldwide zoonotic protozoan. consumption of raw milk from infected animals is considered a risk factor for acquiring toxoplasmosis in humans. recently, donkey milk has been indicated for therapeutic and nutritional purposes and t. gondii infection is common in donkeys. the purpose of the present paper was to detect the presence of parasite dna in milk of t. gondii positive donkeys.201424708691
recombinant production, purification and crystallization of the toxoplasma gondii coronin wd40 domain.toxoplasma gondii is one of the most widely spread parasitic organisms in the world. together with other apicomplexan parasites, it utilizes a special actin-myosin motor for its cellular movement, called gliding motility. this actin-based process is regulated by a small set of actin-binding proteins, which in apicomplexa comprises only 10-15 proteins, compared with >150 in higher eukaryotes. coronin is a highly conserved regulator of the actin cytoskeleton, but its functions, especially in paras ...201424699753
serological evidence of toxoplasma gondii in hunted wild boar from portugal.toxoplasmosis is an important parasitic zoonosis with a worldwide distribution, being the parasitic disease with the highest occurrence in europe. wild boar has an important role in the epidemiological cycle of toxoplasma gondii as an intermediate host, that can potentially infect humans when the meat is consumed raw or undercooked. the purpose of this work was to determine the presence of antibodies to t. gondii in serum of hunted wild boar. during the hunting season 2011/2012, sera samples wer ...201424698660
evidence for genetic diversity of toxoplasma gondii in selected intermediate hosts in serbia.to contribute to the insight into the worldwide population structure of toxoplasma gondii, we genetically characterized a total of eight strains isolated from intermediate hosts including humans, sheep and pigeons in serbia. although parasite dna was detected in 28.2% (60/213) of the human samples from 162 patients serologically suspected of active toxoplasmosis, as well as in 5/7 seropositive pigeons and in 2/12 seropositive sheep examined, multilocus pcr-rflp genotyping, using sag1, 5'sag2, 3' ...201424698636
autophagy activated by toxoplasma gondii infection in turn facilitates toxoplasma gondii proliferation.autophagy was found to play an antimicrobial or antiparasitic role in the activation of host cells to defend against intracellular pathogens, at the same time, pathogens could compete with host cell and take advantage of autophagy to provide access for its proliferation, but there are few articles for studying the outcome of this competition between host cell and pathogens. therefore, the aim of our study was to investigate the relationship between autophagy activated by toxoplasma gondii (t. go ...201424696274
west greenland harbour porpoises assayed for antibodies against toxoplasma gondii: false positives with the direct agglutination method.we assayed blood/tissue fluid samples from 20 harbour porpoises phocoena phocoena from western greenland coastal waters for antibodies against the protozoan parasite toxoplasma gondii by the direct agglutination test (dat). nine individuals (45%) were interpreted to be seropositive at 1:40 dilution and 4 (20%) were seropositive up to 1:160. samples from these individuals were assayed by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (elisa), and tissue samples of the dat-positive animals were tested by a ...201424695231
four cases of fatal toxoplasmosis in three species of endemic new zealand birds.four cases of fatal toxoplasmosis in three endemic new zealand avian species are reported. between 2009 and 2012, two kereru (hemiphaga novaeseelandiae), one north island brown kiwi (apteryx mantelli), and one north island kaka (nestor meridionalis) were submitted for necropsy examination. on gross postmortem, the kiwi had marked hepatosplenomegaly while the kaka and two kereru had swollen, slightly firm, deep-red lungs. histologically there was extensive hepatocellular necrosis in the liver of ...201424758132
detection of toxoplasma gondii in two southern wooly spider monkeys (brachyteles arachnoides-geoffroy, 1806) from the rio de janeiro primate center, brazil.toxoplasmosis led to the death of two brachyteles arachnoides, an endangered atelid.201424757733
vcam-1/α4β1 integrin interaction is crucial for prompt recruitment of immune t cells into the brain during the early stage of reactivation of chronic infection with toxoplasma gondii to prevent toxoplasmic encephalitis.reactivation of chronic infection with toxoplasma gondii can cause life-threatening toxoplasmic encephalitis in immunocompromised individuals. we examined the role of vcam-1/α4β1 integrin interaction in t cell recruitment to prevent reactivation of the infection in the brain. scid mice were infected and treated with sulfadiazine to establish a chronic infection. vcam-1 and icam-1 were the endothelial adhesion molecules detected on cerebral vessels of the infected scid and wild-type animals. immu ...201424752515
prevalence and genotype of toxoplasma gondii infection in cattle from jilin province, northeastern china.abstract the prevalence and genotype of toxoplasma gondii infection in cattle in jilin province, northeastern china was investigated. a total of 1040 serum samples were collected from eight administrative regions from september to october, 2011, and antibodies to t. gondii were examined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (elisa). the results showed that the overall seroprevalence of t. gondii in cattle was 12.8% (95% confidence interval [ci], 10.8-14.8%), with a higher prevalence of 22.2% (95% ...201424746235
detection and determination of toxoplasma gondii seroprevalence in native korean goats (capra hircus coreanae).toxoplasma gondii is an important zoonotic protozoan pathogen that causes serious illness in immunocompromised humans and infection in animals worldwide. the current study was conducted for detection of t. gondii infection and determination of the seroprevalence of the pathogen in native korean goats (capra hircus coreanae). analysis of a total of 610 sera samples collected from 60 herds between 2009 and 2011 were performed using a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (elisa) kit for det ...201424745853
toxoplasmosis in natural populations of ungulates in france: prevalence and spatiotemporal variations.toxoplasmosis is characterized by a complex epidemiology. the risk of infection for humans depends on their contact with infective oocysts in a contaminated environment and on the amount of tissue cysts located within consumed meat. unfortunately, the prevalence of tissue cysts is largely unknown for game species. although herbivorous game species are a source of infection for humans, the level of infection found in wildlife can also be used to estimate environmental contamination. the aim of th ...201424745359
inflammatory molecular signature associated with infectious agents in psychosis.schizophrenia (sz) is a devastating mental condition with onset in young adulthood. the identification of molecular biomarkers that reflect illness pathology is crucial. recent evidence suggested immune and inflammatory cascades in conjunction with infection may play a role in the pathology. to address this question, we investigated molecular changes in cerebrospinal fluid (csf) from antipsychotic-naïve patients with sz and at risk mental status for psychosis (arms), in comparison with healthy c ...201424743863
the apical complex provides a regulated gateway for secretion of invasion factors in toxoplasma.the apical complex is the definitive cell structure of phylum apicomplexa, and is the focus of the events of host cell penetration and the establishment of intracellular parasitism. despite the importance of this structure, its molecular composition is relatively poorly known and few studies have experimentally tested its functions. we have characterized a novel toxoplasma gondii protein, rng2, that is located at the apical polar ring--the common structural element of apical complexes. during ce ...201424743791
vaccination with toxoplasma lysate antigen and cpg oligodeoxynucleotides: comparison of immune responses in intranasal versus intramuscular administrations.toxoplasma gondii (t. gondii) is one of the most successful intracellular protozoan parasites on earth and highly prevalent in most warm-blooded vertebrates. there are no drugs that target the chronic cyst stage of this infection; therefore, development of an effective vaccine would be an important advance in disease control. oligodeoxynucleotides (odn) which contain immunostimulatory cg motifs (cpg odn) can promote t-helper 1 (th1) responses, an adjuvant activity that is desirable for vaccinati ...201424728558
seroprevalence and risk factors for toxoplasma gondii infection in pigs in southern piauí.this study is aimed to assess the prevalence and risk factors associated with t. gondii infection in pigs. we evaluated 143 pigs, in 10 randomly-chosen farms located in southern piauí. the pig's blood serum was analyzed through elisa in detection of anti-t. gondii antibodies. a seroprevalence of 25.5% was observed in the pigs that reacted against t. gondii antigens. the data from the records demonstrated an association with some factors such as: age, diet, type of management, breed and presence ...201424728369
seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii in cats (felis catus, linnaeus 1758) living in lima, peru.the aim of this study was to determine the frequency of infection by t. gondii in cats, by examining serum and fecal samples from animals attended at veterinary clinics in the metropolitan region of lima, peru. we collected and analyzed 154 cat serum samples and 50 fecal samples, regardless of the age, gender or breed. in parallel with the sample collections, the owners answered an epidemiological questionnaire that investigated the following variables: age group, gender, lifestyle (confined, se ...201424728367
seroprevalence and molecular diagnosis of toxoplasma gondii infection among blood donors in southern iran.toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite which can be transmitted to human through a variety of routes including blood transfusion. this cross sectional study aimed to evaluate the seroprevalence of toxoplasma infection and related epidemiological features among healthy blood donors.201424727522
natural killer cell intrinsic toll-like receptor myd88 signaling contributes to il-12-dependent ifn-γ production by mice during infection with toxoplasma gondii.myeloid differentiation factor 88 (myd88)-dependent il-12 secretion by dendritic cells is critical for natural killer cell-mediated ifn-γ production and innate resistance to toxoplasma gondii. although myd88(-/-) mice challenged with t. gondii have defective il-12 responses and succumb to infection, administration of il-12 to myd88(-/-) mice fails to prevent acute mortality, suggesting that myd88 may mediate signals within natural killer cells important for il-12-dependent ifn-γ production and i ...201424727091
research progress on surface antigen 1 (sag1) of toxoplasma gondii.toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasitic protozoan that has a wide host range and causes a zoonotic parasitosis called toxoplasmosis. this infection causes significant morbidity, costs for care and loss of productivity and suffering. the most effective measures to minimize this parasite's harm to patients are prompt diagnosis and treatment and preventing infection. a parasite surface antigen, sag1, is considered an important antigen for the development of effective diagnostic tes ...201424726014
genetic characterization of toxoplasma gondii from cats in yunnan province, southwestern china.cats are the definitive hosts of toxoplasma gondii. the distribution of genetic diversity of t. gondii in cats is of importance to understand the transmission of this parasite. the objective of this study was to genetically characterize t. gondii isolates from cats in yunnan province, southwestern china.201424725959
latent toxoplasma gondii infection leads to improved action control.the parasite toxoplasma gondii has been found to manipulate the behavior of its secondary hosts to increase its own dissemination which is commonly believed to be to the detriment of the host (manipulation hypothesis). the manipulation correlates with an up-regulation of dopaminergic neurotransmission. in humans, different pathologies have been associated with t. gondii infections but most latently infected humans do not seem to display overt impairments. since a dopamine plus does not necessari ...201424231154
incidence and prevalence of toxoplasma gondii infection in women in france, 1980-2020: model-based estimation.toxoplasmosis is a worldwide zoonosis due to toxoplasma gondii, a ubiquitous protozoan parasite of warm-blooded animals including humans. in pregnant women, primary infection can cause congenital toxoplasmosis resulting in severe malformations in the newborn. since 1978, public health authorities in france have implemented a congenital toxoplasmosis prevention programme, including monthly serological screening of all seronegative pregnant women, and treatment in case of seroconversion. however, ...201424229712
development of an indirect immunofluorescence technique for the diagnosis of toxoplasmosis in bottlenose dolphins.the diagnosis of toxoplasmosis is often complicated by the lack of specific clinical symptoms or postmortem features, in humans and other animals. the only diagnostic test described so far for the serological diagnosis of toxoplasma gondii in marine mammals is the modified agglutination test (dubey et al., am j vet res 48(8):1239-1243, 1987). the development of more sensible and specific immunological techniques requires specific antibodies, which are currently unavailable in the scientific mark ...201424221890
evidence of toxoplasma gondii exposure in boer goat herds in missouri, usa.limited data currently exist on the prevalence of toxoplasma infections in goats in the usa. the objective of this pilot investigation was to determine the prevalence of toxoplasma gondii antibodies in boer goats raised in missouri. sera collected from 367 boer goats in 24 herds were tested using a commercial latex agglutination assay. evidence of t. gondii antibodies was present in 25 of the 367 goats, with titres of 1 : 32 in 4, 1 : 64 in 11, 1 : 128 in 5, 1 : 256 in 3 and 1 : 1024 in 2. estim ...201424256548
patterns of toxoplasma gondii cyst distribution in the forebrain associate with individual variation in predator odor avoidance and anxiety-related behavior in male long-evans rats.toxoplasma gondii (t. gondii) is one of the world's most successful brain parasites. t. gondii engages in parasite manipulation of host behavior and infection has been epidemiologically linked to numerous psychiatric disorders. mechanisms by which t. gondii alters host behavior are not well understood, but neuroanatomical cyst presence and the localized host immune response to cysts are potential candidates. the aim of these studies was to test the hypothesis that t. gondii manipulation of speci ...201424269877
pyrimethamine-loaded lipid-core nanocapsules to improve drug efficacy for the treatment of toxoplasmosis.we propose an innovative product based on the nanoencapsulation of pyrimethamine (pyr), aiming an improvement of drug efficacy for the treatment of toxoplasmosis. the in vitro cytotoxicity effect of encapsulated pyr and pyr-colloidal suspension was concomitantly evaluated against llc-mk2 lineage and mouse peritoneal macrophage showing that the cells had similar tolerance for both pyr encapsulated or in the aqueous suspension. cf1 mice acutely infected with tachyzoites of toxoplasma gondii rh str ...201424292545
brain is the predilection site of toxoplasma gondii in experimentally inoculated pigs as revealed by magnetic capture and real-time pcr.pigs represent an important source of food in many countries, and undercooked pork containing tissue cysts is one of the most common sources of toxoplasma gondii infection for humans. a magnetic capture method for the isolation of t. gondii dna and quantitative real-time pcr targeting the 529 bp toxo repeat element were used to estimate the parasite burden in different tissues of pigs experimentally infected with t. gondii oocysts, and to determine the predilection sites of t. gondii in this hos ...201424290640
efficacy of magnetic capture in comparison with conventional dna isolation in a survey of toxoplasma gondii in wild house mice.toxoplasma gondii is a zoonotic parasite with a world-wide distribution. house mice (mus musculus) play an important role as a reservoir host in the parasite life cycle. however, their detection in mouse brain is limited because the host potentially harbours only a few tissue cysts. in order to improve the diagnosis, we tested a novel protocol for t. gondii detection in mice and compared this technique to a standard pcr-based protocol using a commercial kit for dna isolation. efficacy of magneti ...201424280460
synthesis and anti-toxoplasmosis activity of 4-arylquinoline-2-carboxylate derivatives.a one-step synthesis of 4-arylquinoline-2-carboxylates along with their antiprotozoal activity against the pathogenic parasite toxoplasma gondii is reported. mechanistic insights into the role of lewis acid (silver triflate) versus bronsted acid (triflic acid) catalysis are revealed clarifying aspects of the mechanism of the quinoline synthesis.201424276426
toxoplasma gondii impairs memory in infected seniors.almost 30% of humans present a toxoplasma gondii positive antibody status and its prevalence increases with age. the central nervous system is the main target. however, little is known about the influence of asymptomatic i.e. latent toxoplasmosis on cognitive functions in humans. to investigate neurocognitive dysfunctions in asymptomatic older adults with t. gondii positive antibody status a double-blinded neuropsychological study was conducted. the participants were classified from a population ...201424321215
latent toxoplasma gondii infection leads to deficits in goal-directed behavior in healthy elderly.goal-directed behavior is well-known to show declines in elderly individuals, possibly because of alterations in dopaminergic neural transmission. the dopaminergic system is modulated by a number of other different factors. one of these factors, which has attracted a considerable amount of interest in neurobiology, but has only rarely been examined with respect to its possible modulatory role for cognitive functions in elderly individuals, is latent toxoplasma gondii (t. gondii) infection. laten ...201424315729
attempted detection of toxoplasma gondii oocysts in environmental waters using a simple approach to evaluate the potential for waterborne transmission in the galápagos islands, ecuador.toxoplasmosis is a health concern for wildlife and humans, particularly in island ecosystems. in the galápagos islands, exposure to toxoplasma gondii has been found in marine avifauna on islands with and without domestic cats. to evaluate potential waterborne transmission of t. gondii, we attempted to use filtration and epifluorescent microscopy to detect autofluorescent t. gondii oocysts in fresh and estuarine surface water samples. t. gondii oocyst-like structures were microscopically visualiz ...201424306552
new insights into molecular recognition of 1,1-bisphosphonic acids by farnesyl diphosphate synthase.as part of our project pointed at the search of new antiparasitic agents against american trypanosomiasis (chagas disease) and toxoplasmosis a series of 2-alkylaminoethyl-1-hydroxy-1,1-bisphosphonic acids has been designed, synthesized and biologically evaluated against the etiologic agents of these parasitic diseases, trypanosoma cruzi and toxoplasma gondii, respectively, and also towards their target enzymes, t. cruzi and t. gondii farnesyl pyrophosphate synthase (fpps), respectively. surprisi ...201424300918
the involvement of heparin in retinal infection by toxoplasma gondii in a chick model revealed an ontogenetic-dependent pattern.this work aimed to test the influence of heparin on the susceptibility of retinal cells to toxoplasma gondii infection. primary cultures of retinas from chick embryos of 8 (e8) or 11 (e11) days and fibroblasts (control) were used. to determine the influence of heparin in t. gondii infection, tachyzoites of the rh strain were treated with heparin before addition in the culture. a monoclonal anti-heparin antibody was used to analyze the heparin distribution on fibroblast and retinal cell surfaces. ...201424333755
occurrence of toxoplasma gondii antibodies in birds from the atlantic forest, state of são paulo, brazil.avian are considered important intermediate hosts for toxoplasma gondii because they serve as source of infection for felidae, which shed environmentally resistant oocysts after ingesting infected tissues. little is known of epidemiology of toxoplasmosis in wild birds. in the present study, antibodies to t. gondii were determined in 202 wild birds of 37 species captured in seven small areas of the atlantic forest, in the state of são paulo, brazil, and provided information on possible associated ...201424332961
genotyping toxoplasma gondii from wildlife in pennsylvania and identification of natural recombinants virulent to mice.recent studies indicated the predominance of toxoplasma gondii haplogroup 12 in wildlife in the usa. however, still little is known of the genetic diversity of this parasite circulating in wildlife. in the present study, we tested coyotes (canis latrans), red foxes (vulpes vulpes), white-tailed deer (odocoileus virginianus), and geese (branta canadensis) from the state of pennsylvania for t. gondii infection. antibodies to t. gondii were found in 160 of 367 animals, including 92 (34.5%) of 266 c ...201424332401
detection of toxoplasma gondii in shellfish and fish in parts of china.in this study, a total of 3432 aquatic animals covering eight species were tested by specific polymerase chain reaction (pcr) assays to investigate the presence of toxoplasma gondii, in china. the results showed that, out of 618 procambarus clarkii samples collected from the different areas in southeast china, four samples from jiangxi province were positive. of 456 hypophthalmichthys molitrix samples, one sample from jiangsu province was positive. in addition, there was only one positive sample ...201424331298
the association between foodborne and orofecal pathogens and allergic sensitisation -- europrevall study.an inverse association between markers of exposure to foodborne and orofecal pathogens and allergic sensitization has been reported. however, the findings of epidemiological studies have not been consistent. this study investigated the relationship between antibodies to hepatitis a, toxoplasma gondii and salmonella and allergic sensitization to food and aeroallergens in children from different geographical areas.201424325443
pathogenicity of two toxoplasma gondii strains in chickens of different ages infected via intraperitoneal injection.this experiment was conducted to investigate the pathogenicity of toxoplasma gondii in broilers of different ages. chickens at the ages of 7, 14, 21 and 28 days were injected intraperitoneally with 1 × 10(8) tachyzoites of rh and js strains of t. gondii, respectively. the clinical signs and death of chickens were recorded daily post inoculation. serum samples were collected at days 0, 4, 11, 18, 25, 32, 39, 46 and 53 post infection to screen t. gondii circulating antigens (tca) and t. gondii cir ...201424325275
comparative proteomic analysis of different toxoplasma gondii genotypes by two-dimensional fluorescence difference gel electrophoresis combined with mass spectrometry.toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite infecting almost all warm-blooded animals and humans. there are three infective stages of t. gondii: the tachyzoites, the bradyzoites, and the oocysts. the tachyzoite is a rapidly multiplying stage and the main pathogenic factor. in north america and europe, t. gondii is consisted of four major clonal lineages (namely types i, ii, iii, and type 12). in this study, we explored the proteomic profiles of different genotypes (type i-rh strain, type ii-pru st ...201424166805
pd-1 modulates steady-state and infection-induced il-10 production in vivo.programmed death-1 (pd-1) plays an important role in mediating immune tolerance through mechanisms that remain unclear. herein, we investigated whether pd-1 prevents excessive host tissue damage during infection with the protozoan parasite, toxoplasma gondii. surprisingly, our results demonstrate that pd-1-deficient mice have increased susceptibility to t. gondii, with increased parasite cyst counts along with reduced type-1 cytokine responses (il-12 and ifn-γ). pd-1⁻/⁻ dcs showed no cell intrin ...201424165808
toxoplasma gondii infection in the peritoneal macrophages of rats treated with glucocorticoids.it is well known that toxoplasmosis can be life threatening to immunocompromised individuals such as aids and organ transplantation patients. glucocorticoids (gcs) are widely used in the clinic for the treatment of autoimmune diseases and organ transplantation resulting in acute toxoplasmosis in these patients. however, the interaction and mechanism between the development of acute toxoplasmosis and gc therapy are still unknown. the aims of this study were to investigate the infection of toxopla ...201424248630
real-time imaging of toxoplasma-infected human monocytes under fluidic shear stress reveals rapid translocation of intracellular parasites across endothelial barriers.peripheral blood monocytes are actively infected by toxoplasma gondii and can function as 'trojan horses' for parasite spread in the bloodstream. using dynamic live-cell imaging, we visualized the transendothelial migration (tem) of t. gondii-infected primary human monocytes during the initial minutes following contact with human endothelium. on average, infected and uninfected monocytes required only 9.8 and 4.1 min, respectively, to complete tem. infection increased monocyte crawling distances ...201424245749
acute fatal toxoplasmosis in a great spotted woodpecker (dendrocopos major).a juvenile male great spotted woodpecker (dendrocopos major), found dead at a bird feeding station in central norway in september 2011, was examined postmortem. its lungs were consolidated and edematous, and its spleen was enlarged. the main histopathologic diagnoses included acute protozoal necrotizing interstitial pneumonia, splenitis, and hepatitis. toxoplasma gondii parasites were identified with immunohistochemistry in all examined organs: lung, heart, liver, kidney, and spleen. direct mult ...201424171576
tightly regulated migratory subversion of immune cells promotes the dissemination of toxoplasma gondii.while the spread of toxoplasma gondii within the infected human or animal host is associated with pathology, the pathways of dissemination have remained enigmatic. from the time point of entry into the gut, to the quiescent chronic infection in the central nervous system, toxoplasma is detected and surveyed by immune cells that populate the tissues, for example dendritic cells. paradoxically, this protective migratory function of leukocytes appears to be targeted by toxoplasma to mediate its dis ...201424184911
exploitation of auxotrophies and metabolic defects in toxoplasma as therapeutic approaches.like any obligate intracellular pathogen, the parasite toxoplasma gondii has lost its capacity for living independently of another organism. toxoplasma lacks many genes that encode for entire metabolic pathways and has, in return, expanded genes that promote nutrient scavenging to meet its basic metabolic requirements. although sequestrated in a parasitophorous vacuole and thus insulated from the nutrient-rich host cytosol and organelles by a membrane, t. gondii has evolved efficient strategies ...201424184910
toxoplasma gondii within skeletal muscle cells: a critical interplay for food-borne parasite transmission.toxoplasma gondii infects virtually any nucleated cell type of warm-blooded animals and humans including skeletal muscle cells (skmcs). infection of skmcs by t. gondii, differentiation from the highly replicative tachyzoites to dormant bradyzoites and tissue cyst formation are crucial for parasite persistence in muscle tissue. these processes are also prerequisites for one of the major routes of transmission to humans via undercooked or cured meat products. evidence obtained in vitro and in vivo ...201424184158
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