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anaplasma phagocytophilum ats-1 is imported into host cell mitochondria and interferes with apoptosis induction.anaplasma phagocytophilum, the causative agent of human granulocytic anaplasmosis, infects human neutrophils and inhibits mitochondria-mediated apoptosis. bacterial factors involved in this process are unknown. in the present study, we screened a genomic dna library of a. phagocytophilum for effectors of the type iv secretion system by a bacterial two-hybrid system, using a. phagocytophilum vird4 as bait. a hypothetical protein was identified as a putative effector, hereby named anaplasmatranslo ...201020174550
sequence divergences between cyst nematode effector protein orthologs may contribute to host specificity. 201020173410
characterization of phi2954, a newly isolated bacteriophage containing three dsrna genomic segments.bacteriophage phi12 is a member of the cystoviridae and is distinct from phi6, the first member of that family. we have recently isolated a number of related phages and five showed high similarity to phi12 in the amino acid sequences of several proteins. bacteriophage phi2954 is a member of this group.201020170499
a boolean model of the pseudomonas syringae hrp regulon predicts a tightly regulated system.the type iii secretion system (ttss) is a protein secretion machinery used by certain gram-negative bacterial pathogens of plants and animals to deliver effector molecules to the host and is at the core of the ability to cause disease. extensive molecular and biochemical study has revealed the components and their interactions within this system but reductive approaches do not consider the dynamical properties of the system as a whole. in order to gain a better understanding of these dynamical b ...201020169167
regional variations in the population structure of pseudomonas syringae pathovar phaseolicola from spain are revealed by typing with pmei pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, plasmid profiling and virulence gene complement.one hundred and twenty pathogenic isolates of pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola recovered in spain were subjected to biochemical and genomic typing, and investigated for virulence gene complement. fifty-six were recovered from common beans (phaseolus vulgaris) of the type granja asturiana, grown in a northern spanish region (asturias), and 64 from other common beans cultured in the neighbouring region of castilla y león. typing by pmei digestion followed by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis r ...201020167625
differential innate immune signalling via ca(2+) sensor protein kinases.innate immunity represents the first line of inducible defence against microbial infection in plants and animals. in both kingdoms, recognition of pathogen- or microbe-associated molecular patterns (pamps or mamps, respectively), such as flagellin, initiates convergent signalling pathways involving mitogen-activated protein kinase (mapk) cascades and global transcriptional changes to boost immunity. although ca(2+) has long been recognized as an essential and conserved primary mediator in plant ...201020164835
interaction of a host protein with core complexes of bacteriophage phi6 to control transcription.bacteriophages of the family cystoviridae have genomes consisting of three double-stranded rna (dsrna) segments, l, s, and m, packaged within a polyhedral capsid along with rna polymerase. transcription of genomic segment l is activated by the interaction of host protein yajq with the capsid structure. segment l codes for the proteins of the inner capsid, which are expressed early in infection. green fluorescent protein (gfp) fusions with yajq produce uniform fluorescence in uninfected cells and ...201020164238
identification of micrornas involved in pathogen-associated molecular pattern-triggered plant innate immunity.pathogen-associated molecular patterns (pamps) trigger plant defenses when perceived by surface-localized immune receptors. pamp-triggered immunity (pti) plays a vital role in the resistance of plants to numerous potential pathogens. microrna (mirna) biogenesis is known to be important for pti, but mirna species involved in this process have not been fully explored. here we show that the arabidopsis (arabidopsis thaliana) mirna effector protein, argonaute1 (ago1), is required for a number of pti ...201020164210
the lesion-mimic mutant cpr22 shows alterations in abscisic acid signaling and abscisic acid insensitivity in a salicylic acid-dependent manner.a number of arabidopsis (arabidopsis thaliana) lesion-mimic mutants exhibit alterations in both abiotic stress responses and pathogen resistance. one of these mutants, constitutive expresser of pr genes22 (cpr22), which has a mutation in two cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels, is a typical lesion-mimic mutant exhibiting elevated levels of salicylic acid (sa), spontaneous cell death, constitutive expression of defense-related genes, and enhanced resistance to various pathogens; the majority of ...201020164209
deciphering the catalytic domain of colicin m, a peptidoglycan lipid ii-degrading enzyme.colicin m inhibits escherichia coli peptidoglycan synthesis through cleavage of its lipid-linked precursors. it has a compact structure, whereas other related toxins are organized in three independent domains, each devoted to a particular function: translocation through the outer membrane, receptor binding, and toxicity, from the n to the c termini, respectively. to establish whether colicin m displays such an organization despite its structural characteristics, protein dissection experiments we ...201020159977
pseudomonas syringae effector protein avrb perturbs arabidopsis hormone signaling by activating map kinase 4.pathogenic microbes often modulate phytohormone physiology in the host to their advantage. we previously showed that the pseudomonas syringae effector protein avrb perturbs hormone signaling, as exemplified by upregulated expression of jasmonic acid response genes, and enhances plant susceptibility. here we show that these effects of avrb require the arabidopsis mitogen-activated protein kinase map kinase 4 (mpk4), hsp90 chaperone components, and the avrb-interacting protein, rin4. avrb interact ...201020159621
overexpression of bacterial ethylene-forming enzyme gene in trichoderma reesei enhanced the production of ethylene.in order to efficiently utilize natural cellulose materials to produce ethylene, three expression vectors containing the ethylene-forming enzyme (efe) gene from pseudomonas syringae pv. glycinea were constructed. the target gene was respectively controlled by different promoters: cbh i promoter from trichoderma reesei cellobiohydrolases i gene, gpd promoter from aspergillus nidulans glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase gene and pgk i promoter from t. reesei 3-phosphoglycerate kinase i gene. ...201020150979
phenotypic analysis of arabidopsis mutants: bacterial pathogens.the most commonly used bacterial pathogen of arabidopsis is pseudomonas syringae, pathovar tomato strain dc3000 or pathovar maculicola strain es4326. plants used for infection with p. syringae should be grown on a short-day light cycle, so that they develop large leaves. for consistent results, it is important that the plants are watered well and do not experience any abiotic stresses. the plants should be grown and tested in a temperature- and humidity-controlled growth chamber, because the ext ...200920147202
host-microbe interaction systems biology: lifecycle transcriptomics and comparative genomics.the use of microarray and comparative genomic technologies for the analysis of host-pathogen interactions has led to a greater understanding of the biological systems involved in infectious disease processes. transcriptome analysis of intracellular pathogens at single or multiple time points during infection offers insight into the pathogen intracellular lifecycle. host-pathogen transcriptome analysis in vivo, over time, enables characterization of both the pathogen and the host during the dynam ...201020143945
impact of initial pathogen density on resistance and tolerance in a polymorphic disease resistance gene system in arabidopsis thaliana.the evolution of natural enemy defense shapes evolutionary trajectories of natural populations. although the intensity of selection imposed by enemies clearly varies among natural populations, little is known about the reaction norm of genotypes under a gradient of selective pressure. in this study, we measure the quantitative responses of disease symptoms and plant fitness to a gradient of infection, focusing on the gene-for-gene interaction between the rpm1 resistance gene in arabidopsis thali ...201020142437
biosynthesis of rhizocticins, antifungal phosphonate oligopeptides produced by bacillus subtilis atcc6633.rhizocticins are phosphonate oligopeptide antibiotics containing the c-terminal nonproteinogenic amino acid (z)-l-2-amino-5-phosphono-3-pentenoic acid (appa). here we report the identification and characterization of the rhizocticin biosynthetic gene cluster (rhi) in bacillus subtilis atcc6633. rhizocticin b was heterologously produced in the nonproducer strain bacillus subtilis 168. a biosynthetic pathway is proposed on the basis of bioinformatics analysis of the rhi genes. one of the steps dur ...201020142038
a persistent and diverse airway microbiota present during chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations.acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (copd) are a major source of morbidity and contribute significantly to healthcare costs. although bacterial infections are implicated in nearly 50% of exacerbations, only a handful of pathogens have been consistently identified in copd airways, primarily by culture-based methods, and the bacterial microbiota in acute exacerbations remains largely uncharacterized. the aim of this study was to comprehensively profile airway bacterial com ...201020141328
a chemical screen for suppressors of the avrrpm1-rpm1-dependent hypersensitive cell death response in arabidopsis thaliana.arabidopsis thaliana rpm1 encodes an intracellular immune sensor that conditions disease resistance to pseudomonas syringae expressing the type iii effector protein avrrpm1. conditional expression of this type iii effector in a transgenic line carrying avrrpm1 under the control of a steroid-inducible promoter results in rpm1-dependent cell death that resembles the cell death response of the incompatible rpm1-avrrpm1 plant-bacterium interaction. this line was previously used in a genetic screen, ...201020140739
primary metabolism of chickpea is the initial target of wound inducing early sensed fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri race i.biotrophic interaction between host and pathogen induces generation of reactive oxygen species that leads to programmed cell death of the host tissue specifically encompassing the site of infection conferring resistance to the host. however, in the present study, biotrophic relationship between fusarium oxysporum and chickpea provided some novel insights into the classical concepts of defense signaling and disease perception where ros (reactive oxygen species) generation followed by hypersensiti ...201020140256
rickettsia felis infection in a common household insect pest, liposcelis bostrychophila (psocoptera: liposcelidae).many species of rickettsia are well-known mammalian pathogens transmitted by blood-feeding arthropods. however, molecular surveys are continually uncovering novel rickettsia species, often in unexpected hosts, including many arthropods that do not feed on blood. this study reports a systematic molecular characterization of a rickettsia infecting the psocid liposcelis bostrychophila (psocoptera: liposcelidae), a common and cosmopolitan household pest. surprisingly, the psocid rickettsia is shown ...201020139311
dual metabolomics: a novel approach to understanding plant-pathogen interactions.one of the most well-characterised plant pathogenic interactions involves arabidopsis thaliana and the bacteria pseudomonas syringae pathovar tomato (pst). the standard pst inoculation procedure involves infiltration of large populations of bacteria into plant leaves which means that metabolite changes cannot be readily assigned to the host or pathogen. a plant cell-pathogen co-culture based approach has been developed where the plant and pathogen cells are separated after 12h of co-culture via ...201020138320
the type iii effector hopf2pto targets arabidopsis rin4 protein to promote pseudomonas syringae virulence.plant immunity can be induced by two major classes of pathogen-associated molecules. pathogen- or microbe-associated molecular patterns (pamps or mamps) are conserved molecular components of microbes that serve as "non-self" features to induce pamp-triggered immunity (pti). pathogen effector proteins used to promote virulence can also be recognized as "non-self" features or induce a "modified-self" state that can induce effector-triggered immunity (eti). the arabidopsis protein rin4 plays an imp ...201020133879
transcriptional studies of the hrpm/opgh gene in pseudomonas syringae during biofilm formation and in response to different environmental challenges.pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae strain ff5 is a phytopathogen that causes a rapid dieback on ornamental pear trees. in the present study, the transcriptional expression of hrpm/opgh, algd, hrpr and rpod was evaluated in p. syringae ff5 and ff5.m2 (hrpm/opgh mutant). the temporal expression of these genes was evaluated during biofilm formation, the hypersensitive reaction (hr) on tobacco plants, and when the bacteria were subjected to different environmental stresses. the results indicate that ...201020132277
abscisic acid-induced resistance against the brown spot pathogen cochliobolus miyabeanus in rice involves map kinase-mediated repression of ethylene signaling.the plant hormone abscisic acid (aba) is involved in an array of plant processes, including the regulation of gene expression during adaptive responses to various environmental cues. apart from its well-established role in abiotic stress adaptation, emerging evidence indicates that aba is also prominently involved in the regulation and integration of pathogen defense responses. here, we demonstrate that exogenously administered aba enhances basal resistance of rice (oryza sativa) against the bro ...201020130100
assembling genomes using short-read sequencing technology.gigabase-scale genome assemblies are now feasible using short-read sequencing technology, bringing the cost of such projects below the million-dollar mark.201020128932
pamdb, a multilocus sequence typing and analysis database and website for plant-associated microbes.although there are adequate dna sequence differences among plant-associated and plant-pathogenic bacteria to facilitate molecular approaches for their identification, identification at a taxonomic level that is predictive of their phenotype is a challenge. the problem is the absence of a taxonomy that describes genetic variation at a biologically relevant resolution and of a database containing reference strains for comparison. moreover, molecular evolution, population genetics, ecology, and epi ...201020128693
the arabidopsis wall associated kinase-like 10 gene encodes a functional guanylyl cyclase and is co-expressed with pathogen defense related genes.second messengers have a key role in linking environmental stimuli to physiological responses. one such messenger, guanosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (cgmp), has long been known to be an essential signaling molecule in many different physiological processes in higher plants, including biotic stress responses. to date, however, the guanylyl cyclase (gc) enzymes that catalyze the formation of cgmp from gtp have largely remained elusive in higher plants.201020126659
a eukaryotic-acquired gene by a biotrophic phytopathogen allows prolonged survival on the host by counteracting the shut-down of plant photosynthesis.xanthomonas citri pv. citri, the bacteria responsible for citrus canker posses a biological active plant natriuretic peptide (pnp)-like protein, not present in any other bacteria. pnps are a class of extracellular, systemically mobile peptides that elicit a number of plant responses important in homeostasis and growth. previously, we showed that a xanthomonas citri pv. citri mutant lacking the pnp-like protein xacpnp produced more necrotic lesions in citrus leaves than wild type infections and s ...201020126632
agroinfiltration reduces aba levels and suppresses pseudomonas syringae-elicited salicylic acid production in nicotiana tabacum.agrobacterium tumefaciens strain gv3101 (pmp90) is widely used in transient gene expression assays, including assays to study pathogen effectors and plant disease resistance mechanisms. however, inoculation of a. tumefaciens gv3101 into nicotiana tabacum (tobacco) leaves prior to infiltration with pathogenic and non-host strains of pseudomonas syringae results in suppression of macroscopic symptoms when compared with leaves pre-treated with a buffer control.201020126459
computational prediction of type iii secreted proteins from gram-negative bacteria.type iii secretion system (t3ss) is a specialized protein delivery system in gram-negative bacteria that injects proteins (called effectors) directly into the eukaryotic host cytosol and facilitates bacterial infection. for many plant and animal pathogens, t3ss is indispensable for disease development. recently, t3ss has also been found in rhizobia and plays a crucial role in the nodulation process. although a great deal of efforts have been done to understand type iii secretion, the precise mec ...201020122221
laitor--literature assistant for identification of terms co-occurrences and relationships.biological knowledge is represented in scientific literature that often describes the function of genes/proteins (bioentities) in terms of their interactions (biointeractions). such bioentities are often related to biological concepts of interest that are specific of a determined research field. therefore, the study of the current literature about a selected topic deposited in public databases, facilitates the generation of novel hypotheses associating a set of bioentities to a common context.201020122157
two virulence determinants of type iii effector avrpto are functionally conserved in diverse pseudomonas syringae pathovars.*the pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato type iii effector protein avrpto has two functional domains that contribute additively to its ability to promote pathogen virulence in susceptible tomato plants and also defense responses in resistant tomato and tobacco genotypes. here, we test the hypothesis that key amino acid residues in these two domains will be conserved even in sequence-divergent avrpto proteins expressed by diverse p. syringae pathovars. *we cloned avrpto homologs from diverse p. syrin ...201020122130
ascorbic acid deficiency in arabidopsis induces constitutive priming that is dependent on hydrogen peroxide, salicylic acid, and the npr1 gene.the ascorbic acid (aa)-deficient arabidopsis thaliana vtc1-1 mutant exhibits increased resistance to the virulent bacterial pathogen pseudomonas syringae. this response correlates with heightened levels of salicylic acid (sa), which induces antimicrobial pathogenesis-related (pr) proteins. to determine if sa-mediated, enhanced disease resistance is a general phenomenon of aa deficiency, to elucidate the signal that stimulates sa synthesis, and to identify the biosynthetic pathway through which s ...201020121455
natural products version 2.0: connecting genes to molecules.natural products have played a prominent role in the history of organic chemistry, and they continue to be important as drugs, biological probes, and targets of study for synthetic and analytical chemists. in this perspective, we explore how connecting nature's small molecules to the genes that encode them has sparked a renaissance in natural product research, focusing primarily on the biosynthesis of polyketides and non-ribosomal peptides. we survey monomer biogenesis, coupling chemistries from ...201020121095
s-glycoprotein-like protein regulates defense responses in nicotiana plants against ralstonia solanacearum.rsrga4 (for ralstonia solanacearum-responsive gene a4) encodes a polypeptide similar to s-locus glycoprotein (sgp) from brassica rapa and sgp-like proteins from ipomoea trifida and medicago truncatula. therefore, we designated rsrga4 as ntsglp (for nicotiana tabacum sgp-like protein) and nbsglp (its nicotiana benthamiana ortholog). nbsglp is expressed in root, leaf, petal, gynoecium, and stamen. expression of nbsglp was strongly induced by inoculation with an avirulent strain of r. solanacearum ...201020118275
a conserved threonine residue in the juxtamembrane domain of the xa21 pattern recognition receptor is critical for kinase autophosphorylation and xa21-mediated immunity.despite the key role that pattern recognition receptors (prrs) play in regulating immunity in plants and animals, the mechanism of activation of the associated non-arginine-aspartate (non-rd) kinases is unknown. the rice prr xa21 recognizes the pathogen-associated molecular pattern, ax21 (activator of xa21-mediated immunity). here we show that the xa21 juxtamembrane (jm) domain is required for kinase autophosphorylation. threonine 705 in the xa21 jm domain is essential for xa21 autophosphorylati ...201020118235
plant antimicrobial agents and their effects on plant and human pathogens.to protect themselves, plants accumulate an armoury of antimicrobial secondary metabolites. some metabolites represent constitutive chemical barriers to microbial attack (phytoanticipins) and others inducible antimicrobials (phytoalexins). they are extensively studied as promising plant and human disease-controlling agents. this review discusses the bioactivity of several phytoalexins and phytoanticipins defending plants against fungal and bacterial aggressors and those with antibacterial activi ...200920111686
chemical diversity and defence metabolism: how plants cope with pathogens and ozone pollution.chemical defences represent a main trait of the plant innate immune system. besides regulating the relationship between plants and their ecosystems, phytochemicals are involved both in resistance against pathogens and in tolerance towards abiotic stresses, such as atmospheric pollution. plant defence metabolites arise from the main secondary metabolic routes, the phenylpropanoid, the isoprenoid and the alkaloid pathways. in plants, antibiotic compounds can be both preformed (phytoanticipins) and ...200920111684
two very long chain fatty acid acyl-coa synthetase genes, acs-20 and acs-22, have roles in the cuticle surface barrier in caenorhabditis elegans.in multicellular organisms, the surface barrier is essential for maintaining the internal environment. in mammals, the barrier is the stratum corneum. fatty acid transport protein 4 (fatp4) is a key factor involved in forming the stratum corneum barrier. mice lacking fatp4 display early neonatal lethality with features such as tight, thick, and shiny skin, and a defective skin barrier. these symptoms are strikingly similar to those of a human skin disease called restrictive dermopathy. fatp4 is ...201020111596
antibacterial activity of artemisia nilagirica leaf extracts against clinical and phytopathogenic bacteria.the six organic solvent extracts of artemisia nilagirica were screened for the potential antimicrobial activity against phytopathogens and clinically important standard reference bacterial strains.201020109237
wide dispersal and possible multiple origins of low-copy-number plasmids in rickettsia species associated with blood-feeding arthropods.plasmids are mobile genetic elements of bacteria that can impart important adaptive traits, such as increased virulence or antibiotic resistance. we report the existence of plasmids in rickettsia (rickettsiales; rickettsiaceae) species, including rickettsia akari, "candidatus rickettsia amblyommii," r. bellii, r. rhipicephali, and reis, the rickettsial endosymbiont of ixodes scapularis. all of the rickettsiae were isolated from humans or north and south american ticks. r. parkeri isolates from b ...201020097813
bacterial-based additives for the production of artificial snow: what are the risks to human health?for around two decades, artificial snow has been used by numerous winter sports resorts to ensure good snow cover at low altitude areas or more generally, to lengthen the skiing season. biological additives derived from certain bacteria are regularly used to make artificial snow. however, the use of these additives has raised doubts concerning the potential impact on human health and the environment. in this context, the french health authorities have requested the french agency for environmenta ...201020097407
pathogenic bacterial proteins and their anti-inflammatory effects in the eukaryotic host.bacteria use multiple strategies to bypass the inflammatory responses in order to survive in the host cells. in this review, we discuss the mechanism of the bacerial proteins in inhibiting inflammation. we highlight the anti-inflammatory roles of the type three secretion proteins including salmonella avra, enteropathogenic escherichia coli cif, and yersinia yopj, staphylococcus aureus extracellular adherence protein, and chlamydia proteins. we also discuss the research progress on the structures ...200920090866
regulation of plant glycine decarboxylase by s-nitrosylation and glutathionylation.mitochondria play an essential role in nitric oxide (no) signal transduction in plants. using the biotin-switch method in conjunction with nano-liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry, we identified 11 candidate proteins that were s-nitrosylated and/or glutathionylated in mitochondria of arabidopsis (arabidopsis thaliana) leaves. these included glycine decarboxylase complex (gdc), a key enzyme of the photorespiratory c(2) cycle in c3 plants. gdc activity was inhibited by s-nitrosoglutathione ...201020089767
diga--a database of improved gene annotation for phytopathogens.bacterial plant pathogens are very harmful to their host plants, which can cause devastating agricultural losses in the world. with the development of microbial genome sequencing, many strains of phytopathogens have been sequenced. however, some misannotations exist in these phytopathogen genomes. our objective is to improve these annotations and store them in a central database digap.201020089203
identification of tomato phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase-c (pi-plc) family members and the role of plc4 and plc6 in hr and disease resistance.the perception of pathogen-derived elicitors by plants has been suggested to involve phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase-c (pi-plc) signalling. here we show that plc isoforms are required for the hypersensitive response (hr) and disease resistance. we characterised the tomato [solanum lycopersicum (sl)] plc gene family. six sl plc-encoding cdnas were isolated and their expression in response to infection with the pathogenic fungus cladosporium fulvum was studied. we found significant reg ...201020088897
characterization of the contribution to virulence of three large plasmids of avian pathogenic escherichia coli chi7122 (o78:k80:h9).despite the fact that the presence of multiple large plasmids is a defining feature of extraintestinal pathogenic escherichia coli (expec), such as avian pathogenic e. coli (apec), and despite the fact that these bacteria pose a considerable threat to both human and animal health, characterization of these plasmids is still limited. in this study, after successfully curing apec of its plasmids, we were able to investigate, for the first time, the contribution to virulence of three plasmids, pape ...201020086082
arabidopsis auxin mutants are compromised in systemic acquired resistance and exhibit aberrant accumulation of various indolic compounds.systemic acquired resistance is a widespread phenomenon in the plant kingdom that confers heightened and often enduring immunity to a range of diverse pathogens. systemic immunity develops through activation of plant disease resistance protein signaling networks following local infection with an incompatible pathogen. the accumulation of the phytohormone salicylic acid in systemically responding tissues occurs within days after a local immunizing infection and is essential for systemic resistanc ...201020081042
amyloid fibers provide structural integrity to bacillus subtilis biofilms.bacillus subtilis forms biofilms whose constituent cells are held together by an extracellular matrix. previous studies have shown that the protein tasa and an exopolysaccharide are the main components of the matrix. given the importance of tasa in biofilm formation, we characterized the physicochemical properties of this protein. we report that purified tasa forms fibers of variable length and 10-15 nm in width. biochemical analyses, in combination with the use of specific dyes and microscopic ...201020080671
cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenases-c and d, key enzymes in lignin biosynthesis, play an essential role in disease resistance in arabidopsis.the deposition of lignin during plant-pathogen interactions is thought to play a role in plant defence. however, the function of lignification genes in plant disease resistance is poorly understood. in this article, we provide genetic evidence that the primary genes involved in lignin biosynthesis in arabidopsis, cad-c and cad-d, act as essential components of defence to virulent and avirulent strains of the bacterial pathogen pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato, possibly through the salicylic acid ...201020078778
function of endoplasmic reticulum calcium atpase in innate immunity-mediated programmed cell death.programmed cell death (pcd) initiated at the pathogen-infected sites during the plant innate immune response is thought to prevent the development of disease. here, we describe the identification and characterization of an er-localized type iib ca(2+)-atpase (nbca1) that function as a regulator of pcd. silencing of nbca1 accelerates viral immune receptor n- and fungal-immune receptor cf9-mediated pcd, as well as non-host pathogen pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato dc3000 and the general elicitor cr ...201020075858
[cloning and expressing of a harpin-encoding gene from pseudomonas syringae pv. glycinea].methods, objective: we amplified the 1026 bp hrp (hypersensitive response and pathogenicity) gene from pseudomonas syringae pv. glycinea isolate psg12 genomic dna by pcr technique, and then constructed expression vector pgex-hrpz(psg12) with regular molecular cloning operation. the recombinant plasmid was transformed into bl21(de3). recombinant protein was induced by isopropylthio-beta-d-galacgoside (iptg). results: the molecular mass of the fusion protein is 61kda analyzed by sds-page. the prot ...200920069890
identification and functional analysis of type iii effector proteins in mesorhizobium loti.mesorhizobium loti maff303099, a microsymbiont of the model legume lotus japonicus, possesses a cluster of genes (tts) that encode a type iii secretion system (t3ss). in the presence of heterologous nodd from rhizobium leguminosarum and a flavonoid naringenin, we observed elevated expression of the tts genes and secretion of several proteins into the culture medium. inoculation experiments with wild-type and t3ss mutant strains revealed that the presence of the t3ss affected nodulation at a spec ...201020064065
pseudomonas syringae strains naturally lacking the classical p. syringae hrp/hrc locus are common leaf colonizers equipped with an atypical type iii secretion system.pseudomonas syringae is best known as a plant pathogen that causes disease by translocating immune-suppressing effector proteins into plant cells through a type iii secretion system (t3ss). however, p. syringae strains belonging to a newly described phylogenetic subgroup (group 2c) are missing the canonical p. syringae hrp/hrc cluster coding for a t3ss, flanking effector loci, and any close orthologue of known p. syringae effectors. nonetheless, p. syringae group 2c strains are common leaf colon ...201020064063
streptomyces scabies 87-22 contains a coronafacic acid-like biosynthetic cluster that contributes to plant-microbe interactions.plant-pathogenic streptomyces spp. cause scab disease on economically important root and tuber crops, the most important of which is potato. key virulence determinants produced by these species include the cellulose synthesis inhibitor, thaxtomin a, and the secreted nec1 protein that is required for colonization of the plant host. recently, the genome sequence of streptomyces scabies 87-22 was completed, and a biosynthetic cluster was identified that is predicted to synthesize a novel compound s ...201020064060
tomato 14-3-3 protein 7 positively regulates immunity-associated programmed cell death by enhancing protein abundance and signaling ability of mapkkk {alpha}.programmed cell death (pcd) is triggered when pto, a ser-thr protein kinase, recognizes either the avrpto or avrptob effector from pseudomonas syringae pv tomato. this pcd requires mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase (mapkkk alpha ) as a positive regulator in tomato (solanum lycopersicum) and nicotiana benthamiana. to examine how pcd-eliciting activity of the tomato mapkkk alpha protein is regulated, we screened for mapkkk alpha -interacting proteins in tomato and identified a 14-3-3 ...201020061552
the inflammasomes: mechanisms of activation and function.in response to injurious or infectious agents caspase-1 activating multiprotein complexes, termed inflammasomes, assemble in the cytoplasm of cells. activated caspase-1 cleaves the proforms of the interleukin-1 cytokine family members leading to their activation and secretion. the il-1 family cytokines have multiple proinflammatory activities implicating them in the pathogenesis of many inflammatory diseases. while defined ligands have been identified for the nlrp1, ipaf, and aim2 inflammasomes, ...201020060699
cryptochrome 1 is implicated in promoting r protein-mediated plant resistance to pseudomonas syringae in arabidopsis.plants have evolved complex mechanisms to defend themselves against pathogens. it has been shown that several defense responses are influenced by light, and the red/far-red light photoreceptor phytochromes (phy) modulate plant defense responses in arabidopsis. blue light receptor cryptochromes (cry) work together with phy to regulate many light-controlled responses, including photomorphogenesis, floral induction, and entrainment of the circadian clock. we report here that the arabidopsis blue li ...201020053798
crystal structure of streptococcus pneumoniae sp1610, a putative trna methyltransferase, in complex with s-adenosyl-l-methionine.streptococcus pneumoniae sp1610, a class-i fold s-adenosylmethionine (adomet)-dependent methyltransferase, is a member of the cog2384 family in the clusters of orthologous groups database, which catalyzes the methylation of n(1)-adenosine at position 22 of bacterial trna. we determined the crystal structure of sp1610 in the ligand-free and the adomet-bound forms at resolutions of 2.0 and 3.0 a, respectively. the protein is organized into two structural domains: the n-terminal catalytic domain wi ...201020052680
role of prolyl cis/trans isomers in cyclophilin-assisted pseudomonas syringae avrrpt2 protease activation.in a process contributing to the innate immunity of higher plants, arabidopsis thaliana cyclophilin roc1 induces the self-cleavage of pseudomonas syringae putative cysteine protease avrrpt2, triggering limited cleavage of a. thaliana rin4, a negative regulator of plant immunity. we report an increase in avrpt2 activity in hydrolysis of decapeptide substrates at -gg- sites of more than 5 orders of magnitude, in the presence of cyclophilin-like peptidyl prolyl cis/trans isomerases including roc1 o ...201020050698
conserved symbiotic plasmid dna sequences in the multireplicon pangenomic structure of rhizobium etli.strains of the same bacterial species often show considerable genomic variation. to examine the extent of such variation in rhizobium etli, the complete genome sequence of r. etli ciat652 and the partial genomic sequences of six additional r. etli strains having different geographical origins were determined. the sequences were compared with each other and with the previously reported genome sequence of r. etli cfn42. dna sequences common to all strains constituted the greater part of these geno ...201020048063
isolation and characterization of bacteria resistant to metallic copper surfaces.metallic copper alloys have recently attracted attention as a new antimicrobial weapon for areas where surface hygiene is paramount. currently it is not understood on a molecular level how metallic copper kills microbes, but previous studies have demonstrated that a wide variety of bacteria, including escherichia coli, staphylococcus aureus, and clostridium difficile, are inactivated within minutes or a few hours of exposure. in this study, we show that bacteria isolated from copper alloy coins ...201020048058
gaca-controlled activation of promoters for small rna genes in pseudomonas fluorescens.the gac/rsm signal transduction pathway positively regulates secondary metabolism, production of extracellular enzymes, and biocontrol properties of pseudomonas fluorescens cha0 via the expression of three noncoding small rnas, termed rsmx, rsmy, and rsmz. the architecture and function of the rsmy and rsmz promoters were studied in vivo. a conserved palindromic upstream activating sequence (uas) was found to be necessary but not sufficient for rsmy and rsmz expression and for activation by the r ...201020048056
complete genomic structure of the cultivated rice endophyte azospirillum sp. b510.we determined the nucleotide sequence of the entire genome of a diazotrophic endophyte, azospirillum sp. b510. strain b510 is an endophytic bacterium isolated from stems of rice plants (oryza sativa cv. nipponbare). the genome of b510 consisted of a single chromosome (3,311,395 bp) and six plasmids, designated as pab510a (1,455,109 bp), pab510b (723,779 bp), pab510c (681,723 bp), pab510d (628,837 bp), pab510e (537,299 bp), and pab510f (261,596 bp). the chromosome bears 2893 potential protein-enc ...201020047946
complete genome sequence of the fire blight pathogen erwinia pyrifoliae dsm 12163t and comparative genomic insights into plant pathogenicity.erwinia pyrifoliae is a newly described necrotrophic pathogen, which causes fire blight on asian (nashi) pear and is geographically restricted to eastern asia. relatively little is known about its genetics compared to the closely related main fire blight pathogen e. amylovora.201020047678
identification of genes differentially expressed during interaction of resistant and susceptible apple cultivars (malus x domestica) with erwinia amylovora.the necrogenic enterobacterium, erwinia amylovora is the causal agent of the fire blight (fb) disease in many rosaceae species, including apple and pear. during the infection process, the bacteria induce an oxidative stress response with kinetics similar to those induced in an incompatible bacteria-plant interaction. no resistance mechanism to e. amylovora in host plants has yet been characterized, recent work has identified some molecular events which occur in resistant and/or susceptible host ...201020047654
a composite transcriptional signature differentiates responses towards closely related herbicides in arabidopsis thaliana and brassica napus.in this study, genome-wide expression profiling based on affymetrix ath1 arrays was used to identify discriminating responses of arabidopsis thaliana to five herbicides, which contain active ingredients targeting two different branches of amino acid biosynthesis. one herbicide contained glyphosate, which targets 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (epsps), while the other four herbicides contain different acetolactate synthase (als) inhibiting compounds. in contrast to the herbicide cont ...200920043233
a composite transcriptional signature differentiates responses towards closely related herbicides in arabidopsis thaliana and brassica napus.in this study, genome-wide expression profiling based on affymetrix ath1 arrays was used to identify discriminating responses of arabidopsis thaliana to five herbicides, which contain active ingredients targeting two different branches of amino acid biosynthesis. one herbicide contained glyphosate, which targets 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (epsps), while the other four herbicides contain different acetolactate synthase (als) inhibiting compounds. in contrast to the herbicide cont ...200920043233
timing is everything: the regulation of type iii secretion.type three secretion systems (t3sss) are essential virulence determinants of many gram-negative bacteria. the t3ss is an injection device that can transfer bacterial virulence proteins directly into host cells. the apparatus is made up of a basal body that spans both bacterial membranes and an extracellular needle that possesses a channel that is thought to act as a conduit for protein secretion. contact with a host-cell membrane triggers the insertion of a pore into the target membrane, and eff ...200920043184
timing is everything: the regulation of type iii secretion.type three secretion systems (t3sss) are essential virulence determinants of many gram-negative bacteria. the t3ss is an injection device that can transfer bacterial virulence proteins directly into host cells. the apparatus is made up of a basal body that spans both bacterial membranes and an extracellular needle that possesses a channel that is thought to act as a conduit for protein secretion. contact with a host-cell membrane triggers the insertion of a pore into the target membrane, and eff ...200920043184
expanding the paradigms of plant pathogen life history and evolution of parasitic fitness beyond agricultural boundaries. 200920041212
the arabidopsis gene sigma factor-binding protein 1 plays a role in the salicylate- and jasmonate-mediated defence responses.the chloroplast-localized sib1 protein was previously identified by its interaction with sigma factor 1 (sig1), a component of the rna polymerase machinery responsible for transcription of plastid genes. the physiological function of sib1 is little known. we found that expression of sib1 is induced by infection with pseudomonas syringae, suggesting its possible involvement in the defence response. the sib1 loss-of-function mutation compromises induction of some defence-related genes triggered by ...201020040062
root growth is affected differently by mechanical wounding in seedlings of the ecological model species nicotiana attenuata and the molecular model species arabidopsis thaliana.in the ecological model plant nicotiana attenuata, leaf wounding or herbivory lead to a reduction of root growth via jasmonic acid (ja) signaling. a single wounding treatment is sufficient to induce this response; multiple wounding does not increase the plant growth reaction. in a recent study, in which ja bursts were elicited in leaves of the molecular model species arabidopsis thaliana in different ways,(1) we tested whether ja induces the same response there. root growth reduction was neither ...201020037470
hijacking the host ubiquitin pathway: structural strategies of bacterial e3 ubiquitin ligases.ubiquitinylation of proteins is a critical mechanism in regulating numerous eukaryotic cellular processes including cell cycle progression, inflammatory response, and vesicular trafficking. given the importance of ubiquitinylation, it is not surprising that several pathogenic bacteria have developed strategies to exploit various stages of the ubiquitin pathway for their own benefit. one such strategy is the delivery of bacterial 'effector' proteins into the host cell cytosol, which mimic the act ...200920036613
hijacking the host ubiquitin pathway: structural strategies of bacterial e3 ubiquitin ligases.ubiquitinylation of proteins is a critical mechanism in regulating numerous eukaryotic cellular processes including cell cycle progression, inflammatory response, and vesicular trafficking. given the importance of ubiquitinylation, it is not surprising that several pathogenic bacteria have developed strategies to exploit various stages of the ubiquitin pathway for their own benefit. one such strategy is the delivery of bacterial 'effector' proteins into the host cell cytosol, which mimic the act ...200920036613
isolation of novel pseudomonas syringae promoters and functional characterization in polyhydroxyalkanoate-producing pseudomonads.a library of genomic dna fragments of pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato dc3000 was constructed in a laczalpha-containing plasmid, pbs29. the library was used in a preliminary alpha-complementation-based screen to identify clones with promoter activity in escherichia coli. ten positive clones were sequenced and their locations in the chromosomal dna of dc3000 strain were mapped. five positive clones (p2, p3, p4, p6 and p8) were further assayed for promoter activity in three polyhydroxyalkanoate-pro ...201020034598
plant sphingolipids: decoding the enigma of the sphinx.sphingolipids are a ubiquitous class of lipids present in a variety of organisms including eukaryotes and bacteria. in the last two decades, research has focused on characterizing the individual species of this complex family of lipids, which has led to a new field of research called 'sphingolipidomics'. there are at least 500 (and perhaps thousands of) different molecular species of sphingolipids in cells, and in arabidopsis alone it has been reported that there are at least 168 different sphin ...201020028469
plant sphingolipids: decoding the enigma of the sphinx.sphingolipids are a ubiquitous class of lipids present in a variety of organisms including eukaryotes and bacteria. in the last two decades, research has focused on characterizing the individual species of this complex family of lipids, which has led to a new field of research called 'sphingolipidomics'. there are at least 500 (and perhaps thousands of) different molecular species of sphingolipids in cells, and in arabidopsis alone it has been reported that there are at least 168 different sphin ...201020028469
pebble and rock band: heuristic resolution of repeats and scaffolding in the velvet short-read de novo assembler.despite the short length of their reads, micro-read sequencing technologies have shown their usefulness for de novo sequencing. however, especially in eukaryotic genomes, complex repeat patterns are an obstacle to large assemblies.200920027311
npr1 protein regulates pathogenic and symbiotic interactions between rhizobium and legumes and non-legumes.legumes are unique in their ability to establish symbiotic interaction with rhizobacteria from rhizobium genus, which provide them with available nitrogen. nodulation factors (nfs) produced by rhizobium initiate legume root hair deformation and curling that entrap the bacteria, and allow it to grow inside the plant. in contrast, legumes and non-legumes activate defense responses when inoculated with pathogenic bacteria. one major defense pathway is mediated by salicylic acid (sa). sa is sensed a ...200920027302
a calcium/calmodulin-regulated member of the receptor-like kinase family confers cold tolerance in plants.cold is a limiting environmental factor that adversely affects plant growth and productivity. calcium/calmodulin-mediated signaling is believed to play a pivotal role in plant response to cold stress, but its exact role is not clearly understood. here, we report that crlk1, a novel calcium/calmodulin-regulated receptor-like kinase, is crucial for cold tolerance in plants. crlk1 has two calmodulin-binding sites with different affinities as follows: one located at residues 369-390 with a k(d) of 2 ...200920026608
a calcium/calmodulin-regulated member of the receptor-like kinase family confers cold tolerance in plants.cold is a limiting environmental factor that adversely affects plant growth and productivity. calcium/calmodulin-mediated signaling is believed to play a pivotal role in plant response to cold stress, but its exact role is not clearly understood. here, we report that crlk1, a novel calcium/calmodulin-regulated receptor-like kinase, is crucial for cold tolerance in plants. crlk1 has two calmodulin-binding sites with different affinities as follows: one located at residues 369-390 with a k(d) of 2 ...200920026608
amidoligases with atp-grasp, glutamine synthetase-like and acetyltransferase-like domains: synthesis of novel metabolites and peptide modifications of proteins.recent studies have shown that the ubiquitin system had its origins in ancient cofactor/amino acid biosynthesis pathways. preliminary studies also indicated that conjugation systems for other peptide tags on proteins, such as pupylation, have evolutionary links to cofactor/amino acid biosynthesis pathways. following up on these observations, we systematically investigated the non-ribosomal amidoligases of the atp-grasp, glutamine synthetase-like and acetyltransferase folds by classifying the kno ...200920023723
stimulation or inhibition: conflicting evidence for (+/-)-catechin's role as a chemical facilitator and disease protecting agent.the occurrence of plant hormesis is a poorly understood phenomenon, wherein low doses of phytotoxins unusually promote growth responses in higher plants. in contrast, negative plant-plant interactions mediated through secreted small molecular weight compounds initiate growth inhibitory responses. studies related to (+/-)-catechin mediated allelopathy have transpired both novel information and generated significant controversy. specifically, studies related to the phytotoxicity responses mediated ...201020023372
escherichia coli rnase r has dual activities, helicase and rnase.in escherichia coli, the cold shock response occurs when there is a temperature downshift from 37 degrees c to 15 degrees c, and this response is characterized by induction of several cold shock proteins, including the dead-box helicase csda, during the acclimation phase. csda is involved in a variety of cellular processes. our previous studies showed that the helicase activity of csda is critical for its function in cold shock acclimation of cells and that the only proteins that were able to co ...201020023028
escherichia coli rnase r has dual activities, helicase and rnase.in escherichia coli, the cold shock response occurs when there is a temperature downshift from 37 degrees c to 15 degrees c, and this response is characterized by induction of several cold shock proteins, including the dead-box helicase csda, during the acclimation phase. csda is involved in a variety of cellular processes. our previous studies showed that the helicase activity of csda is critical for its function in cold shock acclimation of cells and that the only proteins that were able to co ...201020023028
sensitive and specific detection of phaseolotoxigenic and nontoxigenic strains of pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola by taqman real-time pcr using site-specific recombinase gene sequences.pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola, the causative agent of halo blight, is the most important bacterial pathogen of bean. both nontoxigenic (tox(-)) and toxigenic (tox+) strains of this pathogen cause halo blight in beans. however, nontoxigenic strains cannot be detected by currently available molecular and serological tools. in this study, a taqman probe and primer set were designed based on the phage integrase family site-specific recombinase of p. s. pv. phaseolicola 1448a because it is kn ...201020022231
a receptor-like cytoplasmic kinase, bik1, associates with a flagellin receptor complex to initiate plant innate immunity.plants and animals rely on innate immunity to prevent infections by detection of microbe-associated molecular patterns (mamps) through pattern-recognition receptors (prrs). the plant prr fls2, a leucine-rich repeat-receptor kinase, recognizes bacterial flagellin and initiates immune signaling by association with another leucine-rich repeat-receptor-like kinase, bak1. it remains unknown how the fls2/bak1 receptor complex activates intracellular signaling cascades. here we identified the receptor- ...200920018686
a receptor-like cytoplasmic kinase, bik1, associates with a flagellin receptor complex to initiate plant innate immunity.plants and animals rely on innate immunity to prevent infections by detection of microbe-associated molecular patterns (mamps) through pattern-recognition receptors (prrs). the plant prr fls2, a leucine-rich repeat-receptor kinase, recognizes bacterial flagellin and initiates immune signaling by association with another leucine-rich repeat-receptor-like kinase, bak1. it remains unknown how the fls2/bak1 receptor complex activates intracellular signaling cascades. here we identified the receptor- ...200920018686
novel bifunctional nucleases, ombbd and atbbd1, are involved in abscisic acid-mediated callose deposition in arabidopsis.screening of the expressed sequence tag library of the wild rice species oryza minuta revealed an unknown gene that was rapidly and strongly induced in response to attack by a rice fungal pathogen (magnaporthe oryzae) and an insect (nilaparvata lugens) and by wounding, abscisic acid (aba), and methyl jasmonate treatments. its recombinant protein was identified as a bifunctional nuclease with both rnase and dnase activities in vitro. this gene was designated ombbd (for o. minuta bifunctional nucl ...201020018603
type iii secretion systems shape up as they ship out.virulence associated protein type iii secretion systems (t3sss) are intricately structured organic nanosyringes that achieve the translocation of bacterial proteins from the prokaryotic cytoplasm across three membranes into the host cytosol. the substrates for these systems number in the hundreds, with remarkably diverse biological activities, modulating host cell biology for the benefit of the pathogen. although there has been tremendous progress on the structure and function of the t3ss substr ...200920015680
type iii secretion systems shape up as they ship out.virulence associated protein type iii secretion systems (t3sss) are intricately structured organic nanosyringes that achieve the translocation of bacterial proteins from the prokaryotic cytoplasm across three membranes into the host cytosol. the substrates for these systems number in the hundreds, with remarkably diverse biological activities, modulating host cell biology for the benefit of the pathogen. although there has been tremendous progress on the structure and function of the t3ss substr ...200920015680
network properties of robust immunity in plants.two modes of plant immunity against biotrophic pathogens, effector triggered immunity (eti) and pattern-triggered immunity (pti), are triggered by recognition of pathogen effectors and microbe-associated molecular patterns (mamps), respectively. although the jasmonic acid (ja)/ethylene (et) and salicylic acid (sa) signaling sectors are generally antagonistic and important for immunity against necrotrophic and biotrophic pathogens, respectively, their precise roles and interactions in eti and pti ...200920011122
comprehensive functional analysis of mycobacterium tuberculosis toxin-antitoxin systems: implications for pathogenesis, stress responses, and evolution.toxin-antitoxin (ta) systems, stress-responsive genetic elements ubiquitous in microbial genomes, are unusually abundant in the major human pathogen mycobacterium tuberculosis. why m. tuberculosis has so many ta systems and what role they play in the unique biology of the pathogen is unknown. to address these questions, we have taken a comprehensive approach to identify and functionally characterize all the ta systems encoded in the m. tuberculosis genome. here we show that 88 putative ta system ...200920011113
serine/threonine protein phosphatases type 2a and their roles in stress signaling.serine/threonine protein phosphatases are ubiquitous enzymes in all eukaryotes but many of their physiological roles in plants remain unknown. the available results have demonstrated critical functions for these enzymes in the regulation of adaptive stress responses, and recent studies have directed attention to the functional roles of ser/thr phosphatases type 2a (pp2a) as components of stress signaling pathways. this review is focused primarily on plant pp2as and their participation in the con ...200920009558
functional diversity of the plant glycine-rich proteins superfamily.the first plant glycine-rich proteins (grps) have been isolated more than 20 years ago based on their specific expression pattern and/or modulation by several biotic and abiotic factors. this superfamily is characterized by the presence of a glycine-rich domain arranged in (gly)(n)-x repeats. the presence of additional motifs, as well as the nature of the glycine repeats, groups them in different classes. the diversity in structure as well as in expression pattern, modulation and sub-cellular lo ...201020009520
metabolomic, transcriptional, hormonal, and signaling cross-talk in superroot2.auxin homeostasis is pivotal for normal plant growth and development. the superroot2 (sur2) mutant was initially isolated in a forward genetic screen for auxin overproducers, and sur2 was suggested to control auxin conjugation and thereby regulate auxin homeostasis. however, the phenotype was not uniform and could not be described as a pure high auxin phenotype, indicating that knockout of cyp83b1 has multiple effects. subsequently, sur2 was identified as cyp83b1, a cytochrome p450 positioned at ...200920008451
metabolomic, transcriptional, hormonal, and signaling cross-talk in superroot2.auxin homeostasis is pivotal for normal plant growth and development. the superroot2 (sur2) mutant was initially isolated in a forward genetic screen for auxin overproducers, and sur2 was suggested to control auxin conjugation and thereby regulate auxin homeostasis. however, the phenotype was not uniform and could not be described as a pure high auxin phenotype, indicating that knockout of cyp83b1 has multiple effects. subsequently, sur2 was identified as cyp83b1, a cytochrome p450 positioned at ...200920008451
the cyclic nucleotide monophosphate domain of xanthomonas campestris global regulator clp defines a new class of cyclic di-gmp effectors.the widely conserved second messenger cyclic diguanosine monophosphate (c-di-gmp) plays a key role in quorum-sensing (qs)-dependent production of virulence factors in xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris. the detection of qs diffusible signal factor (dsf) by the sensor rpfc leads to the activation of response regulator rpfg, which activates virulence gene expression by degrading c-di-gmp. here, we show that a global regulator in the x. campestris pv. campestris qs regulatory pathway, clp, is a ...201020008070
the cyclic nucleotide monophosphate domain of xanthomonas campestris global regulator clp defines a new class of cyclic di-gmp effectors.the widely conserved second messenger cyclic diguanosine monophosphate (c-di-gmp) plays a key role in quorum-sensing (qs)-dependent production of virulence factors in xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris. the detection of qs diffusible signal factor (dsf) by the sensor rpfc leads to the activation of response regulator rpfg, which activates virulence gene expression by degrading c-di-gmp. here, we show that a global regulator in the x. campestris pv. campestris qs regulatory pathway, clp, is a ...201020008070
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