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effects of selected indonesian plant extracts on e. cuniculi infection in vivo.the present study was conducted to evaluate the methanolic extracts from several plant leaves widely used in traditional medicine to cure digestive tract disorders and in the self-medication of wild animals such as non-human primates, namely archidendron fagifolium, diospyros sumatrana, shorea sumatrana, and piper betle leaves, with regard to their antimicrosporidial activity against encephalitozoon cuniculi in immunocompetent balb/c mice determined using molecular detection of microsporidial dn ...201728779899
dynamics of parasitophorous vacuoles formed by the microsporidian pathogen encephalitozoon cuniculi.it has been a long-standing debate if sexual development occurs in the microsporidian lineages. previous studies, including morphological observations, ploidy analysis, and the presence of a sex-related locus, provided evidence of possible extant of sexual development. this study presents another line of evidence by monitoring the parasitophorous vacuoles (pvs) formed by encephalitozoon cuniculi. time lapse observations of infection cycles of e. cuniculi revealed that multiple pvs can be formed ...201728754285
application of mass spectrometry to elucidate the pathophysiology of encephalitozoon cuniculi infection in rabbits.encephalitozoon cuniculi is a microsporidian species which can induce subclinical to serious disease in mammals including rabbits, a definitive natural host. the pathophysiology of infection has not been comprehensively elucidated. in this exploratory study, we utilized two mass spectrometry approaches: first, the analysis of the humoral response by profiling the microsporidian antigens as revealed by western blot screening, and second, implementing the itraq®-labeling protocol to focus on the c ...201728723944
serology and protein electrophoresis for evidence of exposure to 12 mink pathogens in free-ranging american mink (neovison vison) in argentina.basic pathologic characteristics for farmed minks were previously reported worldwide. however, its status in the wild has not been studied in detail.201728635524
more than a rabbit's tale - encephalitozoon spp. in wild mammals and birds.within the microsporidian genus encephalitozoon, three species, encephalitozoon cuniculi, encephalitozoon hellem and encephalitozoon intestinalis have been described. several orders of the class aves (passeriformes, psittaciformes, apodiformes, ciconiiformis, gruiformes, columbiformes, suliformes, podicipediformes, anseriformes, struthioniformes, falconiformes) and of the class mammalia (rodentia, lagomorpha, primates, artyodactyla, soricomorpha, chiroptera, carnivora) can become infected. espec ...201628560162
comparative analysis of the proteins with tandem repeats from 8 microsporidia and characterization of a novel endospore wall protein colocalizing with polar tube from nosema bombycis.as a common feature of eukaryotic proteins, tandem amino acid repeat has been studied extensively in both animal and plant proteins. here, a comparative analysis focusing on the proteins having tandem repeats was conducted in 8 microsporidia, including four mammal-infecting microsporidia (encephalitozoon cuniculi, encephalitozoon intestinalis, encephalitozoon hellem and encephalitozoon bieneusi) and four insect-infecting microsporidia (nosema apis, nosema ceranae, vavraia culicis and nosema bomb ...201728321967
ligand co-crystallization of aminoacyl-trna synthetases from infectious disease organisms.aminoacyl-trna synthetases (aarss) charge trnas with their cognate amino acid, an essential precursor step to loading of charged trnas onto the ribosome and addition of the amino acid to the growing polypeptide chain during protein synthesis. because of this important biological function, aminoacyl-trna synthetases have been the focus of anti-infective drug development efforts and two aars inhibitors have been approved as drugs. several researchers in the scientific community requested aminoacyl ...201728303005
three cases of neurologic syndrome caused by donor-derived microsporidiosis.in april 2014, a kidney transplant recipient in the united states experienced headache, diplopia, and confusion, followed by neurologic decline and death. an investigation to evaluate the possibility of donor-derived infection determined that 3 patients had received 4 organs (kidney, liver, heart/kidney) from the same donor. the liver recipient experienced tremor and gait instability; the heart/kidney and contralateral kidney recipients were hospitalized with encephalitis. none experienced gastr ...201728220747
histochemical study of encephalitozoon cuniculi spores in the kidneys of naturally infected new zealand rabbits.encephalitozoon cuniculi is an important microsporidian pathogen that is considered an emergent, zoonotic, and opportunistic. it infects both domestic and laboratory rabbits, generating severe chronic interstitial and granulomatous nephritis with fibrosis and granulomatous encephalitis. encephalitozoonosis is diagnosed in paraffin-embedded sections by examining the spores in the host tissues. the spores are difficult to observe when the samples are stained with hematoxylin and eosin (h&e), parti ...201728205456
encephalitozoon cuniculi in rabbits: serological screening and histopathological findings.serological prevalence of e. cuniculi infection was assessed in 183 rabbits from central italy. in seropositive deceased rabbits, histopathological lesions were also evaluated. sera from 118 rabbits from 6 intensive farms, 10 rabbits from 6 family farms, 16 rabbits from a zoo, 30 rabbits from 5 research laboratories and 9 pet rabbits from 9 different owners, were tested by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. data were statistically analysed. tissue samples from brain and kidney of 10 deceased ...201728131379
application of western blot analysis for the diagnosis of encephalitozoon cuniculi infection in rabbits: example of a quantitative approach.diagnosis of encephalitozoon cuniculi infection in rabbits remains a major veterinary issue. elisa or immunofluorescence assays are the current reference standards of serological tests. however, these conventional techniques suffer from a lack of accuracy for distinguishing active from past infections, as a positive serostatus is common in clinically normal rabbits. in this study, we assessed the diagnostic performance of western blot (wb) to detect both anti-e. cuniculi immunoglobulin g (igg) a ...201727966020
prevention and treatment of encephalitozoon cuniculi infection in immunosuppressed rabbits with fenbendazole.this study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of oral administration of fenbendazole (20 mg/kg body weight) prior to and after experimental infection of immunosuppressed rabbits with encephalitozoon cuniculi. a total of thirty rabbits were divided into five groups: nn (non-immunosuppressed; non-infected), in (immunosuppressed; non-infected), ipi (immunosuppressed; protected-infected), iti (immunosuppressed; treated-infected), and ii (immunosuppressed; infected) groups. fenbendazole was admin ...201627822234
b-1 cell decreases susceptibility to encephalitozoonosis in mice.encephalitozoon cuniculi is an opportunist intracellular pathogen of mammals. the adaptive immune response is essential to eliminate e. cuniculi, but evidence is mounting that the response initiated by the innate immune response may ultimately define whether or not the parasite can survive. b-1 cells may act as antigen-presenting cells or differentiate into phagocytes, playing different roles in many infection models. however, the role of these cells in the dynamics of encephalitozoon sp. infect ...201727707513
the genome of nosema sp. isolate ynpr: a comparative analysis of genome evolution within the nosema/vairimorpha clade.the microsporidian parasite designated here as nosema sp. isolate ynpr was isolated from the cabbage butterfly pieris rapae collected in honghe prefecture, yunnan province, china. the genome was sequenced by illumina sequencing and compared to those of two related members of the nosema/vairimorpha clade, nosema ceranae and nosema apis. based upon assembly statistics, the nosema sp. ynpr genome is 3.36 x 106bp with a g+c content of 23.18% and 2,075 protein coding sequences. an "accctt" motif is p ...201627598992
serological survey of encephalitozoon cuniculi infection in cats in japan.antibodies to encephalitozoon cuniculi (e. cuniculi) were examined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using e. cuniculi ptp2 recombinant protein from serum samples that had been collected from a total of 295 cats in japan. of these samples, 6.1% (18/295) had antibodies against e. cuniculi, which included 6.3% (6/96) of the male cats and 6.0% (12/199) of the female cats. the incidence was slightly higher in feral cats (8.3%, 11/132) compared to domesticated cats (4.3%, 7/163). this suggests the ...201627320966
evaluation of pulmonary microsporidiosis in iatrogenically immunosuppressed patients.microsporidia spp. are ubiquitous and infect a wide variety of intervertebrates and vertebrates, including humans. pulmonary microsporidiosis, characterized by nonspecific symptoms like fever, cough and dyspnea, is often overlooked in the differential diagnosis of pulmonary infections in immunsupressed patients. in this study, we aimed to determine the prevalence of pulmonary microsporidiosis in iatrogenically immunosuppressed patients and to evaluate the patient characteristics.201627266280
serological survey on some pathogens in wild brown hares (lepus europaeus) in central italy.to determine the exposure of wild brown hares [lepus europaeus (l. europaeus), pallas] to anaplasma phagocytophilum (a. phagocytophilum), borrelia burgdorferi (b. burgdorferi) sensu lato, encephalitozoon cuniculi (e. cuniculi), leishmania sp., neospora caninum (n. caninum) and toxoplasma gondii (t. gondii).201627261855
multiyear survey of coccidia, cryptosporidia, microsporidia, histomona, and hematozoa in wild quail in the rolling plains ecoregion of texas and oklahoma, usa.we developed nested pcr protocols and performed a multiyear survey on the prevalence of several protozoan parasites in wild northern bobwhite (colinus virginianus) and scaled quail (callipepla squamata) in the rolling plains ecoregion of texas and oklahoma (i.e. fecal pellets, bird intestines and blood smears collected between 2010 and 2013). coccidia, cryptosporidia, and microsporidia were detected in 46.2%, 11.7%, and 44.0% of the samples (n = 687), whereas histomona and hematozoa were undetec ...201727222431
interferon γ and interleukin 10 responses in immunocompetent and immunosuppressed new zealand white rabbits naturally infected with encephalitozoon cuniculi.levels of interferon (ifn)-γ and interleukin (il)-10 were measured in the serum of immunocompetent and immunosuppressed new zealand white rabbits naturally infected with encephalitozoon cuniculi. ifn-γ levels were elevated in infected rabbits, and a synergic effect was observed in animals treated with the immunosuppressive agent dexamethasone (dex). the role of il-10 in infected rabbits remains unclear, as il-10 levels were similar to those of negative controls. dex appeared to exhibit a proinfl ...201627156850
prevalence of cryptosporidium spp., enterocytozoon bieneusi, encephalitozoon spp. and giardia intestinalis in wild, semi-wild and captive orangutans (pongo abelii and pongo pygmaeus) on sumatra and borneo, indonesia.orangutans are critically endangered primarily due to loss and fragmentation of their natural habitat. this could bring them into closer contact with humans and increase the risk of zoonotic pathogen transmission.201627031241
encephalitozoon cuniculi: grading the histological lesions in brain, kidney, and liver during primoinfection outbreak in rabbits.this is the first confirmed report of encephalitozoon cuniculi (e. cuniculi) in farm meat rabbits located in northern mexico. eighty young rabbits exhibited clinical signs of this zoonotic emerging disease, like torticollis, ataxia, paresis, circling, and rolling. samples of brain, kidney, and liver were examined for histology lesions. for the first time the lesions caused by e. cuniculi were graded according to their severity (i, ii, and iii) and the size of the granulomas (types a, b, and c). ...201627022485
the genome of an encephalitozoon cuniculi type iii strain reveals insights into the genetic diversity and mode of reproduction of a ubiquitous vertebrate pathogen.encephalitozoon cuniculi is a model microsporidian species with a mononucleate nucleus and a genome that has been extensively studied. to date, analyses of genome diversity have revealed the existence of four genotypes in e. cuniculi (eci, ii, iii and iv). genome sequences are available for eci, ii and iii, and are all very divergent, possibly diploid and genetically homogeneous. the mechanisms that cause low genetic diversity in e. cuniculi (for example, selfing, inbreeding or a combination of ...201626837273
prevalence and molecular characteristics of urinary and intestinal microsporidia infections in renal transplant recipients.transplant recipients have been identified as a new risk group for microsporidia infection. we characterize for the first time the prevalence of microsporidia in intestinal and urinary tracts of renal transplant recipients. molecular examination of 86 patients showed that 25.5% of them were infected; 86% were confirmed to have pathogens in their urine and 45.5% in stool. among positive patients, 32% had microsporidia confirmed in both urine and stool. genotyping revealed encephalitozoon cuniculi ...201626827672
encephalitozoon cuniculi infection among immunocompromised and immunocompetent humans in egypt.encephalitozoon cuniculi infects a wide range of homoeothermic animals, including man. complications due to this microsporidian have been reported only in immunocompromised patients. reports on e. cuniculi in immunocompetent humans are lacking, most probably, because it is not linked to any clinical manifestations in such hosts. the present work was carried out with the aim of studying, for the first time in egypt, the prevalence of e. cuniculi infection of urinary tract among non-hiv immunocomp ...201726811722
seroprevalence of encephalitozoon cuniculi and toxoplasma gondii in domestic rabbits (oryctolagus cuniculus) in china.the breeding of domestic rabbits (oryctolagus cuniculus) for human consumption has a long tradition in china. infections that can affect the production of meat or even be transmitted from animals to humans are important to monitor, especially for public health reasons as well as for their impact on animal health. thus, a total of 1,132 domestic rabbit sera from 4 regions in china were collected for serological screening for encephalitozoon cuniculi and for toxoplasma gondii by elisa and modified ...201526797446
subtelomere organization in the genome of the microsporidian encephalitozoon cuniculi: patterns of repeated sequences and physicochemical signatures.the microsporidian encephalitozoon cuniculi is an obligate intracellular eukaryotic pathogen with a small nuclear genome (2.9 mbp) consisting of 11 chromosomes. although each chromosome end is known to contain a single rdna unit, the incomplete assembly of subtelomeric regions following sequencing of the genome identified only 3 of the 22 expected rdna units. while chromosome end assembly remains a difficult process in most eukaryotic genomes, it is of significant importance for pathogens becaus ...201626744270
prevalence of antibodies to encephalitozoon cuniculi in european hares (lepus europaeus).encephalitozoon cuniculi is an obligate intracellular parasite infecting especially domestic rabbits; however, spontaneous infections have been documented in other mammalian species such as dogs, cats, rabbits, horses, cows and sheep all over the world. encephalitozoonosis is a chronic and latent disease leading to renal failure, encephalitis, disorders of brain and urinary tract, and may lead to death. there are limited reports on encephalitozoonosis in wildlife, which is why the aim of this st ...201526706975
meningoencephalitis in cats in austria: a study of infectious causes, including encephalitozoon cuniculi.objectives despite comprehensive diagnostics, the aetiology of meningoencephalitis (me) in cats often remains undetermined. as a result of recently published surveys, encephalitozoon cuniculi has gained growing importance in cats not only with ocular disorders, but also with central nervous system disease. therefore, it was hypothesised that e cuniculi may be an underestimated pathogen in the development of feline non-suppurative and/or granulomatous me. methods as a first step, histopathologica ...201726662038
encephalitozoon cuniculi in raw cow's milk remains infectious after pasteurization.this study describes the prevalence of encephalitozoon cuniculi in raw cow's milk and evaluates the effect of different milk pasteurization treatments on e. cuniculi infectivity for severe combined immunodeficient (scid) mice. using a nested polymerase chain reaction approach, 1 of 50 milking cows was found to repeatedly shed e. cuniculi in its feces and milk. under experimental conditions, e. cuniculi spores in milk remained infective for scid mice following pasteurization treatments at 72 °c f ...201626650923
molecular detection and identification of zoonotic microsporidia spore in fecal samples of some animals with close-contact to human.microsporidia species are obligatory intracellular agents that can infect all major animal groups including mammals, birds, fishes and insects. whereas worldwide human infection reports are increasing, the cognition of sources of infection particularly zoonotic transmission could be helpful. we aimed to detect zoonotic microsporidia spore in fecal samples from some animals with close - contact to human.201726622293
the prediction and validation of small cdss expand the gene repertoire of the smallest known eukaryotic genomes.the proper prediction of the gene catalogue of an organism is essential to obtain a representative snapshot of its overall lifestyle, especially when it is not amenable to culturing. microsporidia are obligate intracellular, sometimes hard to culture, eukaryotic parasites known to infect members of every animal phylum. to date, sequencing and annotation of microsporidian genomes have revealed a poor gene complement with highly reduced gene sizes. in the present paper, we investigated whether suc ...201526421846
interleukin-12-producing cd103+ cd11b- cd8+ dendritic cells are responsible for eliciting gut intraepithelial lymphocyte response against encephalitozoon cuniculi.microsporidia, which belong to the kingdom fungi, are important opportunistic pathogens in hiv-infected populations and organ transplant recipients that are often associated with a broad range of symptoms, such as diarrhea, nephritis, and encephalitis. natural infection occurs via the oral route, and as a consequence, gut immunity plays an important role in restricting the dissemination of these pathogens. studies from our laboratory have reported that the pathogens induce a rapid intraepithelia ...201526416905
encephalitozoon cuniculi causes focal anterior cataract and uveitis in dogs.three mongrel dogs, aged 10 months (case 1), 14 months (case 2) and 7.5 years (case 3), were presented because of ophthalmologic disorders of 4 months, 6 months and 7 years duration, respectively. all three dogs were offspring of stray dogs from hungary and serbia and had positive serum antibody titres against encephalitozoon (e.) cuniculi. the two young dogs showed unilateral, the older dog bilateral chronic anterior uveitis with posterior synechia and focal anterior cortical cataract. the fund ...201526355191
antimicrosporidian activity of sulphated polysaccharides from algae and their potential to control honeybee nosemosis.nosemosis is one of the most common and widespread diseases of adult honeybees. the causative agents, nosema apis and nosema ceranae, belong to microsporidia some obligate intracellular eukaryotic parasites. in this study, 10 sulphated polysaccharides from algae were evaluated for their antimicrosporidian activity. they were first shown to inhibit the in vitro growth of the mammal microsporidian model, encephalitozoon cuniculi. the most efficient polysaccharides were then tested for their abilit ...201526344274
fast technology analysis enables identification of species and genotypes of latent microsporidia infections in healthy native cameroonians.several enteric microsporidia species have been detected in humans and other vertebrates and their identifications at the genotype level are currently being elucidated. as advanced methods, reagents, and disposal kits for detecting and identifying pathogens become commercially available, it is important to test them in settings other than in laboratories with "state-of-the-art" equipment and well-trained staff members. in the present study, we sought to detect microsporidia dna preserved and ext ...201726303263
structural basis for recognition and remodeling of the tbp:dna:nc2 complex by mot1.swi2/snf2 atpases remodel substrates such as nucleosomes and transcription complexes to control a wide range of dna-associated processes, but detailed structural information on the atp-dependent remodeling reactions is largely absent. the single subunit remodeler mot1 (modifier of transcription 1) dissociates tata box-binding protein (tbp):dna complexes, offering a useful system to address the structural mechanisms of swi2/snf2 atpases. here, we report the crystal structure of the n-terminal dom ...201526258880
seroprevalence of encephalitozoon cuniculi in humans and rabbits in china.encephalitozoon cuniculi is a microsporidian parasite commonly found in rabbits that can infect humans, causing encephalitozoonosis. our objective in this study was to evaluate the seroprevalence of this parasite in rabbits and humans in china.201726246829
the first identification of encephalitozoon cuniculi infection in an animal care worker in turkey.as a zoonotic pathogen, encephalitozoon cuniculi is a cause of serious disease in animals and people. the present study was to evaluate the health status examination of this seropositive animal care worker in our previous study.201726246827
serological screening of selected microsporidia in hpv-positive women.microsporidiosis is considered to be emerging opportunistic infection in immunocompromised individuals worldwide. the aim of this study was to identify the specific serum antibodies to intestinal microsporidia encephalitozoon cuniculi and encephalitozoon intestinalis in women with human papillomavirus hpv and without hpv by the indirect immunofluorescence (ifa). from total number of 669 examined women, 225 were hpv positive and 444 women hpv negative. overall the study comprised of 10.8% women w ...201426204020
absence of encephalitozoon cuniculi antibodies in wild rabbits in england. 201526109282
first report of enterocytozoon bieneusi and encephalitozoon intestinalis infection of wild mice in slovakia.increased risk of zoonotic transmission of the potential human pathogenic species enterocytozoon bieneusi, encephalitozoon intestinalis and encephalitozoon cuniculi was detected in wild immunocompetent mice (mus musculus musculus; n=280). analysis was conducted with the use of pmp1/pmp2 primers and sybr green rt-pcr. using real time pcr and comparing the sequences with sequences in the genbank, e. bieneusi was detected in 3 samples (1.07 %), e. cuniculi in 1 sample (0.35 %) and e. intestinalis i ...201526094518
comparative analysis of codon usage bias patterns in microsporidian genomes.the sub-3 mbp genomes from microsporidian species of the encephalitozoon genus are the smallest known among eukaryotes and paragons of genomic reduction and compaction in parasites. however, their diminutive stature is not characteristic of all microsporidia, whose genome sizes vary by an order of magnitude. this large variability suggests that different evolutionary forces are applied on the group as a whole. in this study, we have compared the codon usage bias (cub) between eight taxonomically ...201526057384
morphological and molecular characterization of nosema pernyi, a microsporidian parasite in antheraea pernyi.nosema pernyi is a lethal pathogen that causes microsporidiosis in the chinese oak silkworm, antheraea pernyi. in this study, we presented its morphological and some molecular characteristics. the mature spores were measured to be 4.36 × 1.49 μm. the spore wall consisted of an electron-dense exospore (ex) and electron-lucent endospore (en) layer. the polar filament (pf) was isofilar with 10-12 coils that were frequently arranged in a single row. investigation results indicated that n. pernyi can ...201526044882
microsporidia and cryptosporidium in horses and donkeys in algeria: detection of a novel cryptosporidium hominis subtype family (ik) in a horse.a total of 219 and 124 individual fecal samples of horses and donkeys, respectively, were screened for the presence of cryptosporidium spp., encephalitozoon spp., and enterocytozoon bieneusi dna by genus-specific nested pcr. isolates were genotyped by sequence analysis of ssu rrna, gp60, trap-c1, cowp, and hsp70 loci in cryptosporidium, and the its region in microsporidia. cryptosporidium spp. was detected on 3/18 horse farms and 1/15 farms where donkeys were kept. overall, five (2.3%) horse and ...201525638716
genome-wide identification and comprehensive analyses of the kinomes in four pathogenic microsporidia species.microsporidia have attracted considerable attention because they infect a wide range of hosts, from invertebrates to vertebrates, and cause serious human diseases and major economic losses in the livestock industry. there are no prospective drugs to counteract this pathogen. eukaryotic protein kinases (epks) play a central role in regulating many essential cellular processes and are therefore potential drug targets. in this study, a comprehensive summary and comparative analysis of the protein k ...201425549259
first detection of an ignored parasite, encephalitozoon cuniculi, in different animal hosts in egypt.encephalitozoon cuniculi is an obligate intracellular microsporidian parasite that infects a wide range of mammalian hosts. the present study investigated the prevalence of e. cuniculi in different animal hosts from different provinces of egypt (alexandria, behera, and assuit) using serological (ifat and elisa) and molecular (pcr) assays. a total of 324 serum and 274 urine samples were collected from seven different species of animals (cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goat, rabbit, dog, and rat). the r ...201525547075
plasma membrane-located purine nucleotide transport proteins are key components for host exploitation by microsporidian intracellular parasites.microsporidia are obligate intracellular parasites of most animal groups including humans, but despite their significant economic and medical importance there are major gaps in our understanding of how they exploit infected host cells. we have investigated the evolution, cellular locations and substrate specificities of a family of nucleotide transport (ntt) proteins from trachipleistophora hominis, a microsporidian isolated from an hiv/aids patient. transport proteins are critical to microspori ...201425474405
diversity of microsporidia, cryptosporidium and giardia in mountain gorillas (gorilla beringei beringei) in volcanoes national park, rwanda.infectious diseases represent the greatest threats to endangered species, and transmission from humans to wildlife under increased anthropogenic pressure has been always stated as a major risk of habituation.201425386754
identification of the microsporidian encephalitozoon cuniculi as a new target of the ifnγ-inducible irg resistance system.the irg system of ifnγ-inducible gtpases constitutes a powerful resistance mechanism in mice against toxoplasma gondii and two chlamydia strains but not against many other bacteria and protozoa. why only t. gondii and chlamydia? we hypothesized that unusual features of the entry mechanisms and intracellular replicative niches of these two organisms, neither of which resembles a phagosome, might hint at a common principle. we examined another unicellular parasitic organism of mammals, member of a ...201425356593
bilateral lenticular encephalitozoon cuniculi infection in a snow leopard (panthera uncia).bilateral phacoclastic uveitis caused by lenticular infection with encephalitozoon cuniculi is described in a snow leopard. the diagnosis was made on histopathological and immunohistological examination of both eyes submitted after postmortem examination. there was a positive antibody titer for e. cuniculi (1:320). polymerase chain reaction (pcr) and sequence analysis of formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded ocular tissue detected the dna of e. cuniculi, strain iii. no other systemic lesions attribu ...201525311355
comparison of an indirect fluorescent antibody test with western blot for the detection of serum antibodies against encephalitozoon cuniculi in cats.current clinical research indicates that encephalitozoon (e.) cuniculi infections in cats may be underdiagnosed, especially in animals with typical ocular signs (cataract/anterior uveitis). although molecular detection of the pathogen in tissue appears promising, serology remains the major diagnostic tool in the living animal. while serological tests are established for the main host of e. cuniculi, the rabbit, the routine serological diagnosis for cats still needs validation. the aim of the stu ...201425199557
new evidence on the relationship between microsporidia and fungi: a genome-wide analysis by darkhorse software.microsporidia are a group of obligate intracellular eukaryotic parasites that infect a wide variety of species, including humans. phylogenetic analysis indicates a relationship between the microsporidia and the fungi. however, most results are based on the analysis of relatively few genes. darkhorse analysis involves the transformation of blast results into a lineage probability index (lpi) value and allows for the comparison of genes for an entire genome with those of other genomes. thus, we ca ...201425134955
microsporidiosis in pediatric renal transplant patients in cape town, south africa: two case reports.microsporidia are an emerging group of pathogens associated with life-threatening opportunistic infections in immunocompromised hosts, particularly human immunodeficiency virus (hiv)-infected individuals. there have, however, been recent reports of infection in adult solid organ transplant recipients. we report two cases in children, to our knowledge the first in the paediatric literature. two 13-yr-old, hiv-seronegative females received deceased donor renal transplants from the same donor. both ...201425132634
lethal encephalitozoon cuniculi genotype iii infection in steppe lemmings (lagurus lagurus).microsporidia are ubiquitous, spore-forming, intracellular parasites infecting invertebrates and vertebrates. some of them are important opportunistic pathogens in humans, including three species of genus encephalitozoon. intraspecies genetic variation with a different range of hosts is known in encephalitozoon cuniculi distinguishing four genotypes. recently, e. cuniculi is often observed in pet animals, mainly e. cuniculi genotype i in pet rabbits. this study described a fatal encephalitozoono ...201425073415
seroprevalence of encephalitozoon cuniculi in pet rabbits in korea.encephalitozoon cuniculi is a microsporidian parasite commonly found in rabbits that can infect humans, causing encephalitozoonosis. the prevalence of encephalitozoonosis is not well documented, even when many clinics suspect pet rabbits as being highly infected. this study investigated the seropositivity of e. cuniculi using elisa. the examination of 186 rabbits using elisa showed that 22.6% (42/186) were seropositive against e. cuniculi. in analysis with healthy status, all 42 seropositive ser ...201425031476
first characterization in china of encephalitozoon cuniculi in the blue fox (alopex lagopus).encephalitozoon cuniculi is a microsporidian parasite that infects a wide range of vertebrates, including primates. it has recently emerged as an opportunistic parasite of patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. the blue fox (alopex lagopus; also known as the arctic fox) is one of the most susceptible species for encephalitozoonosis. here, we report an outbreak of encephalitozoonosis at a fox farm in china. the isolated parasites displayed the typical morphology of e. cuniculi a ...201424995428
diagnosis of the encephalitozoon cuniculi infections in pet rabbits with neurological symptoms.the purpose of the study was the in vivo diagnosing of e. cuniculi invasions in pet rabbits with neurological symptoms using the real-time pcr, and determination of the rate of invasion, in this group of animals. the study involved 103 pet rabbits with neurological symptoms. parasitic invasions were diagnosed using real-time pcr. the dna of the parasites for molecular tests was isolated from the urine of the diseased animals. out of the 103 tested dna samples, the presence of the e. cuniculi gen ...201424988865
seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii and encephalitozoon cuniculi in rabbits from different farming systems.the breeding of domestic rabbit (oryctolagus cuniculus) for human consumption has a long tradition mainly in european and asian countries. infections that can affect the production of meat or even be transmitted from animals to humans are important to monitor, especially for public health reasons as well as for their impact on animals health. this study aimed to collect sera from rabbits bred in different conditions and test the presence of toxoplasma gondii and encephalitozoon cuniculi antibodi ...201424877785
evaluation of spore wall protein 1 as an alternative antigen for the diagnosis of encephalitozoon cuniculi infection of farmed foxes using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.the sequence encoding swp1 was cloned from the genome of encephalitozoon cuniculi. recombinant swp1 (rswp1) was expressed in escherichia coli and used to detect e. cuniculi infections in farmed foxes and dogs with an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (elisa) in the present study. the sera of foxes infected with e. cuniculi could be distinguished from the sera of foxes infected with toxoplasma gondii, neospora caninum, and cryptosporidium parvum using the elisa. in total, 198 fox samples ...201424830821
serological survey for antibody to encephalitozoon cuniculi in horses in the usa.encephalitozoon cuniculi is an obligate intracellular microsporidian parasite that can result in clinical and subclinical infection in many species. in the present study, a serological survey was conducted using samples from 105 horses in the state of new jersey; 49 of the samples were obtained from clinically abnormal animals. five or 4.8% of 105 serum samples were found to demonstrate reactivity by elisa with titers of 1:64 to 1:1,024. one of the samples was obtained from a clinically normal h ...201424802871
pathology of experimental encephalitozoon cuniculi infection in immunocompetent and immunosuppressed mice in iraq.this study was performed to evaluate pathology of experimental encephalitozoon cuniculi (iraqi isolate) infection in normal and immunosuppressed mice. pathological changes were not seen in negative control mice while secondary bacterial infections were noted in the lungs, kidneys, and heart of mice given dexamethasone. typical e. cuniculi infection lesions were found in brain, livers, lungs, and kidneys of mice given 10(7)  e. cuniculi spores/mouse orally. these lesions were in the form of nonsu ...201424772366
intrinsic tgf-β signaling promotes age-dependent cd8+ t cell polyfunctionality attrition.advanced age is associated with immune system deficits that result in an increased susceptibility to infectious diseases; however, specific mediators of age-dependent immune dysfunction have not been fully elucidated. here we demonstrated that aged mice exhibit poor effector cd8+ t cell polyfunctionality, primarily due to cd8+ t cell-extrinsic deficits, and that reduced cd8+ t cell polyfunctionality correlates with increased susceptibility to pathogenic diseases. in aged animals challenged with ...201424762437
microsporidiosis acquired through solid organ transplantation: a public health investigation.encephalitozoon cuniculi, a microsporidial species most commonly recognized as a cause of renal, respiratory, and central nervous system infections in immunosuppressed patients, was identified as the cause of a temporally associated cluster of febrile illness among 3 solid organ transplant recipients from a common donor.201424727839
questions around encephalitozoon cuniculi in rabbits. 201424700008
encephalitozoon cuniculi in rabbits in germany: prevalence and sensitivity of antibody testing.the aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of encephalitozoon cuniculi antibodies in healthy and diseased rabbits in germany. age and gender dependencies were taken into consideration. the sensitivity of the e cuniculi antibody test and its relevance for the diagnosis of e cuniculi infection in rabbits was also examined. a total of 773 healthy and diseased rabbits were tested for e cuniculi antibodies (indirect immune fluorescence antibody test (ifat) or carbon immunoassay (cia). no ...201424570403
concurrent infection of the urinary tract with encephalitozoon cuniculi and enterocytozoon bieneusi in a renal transplant recipient.a urinary tract coinfection, caused by encephalitozoon cuniculi genotype ii and enterocytozoon bieneusi genotype d, was identified in an hiv-seronegative renal transplant recipient kept under lifelong immunosuppression. to our knowledge, this is the first report describing concurrent infection with these two microsporidia species in organ transplant recipients.201424523472
molecular characterization and genotyping of human related microsporidia in free-ranging and captive pigeons of tehran, iran.microsporidia are opportunistic pathogens in nature infecting all animal phyla. samples of intestinal content from 147 pigeons from various regions of tehran (iran) were analyzed for occurred microsporidia by pcr and sequencing. the dna isolated from 31 samples (21%) of microsporidia-positive was amplified with specific primers for the four most frequent human microsporidia. enterocytozoon bieneusi was the most common species and was recognized in thirteen pigeons (42%). four pigeons were positi ...201324514020
molecular characterization and genotyping of human related microsporidia in free-ranging and captive pigeons of tehran, iran.microsporidia are opportunistic pathogens in nature infecting all animal phyla. samples of intestinal content from 147 pigeons from various regions of tehran (iran) were analyzed for occurred microsporidia by pcr and sequencing. the dna isolated from 31 samples (21%) of microsporidia-positive was amplified with specific primers for the four most frequent human microsporidia. enterocytozoon bieneusi was the most common species and was recognized in thirteen pigeons (42%). four pigeons were positi ...201324427811
highly divergent mitochondrion-related organelles in anaerobic parasitic protozoa.the mitochondria have arisen as a consequence of endosymbiosis of an ancestral α-proteobacterium with a methane-producing archae. the main function of the canonical aerobic mitochondria include atp generation via oxidative phosphorylation, heme and phospholipid synthesis, calcium homeostasis, programmed cell death, and the formation of iron-sulfur clusters. under oxygen-restricted conditions, the mitochondrion has often undergone remarkable reductive alterations of its content and function, lead ...201424316280
prevalence and diversity of encephalitozoon spp. and enterocytozoon bieneusi in wild boars (sus scrofa) in central europe.from 2011 to 2012, the occurrence of enterocytozoon bieneusi and encephalitozoon spp. was surveyed at 29 randomly selected localities (both forest areas and enclosures) across four central european countries: austria, the czech republic, poland, and the slovak republic. isolates were genotyped by pcr amplification and characterization of the internal transcribed spacer (its) region using enterocytozoon and encephalitozoon-specific protocols. pcr revealed 16 mono-infections of encephalitozoon cun ...201424292543
strategies for maximizing atp supply in the microsporidian encephalitozoon cuniculi: direct binding of mitochondria to the parasitophorous vacuole and clustering of the mitochondrial porin vdac.microsporidia are obligate intracellular parasites with extremely reduced genomes and a dependence on host-derived atp. the microsporidium encephalitozoon cuniculi proliferates within a membranous vacuole and we investigated how the atp supply is optimized at the vacuole-host interface. using spatial em quantification (stereology), we found a single layer of mitochondria coating substantial proportions of the parasitophorous vacuole. mitochondrial binding occurred preferentially over the vegetat ...201424245785
encephalitozoon infections in rodentia and soricomorpha in japan.encephalitozoon is an obligate intracellular microsporidian parasite that infects a wide range of mammalian hosts. in this study, we used nested pcr to investigate the presence of encephalitozoon infection in rodentia and soricomorpha in japan. we attempted to amplify and sequence encephalitozoon-specific dna from brain and viscera samples of 180 animals collected between 2008 and 2010. forty-three samples (23.9%) from the orders rodentia and soricomorpha were positive for encephalitozoon. this ...201324060383
long-term monitoring of microsporidia, cryptosporidium and giardia infections in western lowland gorillas (gorilla gorilla gorilla) at different stages of habituation in dzanga sangha protected areas, central african republic.infectious diseases pose one of the greatest threats to endangered species, and a risk of gastrointestinal parasite transmission from humans to wildlife has always been considered as a major concern of tourism. increased anthropogenic impact on primate populations may result in general changes in communities of their parasites, and also in a direct exchange of parasites between humans and primates.201323951255
disseminated microsporidiosis in a renal transplant recipient: case report and review of the literature.microsporidia are opportunistic pathogens that usually cause a limited disease in the gastrointestinal tract. occasionally, they can cause disseminated disease. in solid organ transplant recipients, disseminated disease has been reported only rarely. we describe a 68-year-old woman who presented with fever, cough, and acute kidney injury 6 months after kidney transplantation. dissemination was confirmed by identification of microsporidial spores in urine and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. polymer ...201323947513
variability in minimal genomes: analysis of tandem repeats in the microsporidia encephalitozoon intestinalis.microsporidia are ubiquitous fungi with genomes that have undergone a strong reduction to the extreme cases of encephalitozoon cuniculi and encephalitozoon intestinalis. genetic variability within species of the encephalitozoon genus has been reported, with most of the studies based on the internal transcribed spacer (its) of the rdna. however, in contrast to the picture of e. cuniculi and encephalitozoon hellem, where different strains have been identified, no genetic variability has yet been o ...201323917025
humoral immune response and spreading of encephalitozoon cuniculi infection in experimentally infected ponies.a total of 9 (8 stallions and 1 mare) 1 year old ponies were used for the experimental infection caused by encephalitozoon cuniculi genotype ii (10(7) spores per animal). subsequently, individual horses were slaughtered 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49, 56, and 63 days post infection. immediately after slaughter, tissues samples of stomach, duodenum, jejunum, ileum, caecum, colon, spleen, liver, kidney, bladder, heart, lungs, and brain were sampled. in addition, urine, feces and blood specimens were co ...201323747106
encephalitozoon cuniculi, toxoplasma gondii and neospora caninum infection in invasive eastern cottontail rabbits sylvilagus floridanus in northwestern italy.sylvilagus floridanus is a lagomorph introduced for hunting purposes from north america to europe where, in certain areas like northern italy, its population reached high densities. brain, kidney and skeletal muscle of 144 eastern cottontail rabbits s. floridanus were examined by pcr for encephalitozoon cuniculi, toxoplasma gondii and neospora caninum. dna of e. cuniculi was found with a prevalence of 9.72% (ci 95% 0.058-0.156). t. gondii and n. caninum dna was detected in 2.08% (ci 95% 0.0071-0 ...201323747104
effect of three drugs against encephalitozoon cuniculi infection in immunosuppressed mice.microsporidia comprise a large group of obligate intracellular parasites. the microsporidian encephalitozoon cuniculi causes disseminated infection in immunosuppressed patients with hiv, cancer, or transplants and in the elderly. in vivo and in vitro studies on the effectiveness of drugs are controversial. currently, there is no effective treatment. we tested albendazole, albendazole sulfoxide, metronidazole, and cyclosporine in mice immunosuppressed with cyclophosphamide and inoculated by the i ...201323612191
seroprevalence of encephalitozoon cuniculi in wild rodents, foxes and domestic cats in three sites in the united kingdom.encephalitozoon cuniculi is an obligate intracellular microsporidian that is the causal agent of encephalitozoonosis, an important and emerging disease in both humans and animals. little is known about its occurrence in wildlife. in this study, serum samples from 793 wild rodents [178 bank voles (bv), 312 field voles (fv) and 303 wood mice (wm)], 96 foxes and 27 domestic cats from three study areas in the uk were tested for the presence of antibodies to e. cuniculi using a direct agglutination t ...201523607769
latent microsporidiosis caused by encephalitozoon cuniculi in immunocompetent hosts: a murine model demonstrating the ineffectiveness of the immune system and treatment with albendazole.microsporidia are obligate intracellular parasites causing severe infections with lethal outcome in immunocompromised hosts. however, these pathogens are more frequently reported as latent infections in immunocompetent individuals and raises questions about the potential risk of reactivation following induced immunosuppression.201323593356
a case of diffuse bilateral scrotal neurofibroma in a rabbit.this report details a rare case of diffuse bilateral scrotal neurofibroma complicated by hindlimb paralysis in a rabbit. the animal was evaluated for unusual bilateral scrotal enlargement. after physical examination, ultrasound scan, radiography, computed tomography and laparoscopy, surgical exploration of the scrotum was undertaken. a homogeneous rubbery firm mass was revealed in contact with the subcutaneous tissue expanding to the entire scrotum without involving the testicles. the mass was e ...201323551182
detection and genotype of encephalitozoon cuniculi dna from urine and feces of pet rabbits in japan.a newly developed nested polymerase chain reaction (pcr) assay targeting the internal transcribed spacer (its) region of the ribosomal dna was applied to detect and characterize encephalitozoon cuniculi dna from pet rabbits in japan. the analysis was carried out using 257 urinary samples and 314 fecal samples collected from 307 pet rabbits in the age group of 1 month to 12 years from 30 different prefectures of japan and 107 fecal samples and 3 urinary samples collected from 1-month-old rabbits ...201323538607
transcriptome analysis of the parasite encephalitozoon cuniculi: an in-depth examination of pre-mrna splicing in a reduced eukaryote.the microsporidian encephalitozoon cuniculi possesses one of the most reduced and compacted eukaryotic genomes. reduction in this intracellular parasite has affected major cellular machinery, including the loss of over fifty core spliceosomal components compared to s. cerevisiae. to identify expression changes throughout the parasite's life cycle and also to assess splicing in the context of this reduced system, we examined the transcriptome of e. cuniculi using illumina rna-seq.201323537046
excellence in exotics: case report: encephalitozoon cuniculi-associated phacoclastic uveitis in a dwarf rabbit. 201223532791
key diagnostic features of granulomatous interstitial nephritis due to encephalitozoon cuniculi in a lung transplant recipient.microsporidia are increasingly recognized as opportunistic pathogens in immunocompromised organ transplant recipients (otr). disseminated infection due to encephalitozoon sp. is reported mainly in human immunodeficiency virus (hiv)-positive patients and rarely in hiv-negative otr. the clinical spectrum ranges from keratoconjunctivitis, to pneumonitis, to acute kidney injury. the kidney is a common site for disseminated infection; however, specialized techniques are required for definitive diagno ...201323388129
first detection and genotyping of human-associated microsporidia in wild waterfowl of slovakia.a total of 47 avian faecal samples of wild waterfowl (great cormorant - phalacrocorax carbo, great crested grebe - podiceps cristatus, white stork - ciconia ciconia) trapped in the eastern slovakia were screened for the presence of human pathogenic microsporidia by microscopy and real-time sybr green pcr method using species primers and sequenced. microscopic analysis showed presence in 32 samples (29 cormorants, 3 dippers). microsporidial dna (encephalitozoon cuniculi genotype i) was identified ...201323377906
extremely reduced levels of heterozygosity in the vertebrate pathogen encephalitozoon cuniculi.the genomes of microsporidia in the genus encephalitozoon have been extensively studied for their minimalistic features, but they have seldom been used to investigate basic characteristics of the biology of these organisms, such as their ploidy or their mode of reproduction. in the present study, we aimed to tackle this issue by mapping illumina sequence reads against the genomes of four strains of e. cuniculi. this approach, combined with more conventional molecular biology techniques, resulted ...201323376943
complete genome sequences from three genetically distinct strains reveal high intraspecies genetic diversity in the microsporidian encephalitozoon cuniculi.microsporidia from the encephalitozoonidae are obligate intracellular parasites with highly conserved and compacted nuclear genomes: they have few introns, short intergenic regions, and almost identical gene complements and chromosome arrangements. comparative genomics of encephalitozoon and microsporidia in general have focused largely on the genomic diversity between different species, and we know very little about the levels of genetic diversity within species. polymorphism studies with encep ...201323291622
value of histopathology, immunohistochemistry, and real-time polymerase chain reaction in the confirmatory diagnosis of encephalitozoon cuniculi infection in rabbits.morphological lesions in kidneys and brain are all too often considered diagnostic for confirmation of encephalitozoonosis in rabbits. the current study evaluated the diagnostic value of histology versus other etiological tests, including immunohistochemistry and real-time polymerase chain reaction (pcr) for encephalitozoon cuniculi infection diagnosis. samples of brain, heart, lungs, intestine, liver, and kidneys from 81 rabbits were examined for morphological lesions attributed to e. cuniculi ...201323166180
molecular characterization of human-pathogenic microsporidia and cyclospora cayetanensis isolated from various water sources in spain: a year-long longitudinal study.recent studies suggest the involvement of water in the epidemiology of cyclospora cayetanensis and some microsporidia. a total of 223 samples from four drinking water treatment plants (dwtps), seven wastewater treatment plants (wwtps), and six locations of influence (li) on four river basins from madrid, spain, were analyzed from spring 2008 to winter 2009. microsporidia were detected in 49% of samples (109/223), cyclospora spp. were detected in 9% (20/223), and both parasites were found in 5.4% ...201323124243
serological survey of encephalitozoon cuniculi infection in commercially reared rabbit does in northern italy.the aim of the study was to carry out a serological survey of encephalitozoon cuniculi in commercially reared rabbit does (oryctolagus cuniculi) in veneto region (northern italy). two hundred and sixty blood samples from 13 farms were examined by a carbon immunoassay (cia test) to detect the presence of antibodies anti-e. cuniculi. all sampled rabbit does were clinically healthy. seropositivity against e. cuniculi was found in 196/260 (75.4%) sera and in all the sampled farms (100%). logistic re ...201323083923
surveillance for an outbreak of encephalitozoon cuniculi infection in rabbits housed at a zoo and biosecurity countermeasures.an outbreak of encephalitozoonosis occurred in a rabbit colony at a zoo in japan. throughout the two years after the onset, all 42 rabbits were investigated clinically, pathologically and serologically for prevention and control of the disease. eleven rabbits (11/42, 26.2%) showed clinical symptoms. of 38 rabbits examined to detect specific antibodies against encephalitozoon cuniculi, 71.1% (n=27) were found seropositive; 20 out of 30 clinically healthy rabbits (except for 8 clinical cases) were ...201322971563
enterocytozoon bieneusi and encephalitozoon cuniculi in horses kept under different management systems in the czech republic.faecal samples were collected from 377 horses on 23 farms with varying management systems in the czech republic. microsporidia were found on 16 farms and the overall prevalence of enterocytozoon bieneusi and encephalitozoon cuniculi was 17.3% (66/377) and 6.9% (26/377), respectively. the prevalence of e. cuniculi in horses over 3 years of age was significantly higher (10.0%) compared to younger horses (4.0%). no significant differences in prevalence were observed among stallions, geldings, and m ...201222877825
encephalitozoon and enterocytozoon (microsporidia) spores in stool from pigeons and exotic birds: microsporidia spores in birds.microsporidia are considered to be a cause of emerging and opportunistic infections in humans, and the species that infect humans can also infect a wide range of animals, raising concerns for zoonotic transmission. to understand the role of birds in the transmission of diseases caused by microsporidia, we examined 196 fecal specimens from birds, including birds of the families psittacidae, emberizidae, icteridae and columbidae, using gram-chromotrope stain and polymerase chain reaction (pcr). of ...201222853863
gain and loss of multiple functionally related, horizontally transferred genes in the reduced genomes of two microsporidian parasites.microsporidia of the genus encephalitozoon are widespread pathogens of animals that harbor the smallest known nuclear genomes. complete sequences from encephalitozoon intestinalis (2.3 mbp) and encephalitozoon cuniculi (2.9 mbp) revealed massive gene losses and reduction of intergenic regions as factors leading to their drastically reduced genome size. however, microsporidian genomes also have gained genes through horizontal gene transfers (hgt), a process that could allow the parasites to explo ...201222802648
encephalitozoonosis in two inland bearded dragons (pogona vitticeps).microsporidiosis is reported rarely in reptiles. sporadic multisystemic granulomatous disease of captive bearded dragons (pogona vitticeps) has been associated with microsporidia showing encephalitozoon-like morphology. two such cases are described herein. both animals displayed clinical signs suggestive of renal failure. necropsy examination revealed granulomatous lesions in the liver and adrenal area in both animals, and in several other organs in one animal. the lesions were associated with i ...201322784783
atp-dependent conformational dynamics underlie the functional asymmetry of the replicative helicase from a minimalist eukaryote.the heterohexameric minichromosome maintenance (mcm2-7) complex is an atpase that serves as the central replicative helicase in eukaryotes. during initiation, the ring-shaped mcm2-7 particle is thought to open to facilitate loading onto dna. the conformational state accessed during ring opening, the interplay between atp binding and mcm2-7 architecture, and the use of these events in the regulation of dna unwinding are poorly understood. to address these issues in isolation from the regulatory c ...201222778422
seroprevalence of encephalitozoon cuniculi in dogs in the united states.encephalitozoon cuniculi is an obligate intracellular microsporidian parasite that can result in clinical and subclinical infection in many species. it is also considered the cause of a potential zoonotic disease. in the present study, a serological survey was conducted using samples from pet dogs in the state of florida. twenty-seven of 125 serum samples, or 21.6%, were found to demonstrate reactivity by elisa, with titers ranging from 1:32 to 1:512. there were no significant differences by age ...201322694657
encephalitozoonosis in pharmacologically immunosuppressed mice.encephalitozoon cuniculi is a parasite that has been identified as a cause of opportunistic infections in immunocompromised individuals. this study was performed to evaluate e. cuniculi infection in pharmacologically immunosuppressed mice. mice were immunosuppressed with cyclophosphamide (100mg/kg twice a week, ip) or cyclosporin (10mg/kg daily, ip) and inoculated with 10(7)e. cuniculi spores ip. the e. cuniculi spores were cultivated in mdck cells. e. cuniculi identification was performed by li ...201222626517
genital microsporidiosis in women with aids: a post-mortem study.microsporidiosis is a life threatening opportunistic infection of aids patients. the infection is usually restricted to specific anatomical areas, but could become systemic depending on the involved species. genital microsporidiosis in female patients is rare.201322554823
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