Publications

are microbial indicators and pathogens correlated? a statistical analysis of 40 years of research.	indicator organisms are used to assess public health risk in recreational waters, to highlight periods of challenge to drinking water treatment plants, and to determine the effectiveness of treatment and the quality of distributed water. however, many have questioned their efficacy for indicating pathogen risk. five hundred and forty cases representing independent indicator-pathogen correlations were obtained from the literature for the period 1970-2009. the data were analyzed to assess factors ...	2011	21942192
use of clostridium perfringens enterotoxin and the enterotoxin receptor-binding domain (c-cpe) for cancer treatment: opportunities and challenges.	clostridium perfringens enterotoxin (cpe) causes the symptoms associated with several common gastrointestinal diseases. cpe is a 35 kda polypeptide consisting of three structured domains, that is, c-terminal domain i (responsible for receptor binding), domain ii (responsible for oligomerization and membrane insertion), and domain iii (which may participate in physical changes when the cpe protein inserts into membranes). native cpe binds to claudin receptors, which are components of the tight ju ...	2012	21941545
modulation of bacterial translocation in mice mediated through lactose and human milk oligosaccharides.	massive resection of the small intestine in infants is imposed to the regulation of several intestinal pathological situations, as intestinal adaptation cannot be relied upon. many nutritional disturbances are occurring following surgery procedure. in this vein, long-term parenteral feeding is adopt to improve prognosis not always successfully. clostridia and more specifically clostridium perfringens, are suspected to participate in the physiopathology of the rising situation. in order to invest ...	2011	21939778
antimicrobial activity of butyrate glycerides toward salmonella typhimurium and clostridium perfringens.	the antimicrobial activities of n-butyric acid and its derivatives against salmonella typhimurium and clostridium perfringens were studied. n-butyric acid and its derivatives (monobutyrin and a mixture of mono-, di-, and tri-glycerides of butyric acid) were added at different concentrations (ranging from 250 to 7,000 mg/kg to a media inoculated with either salmonella typhimurium or c. perfringens. the antimicrobial activity of butyric acid against c. perfringens was measured at 2 bacterium conce ...	2011	21934003
Lipolysis-stimulated lipoprotein receptor (LSR) is the host receptor for the binary toxin Clostridium difficile transferase (CDT).	Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) causes antibiotic-associated diarrhea and pseudomembranous colitis. Hypervirulent strains of the pathogen, which are responsible for increased morbidity and mortality of CDI, produce the binary actin-ADP ribosylating toxin Clostridium difficile transferase (CDT) in addition to the Rho-glucosylating toxins A and B. CDT depolymerizes the actin cytoskeleton, increases adherence and colonization of Clostridia by induction of microtubule-based cell protrusions an ...	2011	21930894
effects of necrotic enteritis challenge on intestinal micro-architecture and mucin profile.	1. this study investigated the effect of eimeria spp./clostridium perfringens induced necrotic enteritis and traditional antibiotic preventatives on intestinal micro-architecture and mucin profile. 2. a total of 600 cobb 500 broiler chickens were randomly assigned to the following three groups: (i) unchallenged, (ii) challenged, and (iii) zinc bacitracin/monensin (znb/monensin) (n = 25 chickens/pen, 8 pens/group). the challenged and znb/monensin chickens were individually inoculated with eimeria ...	2011	21919578
(1)h, (15)n and (13)c backbone and side-chain resonance assignments of a family 32 carbohydrate-binding module from the clostridium perfringens nagh.	the gram-positive anaerobe clostridium perfringens is an opportunistic bacterial pathogen that secretes a battery of enzymes involved in glycan degradation. these glycoside hydrolases are thought to be involved in turnover of mucosal layer glycans, and in the spread of major toxins commonly associated with the development of gastrointestinal diseases and gas gangrene in humans. these enzymes employ multi-modularity and carbohydrate-binding function to degrade extracellular eukaryotic host sugars ...	2011	21912839
Clostridium perfringens iota-toxin b induces rapid cell necrosis.	Clostridium perfringens iota-toxin is a binary toxin composed of an enzyme component (Ia) and a binding component (Ib). Each component alone lacks toxic activity, but together they produce cytotoxic effects. We examined the cytotoxicity of iota-toxin Ib in eight cell lines. A431 and A549 cells were susceptible to Ib, but MDCK, Vero, CHO, Caco-2, HT-29, and DLD-1 cells were not. Ib bound and formed oligomers in the membranes of A431 and MDCK cells. However, Ib entered MDCK cells but not A431 cell ...	2011	21911469
Potent inhibition of bacterial neuraminidase activity by pterocarpans isolated from the roots of Lespedeza bicolor.	Bacterial neuraminidase has been highlighted as a key enzyme for pathogenic infection and sepsis. Six pterocarpans displaying significant levels of neuraminidase inhibitory activity were isolated from the root bark of Lespedeza bicolor. The isolated compounds were identified as three new pterocarpans (1-3) together with known compounds erythrabyssin II (4), lespebuergine G4 (5), and 1-methoxyerythrabyssin II (6). The new compounds were characterized as bicolosin A (1), bicolosin B (2), and bicol ...	2011	21911291
Structural analysis of CPF_2247, a novel a-amylase from Clostridium perfringens.	CPF_2247 from Clostridium perfringens ATCC 13124 was identified as a putative carbohydrate-active enzyme by its low sequence identity to endo-ß-1,4-glucanases belonging to family 8 of the glycoside hydrolase classification. The X-ray crystal structure of CPF_2247 determined to 2.0 Å resolution by single-wavelength anomalous dispersion using seleno-methionine-substituted protein revealed an (a/a)(6) barrel fold. A large cleft on the surface of the protein contains residues that are structurally c ...	2011	21905105
Selection of herbal therapeutics against deltatoxin mediated Clostridial infections.	Clostridium perfringens (a versatile pathogenic bacterium) secretes enterotoxins (the deltatoxin, virulent factor) and causes food borne gastroenteritis and gasgangrene. The organism was isolated and characterized from improperly cooked meat and poultry samples. The isolated organism showed multiple drug resistance indicating that the treatment is challenging. Hence, there is need for improved therapeutic agents. The rational design of improved therapeutics requires the crystal structure for the ...	2011	21904424
severe hemolytic crisis and multiorgan failure secondary to clostridium perfringens infection.		2011	21903298
pervasive pneumatosis in a patient on immunosuppressive agents.		2011	21890774
detection of enterotoxigenic clostridium perfringens in meat samples by using molecular methods.	to prevent food-borne bacterial diseases and to trace bacterial contamination events to foods, microbial source tracking (mst) methods provide important epidemiological information. to apply molecular methods to mst, it is necessary not only to amplify bacterial cells to detection limit levels but also to prepare dna with reduced inhibitory compounds and contamination. isolates carrying the clostridium perfringens enterotoxin gene (cpe) on the chromosome or a plasmid rank among the most importan ...	2011	21890671
Microbial community analysis and identification of alternative host-specific fecal indicators in fecal and river water samples using pyrosequencing.	It is important to know the comprehensive microbial communities of fecal pollution sources and receiving water bodies for microbial source tracking. Pyrosequencing targeting the V1-V3 hypervariable regions of the 16S rRNA gene was used to investigate the characteristics of bacterial and Bacteroidales communities in major fecal sources and river waters. Diversity analysis indicated that cow feces had the highest diversities in the bacterial and Bacteroidales group followed by the pig sample, with ...	2011	21887641
tailored ß-cyclodextrin blocks the translocation pores of binary exotoxins from c. botulinum and c. perfringens and protects cells from intoxication.	clostridium botulinum c2 toxin and clostridium perfringens iota toxin are binary exotoxins, which adp-ribosylate actin in the cytosol of mammalian cells and thereby destroy the cytoskeleton. c2 and iota toxin consists of two individual proteins, an enzymatic active (a-) component and a separate receptor binding and translocation (b-) component. the latter forms a complex with the a-component on the surface of target cells and after receptor-mediated endocytosis, it mediates the translocation of ...	2011	21887348
Functional insight into the C-terminal extension of halolysin SptA from haloarchaeon Natrinema sp. J7.	Halolysin SptA from haloarchaeon Natrinema sp. J7 consists of a subtilisin-like catalytic domain and a C-terminal extension (CTE) containing two cysteine residues. In this report, we have investigated the function of the CTE using recombinant enzymes expressed in Haloferax volcanii WFD11. Deletion of the CTE greatly reduced but did not abolish protease activity, which suggests that the CTE is not essential for enzyme folding. Mutational analysis suggests that residues Cys303 and Cys338 within th ...	2011	21886797
Analysis of the germination of individual Clostridium perfringens spores and its heterogeneity.	To analyse the germination and its heterogeneity of individual spores of Clostridium perfringens.	2011	21883730
gynecologic clostridial toxic shock in women of reproductive age.	clostridial toxic shock, caused by clostridium sordellii or clostridium perfringens, is a rare and largely fatal syndrome among reproductive-aged women with genital tract infection, and may occur following various pregnancy outcomes or without pregnancy. clinicians should be aware of common clinical features of this very rapidly-progressing syndrome including abdominal pain, tachycardia, hypotension, third-space fluid accumulations, hemoconcentration, and marked leukemoid response, often with la ...	2011	21882086
acid phosphatase test proves superior to standard phenotypic identification procedure for clostridium perfringens strains isolated from water.	clostridium perfringens is used as an indicator for persistent faecal pollution as well as to monitor the efficacy of water treatment processes. for these purposes, differentiation between c. perfringens and other clostridia is essential and is routinely carried out by phenotypic standard tests as proposed in the iso/cd 6461-2:2002 (iso_lgmn: lactose fermentation, gelatine liquidation, motility and nitrate reduction). because the iso_lgmn procedure is time consuming and labour intensive, the aci ...	2011	21872622
Antibacterial activity of different degree of hydrolysis of palm kernel expeller peptides against spore-forming and non-spore-forming bacteria.	The goal of this study was to determine inhibitory effect of palm kernel expeller (PKE) peptides of different degree of hydrolysis (DH %) against spore-forming bacteria Bacillus cereus, Bacillus circulans, Bacillus coagulans, Bacillus licheniformis, Bacillus megaterium, Bacillus pumilus, Bacillus stearothermophillus, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus thuringiensis, Clostridium perfringens; and non-spore-forming bacteria Escherichia coli, Lisinibacillus sphaericus, Listeria monocytogenes, Pseudomonas a ...	2011	21848644
epidemiology of food-borne disease outbreaks in the french armed forces: a review of investigations conducted from 1999 to 2009.	objective: aim of this study was to describe the main characteristics of food-borne disease outbreaks (fbdos) in the french armed forces from 1999 to 2009. methods: fbdos are reported to the military epidemiological surveillance system, which concerns all active military personnel. investigation reports published from 1999 to 2009 were reviewed. results: among the 180 fbdos reported, 48.3% occurred overseas. the mean reporting rate was 2.4 outbreaks p.100,000 in france and 26.7 p.100,000 oversea ...	2011	21840337
structure of the food-poisoning clostridium perfringens enterotoxin reveals similarity to the aerolysin-like pore-forming toxins.	clostridium perfringens enterotoxin (cpe) is a major cause of food poisoning and antibiotic-associated diarrhea. upon its release from c. perfringens spores, cpe binds to its receptor, claudin, at the tight junctions between the epithelial cells of the gut wall and subsequently forms pores in the cell membranes. a number of different complexes between cpe and claudin have been observed, and the process of pore formation has not been fully elucidated. we have determined the three-dimensional stru ...	2011	21839091
the cysteine protease +¦-clostripain is not essential for the pathogenesis of clostridium perfringens-mediated myonecrosis.	clostridium perfringens is the causative agent of clostridial myonecrosis or gas gangrene and produces many different extracellular toxins and enzymes, including the cysteine protease +¦-clostripain. mutation of the +¦-clostripain structural gene, ccp, alters the turnover of secreted extracellular proteins in c. perfringens, but the role of +¦-clostripain in disease pathogenesis is not known. we insertionally inactivated the ccp gene c. perfringens strain 13 using targetron technology, construct ...	2011	21829506
clostron-mediated engineering of clostridium.	the genus clostridium is a diverse assemblage of gram positive, anaerobic, endospore-forming bacteria. whilst certain species have achieved notoriety as important animal and human pathogens (e.g. clostridium difficile, clostridium botulinum, clostridium tetani, and clostridium perfringens), the vast majority of the genus are entirely benign, and are able to undertake all manner of useful biotransformations. prominent amongst them are those species able to produce the biofuels, butanol and ethano ...	2011	21815105
evidence for a prepore stage in the action of clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin.	clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin (etx) rapidly kills mdck ii cells at 37°c, but not 4°c. the current study shows that, in mdck ii cells, etx binds and forms an oligomeric complex equally well at 37°c and 4°c but only forms a pore at 37°c. however, the complex formed in mdck cells treated with etx at 4°c has the potential to form an active pore, since shifting those cells to 37°c results in rapid cytotoxicity. those results suggested that the block in pore formation at 4°c involves temperatu ...	2011	21814565
necrotic enteritis in broilers: an updated review on the pathogenesis.	clostridium perfringens-induced necrotic enteritis and related subclinical disease have become economically significant problems for the broiler industry. fortunately, scientific interest in this topic has grown: new c. perfringens virulence factors have been discovered and new insight gained about the pathogenesis of necrotic enteritis. it has been shown that alpha toxin, for a long time thought to be the key virulence factor, is not essential for the development of the disease. moreover, it is ...	2011	21812711
a toxicological evaluation of a claudin modulator, the c-terminal fragment of clostridium perfringens enterotoxin, in mice.	tight junctions (tjs) maintain cellular polarity between the apical and basolateral region of epithelial cells. claudin, a tetra-transmembrane protein, plays a pivotal role in the barrier function of tjs. we previously found that a claudin modulator, the c-terminal fragment of clostridium perfringens enterotoxin (c-cpe), may be a promising candidate for improving the mucosal absorption of drugs. c-cpe is a fragment of enterotoxin, and putative cpe claudin receptors are highly expressed in liver ...	2011	21812332
clostridium perfringens tpel is expressed during sporulation.	clostridium perfringenstpel belongs to the family of large clostridial toxins. although recent studies demonstrated the expression of tpel during vegetative growth nothing is known about tpel expression during sporulation. our current study demonstrated that tpel: (i) is also expressed during sporulation; (ii) expression is dependent on the master regulator of sporulation, spo0a, and the sporulation-specific sigma factor, sige; and (iii) is localized to the mother cell compartment of the sporula ...	2011	21810463
physical, chemical and microbiological quality of ice used to cool drinks and foods in greece and its public health implications.	ice used for direct human consumption or to preserve foods and cool down drinks can be contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms and may potentially become a vehicle for consumer's infection. to evaluate physical, chemical and microbiological quality of commercial ice and ice used for fish and seafood, 100 ice samples collected at 10 different retail points in the region of epirus were studied. the following microbiological parameters were determined: total coliforms, fecal coliforms, salmonel ...	2011	21802520
humoral immunity and injection-site reactions in cattle vaccinated with a multivalent clostridial vaccine administered via subcutaneous injection or via transdermal needle-free injection.	objective-to evaluate injection-site reactions and serum antibody titers in cattle vaccinated with a clostridial vaccine administered sc or via needle-free transdermal injection. animals-sixteen 11-to 12-month-old herefords. procedures-cattle in 2 groups were vaccinated on days 0 and 28 with a commercially available multivalent clostridial vaccine administered sc or transdermally injection sites and serum antibody titers were evaluated at several time points after vaccination. serum antibody tit ...	2011	21801072
host serum factor triggers germination of clostridium perfringens spores lacking the cortex hydrolysis machinery.	clostridium perfringens type a is the causative agent of a variety of histotoxic and enteric diseases. the ability of c. perfringens spores to germinate in vivo might be due to the presence of nutrient germinants in the host tissue and blood. in the current study, we investigated the ability of spores of c. perfringens wild-type and mutant strains to germinate in blood. results indicate that spores of all three surveyed c. perfringens wild-type isolates germinated better in blood than in brain h ...	2011	21799201
the role of an early salmonella typhimurium infection as a predisposing factor for necrotic enteritis in a laboratory challenge model.	necrotic enteritis (ne) caused by clostridium perfringens (cp) in poultry is an important bacterial disease in terms of economic implications. the disease is multifactorial and is invariably associated with predisposing factors. in the present experiments, we investigated the potential predisposing role of neonatal salmonella typhimurium (st) infection for ne-associated mortality in a laboratory challenge model. in two experiments, day-of-hatch chicks were randomly assigned to four groups: group ...	2011	21793451
a rare case of secondary bacterial peritonitis from clostridium perfringens in an adult patient with noncirrhotic ascites and a krukenberg tumor: report of a case.	secondary bacterial peritonitis, in comparison to spontaneous, presents with a surgically treatable intraabdominal source for infection such as a gastrointestinal perforation or abscess and is nearly always polymicrobial. we present a rare case of secondary bacterial peritonitis from clostridium perfringens in an adult patient with noncirrhotic ascites and a krukenberg tumor.	2011	21785606
characterization of the ß?-crystallin domains of ß?-cat, a non-lens ß?-crystallin and trefoil factor complex, from the skin of the toad bombina maxima.	ß?-cat is a naturally existing 72-kda complex of a non-lens ß?-crystallin (a-subunit, cat-a) and a trefoil factor (ß-subunit, cat-ß) that contains a non-covalently linked form of aß(2) and was isolated from the skin secretions of the toad bombina maxima. the n-terminal region of cat-a (cat-an, residues 1-170) contains two ß?-crystallin domains while the c-terminal region (cat-ac) has sequence homology to the membrane insertion domain of the clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin. to examine the b ...	2011	21784123
cellular vacuolation induced by clostridium perfringens epsilon-toxin.	the epsilon-toxin of clostridium perfringens forms a heptamer in the membranes of madin-darby canine kidney (mdck) cells, leading to cell death. here, we report that it caused the vacuolation of mdck cells. the toxin induced vacuolation in a dose- and time-dependent manner. the monomer of the toxin formed oligomers on lipid rafts in membranes of the cells. methyl-beta-cyclodextrin and peg4000 inhibited the vacuolation. epsilon-toxin was internalized into the cells. confocal microscopy revealed t ...	2011	21781280
swimmer risk of gastrointestinal illness from exposure to tropical coastal waters impacted by terrestrial dry-weather runoff.	this study used molecular methods to measure concentrations of four enteric viruses (adenovirus, enterovirus, norovirus gi, and norovirus gii) and fecal source tracking markers (human, ruminant, and pig bacteroidales) in land-based runoff from 22 tropical streams on o'ahu, hawai'i. each stream was sampled twice in the morning and afternoon during dry weather. viruses and human bacteroidales were widespread in the streams. watershed septic tank densities were positively associated with higher occ ...	2011	21780808
pathogenic bacteria in sewage treatment plants as revealed by 454 pyrosequencing.	this study applied 454 high-throughput pyrosequencing to analyze potentially pathogenic bacteria in activated sludge from 14 municipal wastewater treatment plants (wwtps) across four countries (china, u.s., canada, and singapore), plus the influent and effluent of one of the 14 wwtps. a total of 370?870 16s rrna gene sequences with average length of 207 bps were obtained and all of them were assigned to corresponding taxonomic ranks by using rdp classifier and megan. it was found that the most a ...	2011	21780772
[antimicrobial activity of bacteriocin s760 produced by enterococcus faecium strain lwp760].	antimicrobial activity of bacteriocin s760 (enterocin) produced by enterococcusfaecium strain lwp760 was studied. bacteriocin s760 is a cationic, hydrophobic, and heat stable peptide with the molecular weight of 5.5 kda and pl of 9.8. enterocin s760 is shown to inhibit in vitro the growth both of sensitive and resistant to antibacterials gramnegative and grampositive bacteria of 25 species. mics of the bacteriocin s760 vary between 0.05-1.6 mg/l for escherichia coli 0157:h117, salmonella typhimu ...	2011	21780664
colostrum and amniotic fluid from different species exhibit similar immunomodulating effects in bacterium-stimulated dendritic cells.	the fetus and newborn are immunologically immature. bioactive compounds in amniotic fluid (af) and maternal milk therefore play a key role in the immunological development of the infant intestine. we hypothesized that colostrum and af exert similar immunomodulatory effects on the developing immune system. hence, bone marrow-derived murine dendritic cells (bmdcs) were co-incubated with clostridium perfringens a or escherichia coli nissle 1917 and porcine, bovine, or human af, colostrum/milk whey ...	2011	21777143
membrane translocation of binary actin-adp-ribosylating toxins from clostridium difficile and clostridium perfringens is facilitated by cyclophilin a and hsp90.	some hypervirulent strains of clostridium difficile produce the binary actin-adp-ribosylating toxin cdt in addition to the rho-glucosylating toxins a and b. it has been suggested that the presence of cdt increases the severity of the c. difficile-associated diseases including pseudomembranous colitis. cdt contains a binding and translocation component cdtb, which mediates the transport of the separate enzyme component cdta into the cytosol of target cells, where cdta modifies actin. here, we hav ...	2011	21768281
etiologic agents and diseases found associated with clinical aspergillosis in falcons.	the aim of this study was to describe parasitological, microbiological, and pathological findings associated with the isolation of aspergillus species in 94?clinically diseased captive falcons from dubai. concomitant agents and/or diseases were identified in 64?cases, causing either single (n = 36) or multiple coinfections (n = 28). diagnoses found more often in association with aspergillosis were chronic fatigue and immune dysfunction syndrome (cfids) (n = 29), caryospora sp. (n = 16), serratos ...	2011	21754937
molecular typing of clostridium perfringens toxins recovered from central saudi arabia.	this study reports on comparisons between polymerase chain reaction (pcr) and conventional diagnostic methods for typing clostridium perfringens toxins collected from central saudi arabia.	2011	21748201
clostridium perfringens endophthalmitis following perforating eye injury.	a 59-year-old man presented with endophthalmitis, following a perforating eye injury from pulling out a wire that was embedded in the ground. on presentation, his vision was perception of light (pl). tetanus toxoid was given, and he was commenced on ciprofloxacin. a primary repair was performed. conjunctival swabs, discharge from wound site and anterior chamber aspirate were sent for culture. the eye was tense and the anterior chamber was full of a gelatinous brown substance which precluded perf ...	2009	21747903
induction of neurite-outgrowth in pc12 cells by alpha-toxin from clostridium perfringens.	alpha-toxin-induced phosphorylation of pdk1 via the tyrosine kinase a (trka) receptor signaling pathway plays an important role in the activation of rabbit neutrophils. the relation between the toxin and trka, however, remains poorly understood. here, we show that the toxin-induced phosphorylation of trka is closely related to the induction of neurite-outgrowth in pc12 cells. the toxin induced neurite-outgrowth and phosphorylation of trka in the cells in a dose-dependent manner. k252a, a trka in ...	2011	21740889
effect of trypsin inhibitor activity in soya bean on growth performance, protein digestibility and incidence of sub-clinical necrotic enteritis in broiler chicken flocks.	1. the effect of three different levels of dietary trypsin inhibitor activity (achieved by varying the amount of non-toasted full fat soya bean in replacement for toasted full fat soya bean) on the incidence of spontaneously-occurring sub-clinical necrotic enteritis (ne) in broiler chickens was compared. a fourth dietary treatment compared the effect of a diet that used potato protein concentrate as the major protein source. the determined trypsin inhibitor activity increased with the increasing ...	2011	21732882
antimicrobial susceptibility of clostridium perfringens isolates of bovine, chicken, porcine, and turkey origin from ontario.	antimicrobial susceptibilities and toxin types were determined for 275 clostridium perfringens isolates collected in ontario in the spring of 2005. minimal inhibitory concentrations (mics) of c. perfringens isolates for 12 antimicrobials used in therapy, prophylaxis, and/or growth promotion of cattle (n = 40), swine (n = 75), turkeys (n = 50), and chickens (n = 100) were determined using the microbroth dilution method. statistical analyses and mic distributions showed reduced susceptibility to b ...	2011	21731178
chapter 2-12-6. anaerobic infections (individual fields): food poisoning due to clostridium perfringens.		2011	21728112
a novel toxin regulator, the cpe1446-cpe1447 protein heteromeric complex, controls toxin genes in clostridium perfringens.	clostridium perfringensis a gram-positive anaerobic spore-forming bacterium that is widespread in environmental soil and sewage, as well as in animal intestines. it is also a causative agent of diseases in humans and other animals, and it produces numerous extracellular enzymes and toxins. although these toxins have been characterized in detail, regulators of toxin genes are less well understood. the present study identified cpe1447 and cpe1446 as novel regulators of toxin gene expression. cpe14 ...	2011	21725013
hygienic quality and antibiotic resistance profile of sliced butchery.	in order to investigate the microbiological quality of different meat products on the greek market, 200 samples were collected from the following preparations: boiled turkey (n=50), boiled pork ham (n=50), smoked turkey (n=50) and smoked pork ham (n=50). in all cold meat preparations clostridium perfringens vegetative and spore forms, staphylococcus aureus, escherichia coli and other clostridium sp lec(-), as well as lactobacillus, bacillus sp. and salmonella sp. were recovered. for instance bac ...	2011	21722746
evolution of clostridia and streptomycetes in full-scale composting facilities and pilot drums equipped with on-line temperature monitoring and aeration.	the evolution of sporulating bacteria in full-scale composting facilities with online temperature monitoring has been poorly studied, although organic matter recycling increases. we analysed clostridium perfringens and sulphite-reducing clostridia (src) by cultivation, and streptomycetes by real-time pcr in five full-scale, temperature-monitored and aerated composting processes, and two pilot-scale drum composters. facilities composted woodchips, sawdust, peat, or bark amended sludge or source-s ...	2011	21719280
claudin-4: functional studies beyond the tight junction.	claudin-4 is an unusual member of the claudin family; in addition to its role in epithelial tight junction barrier function, it is a receptor for the clostridium perfringens enterotoxin. we have also found that claudin-4 is regulated in mucosal epithelium m cells, both in increased expression of the protein and in redistribution into endocytosis vesicles. our ongoing studies are studying the potential for developing ligands specific to claudin-4 for targeted delivery of cargo such as proteins an ...	2011	21717353
interactions between clostridium perfringens enterotoxin and claudins.	clostridium perfringens enterotoxin (cpe), a single polypeptide of approximately 35 kda in size, is -associated with type a food poisoning and such non-foodborne gastrointestinal diseases as antibiotic-associated diarrhea and sporadic diarrhea. cpe action begins with binding of the toxin to a claudin -receptor, forming a ôê+90 kda small complex that then rapidly oligomerizes into a hexamer of ôê+450 kda termed ch-1 (cpe hexamer-1). ch-1 is essentially a pore through which calcium gains entry to ...	2011	21717349
unexpected wide substrate specificity of c. perfringens +¦-toxin phospholipase c.	clostridium perfringens phospholipase c (cpplc), also called +¦-toxin, is the main virulence factor for gas gangrene in humans. the lipase activity serves the bacterium to generate lipid signals in the host eukaryotic cell, and ultimately to degrade the host cell membranes. several previous reports indicated that cpplc was specific for phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin. molecular docking studies described in this paper predict favorable interactions of the cpplc active site with other phosph ...	2011	21704605
factors associated with the quality of well water and the prevalence of waterborne diseases in the municipality of abomey-calavi in benin.	the objective of this work is to assess the factors associated with the water quality of household wells, suggest solutions to improve it, and study the prevalence of water-borne diseases in this community. the quality of well water and the prevalence of waterborne diseases in the municipality were studied by analysis of the microbiological indicators currently used to assess drinking-water quality and the retrospective study of waterborne diseases treated in the local health centres. the wells ...	2011	21700557
eradication of chemotherapy-resistant cd44+ human ovarian cancer stem cells in mice by intraperitoneal administration of clostridium perfringens enterotoxin.	background: emerging evidence has suggested that the capability to sustain tumor formation, growth, and chemotherapy resistance in ovarian as well as other human malignancies exclusively resides in a small proportion of tumor cells termed cancer stem cells. during the characterization of cd44(+) ovarian cancer stem cells, we found a high expression of the genes encoding for claudin-4. because this tight junction protein is the natural high-affinity receptor for clostridium perfringens enterotoxi ...	2011	21692061
acute diarrhoea: an unusual presentation.	an obese diabetic male presented with self limiting diarrhoea of 1 day duration, which had started after he ate sausages. examination was unrevealing except for persistent low blood pressure. computed tomographic (ct) scan, done to rule out retroperitoneal bleed, incidentally showed air in the gall bladder. he underwent emergent cholecystectomy, and a gangrenous gall bladder that grew clostridium perfringens was removed. emphysematous cholecystitis is not so infrequent, although only rarely does ...	2009	21686790
efficient inhibition of germination of coat-deficient bacterial spores by multivalent metal cations, including terbium (tb3+).	release of dipicolinic acid (dpa) and its fluorescence with terbium (tb(3+)) allow rapid measurement of the germination and viability of spores of bacillus and clostridium species. however, germination of coat-deficient bacillus spores was strongly inhibited by tb(3+) and some other multivalent cations. tb(3+) also inhibited germination of coat-deficient clostridium perfringens spores.	2011	21685163
avian necrotic enteritis: experimental models, host immunity, pathogenesis, risk factors, and vaccine development.	the increasing trends of legislative restrictions and voluntary removal of antibiotic growth promoters worldwide has already affected, and will continue to affect, poultry production and animal health. necrotic enteritis (ne) is being considered among the most important infectious diseases in the current poultry production system globally, with an estimated annual economic loss of more than $2 billion, largely attributable to medical treatments and impaired growth performance. thus, there is an ...	2011	21673152
mutated c-terminal fragments of clostridium perfringens enterotoxin have increased affinity to claudin-4 and reversibly modulate tight junctions in vitro.	passage across epithelial cell sheets is the first step in drug absorption. tight junctions (tjs) are located between adjacent epithelial cells and seal the intercellular space preventing leakage of solutes. claudin, a tetra-transmembrane protein family, is a pivotal functional and structural component of the tj barrier. modulation of the claudin-based tj seal is a strategy for mucosal drug absorption. we previously found that a claudin-4 binder, a c-terminal fragment of clostridium perfringens ...	2011	21672529
[abscess formation after puncture of a thyroid cyst - a case report.]	acute suppurative thyroiditis is a rarity and review of literature reveals a circumscript number of cases. a case of thyroid abscess formation after punction of a preexistent thyroid cyst is reported. microbiological examination detected the bacterium clostridium perfringens. the therapeutic approach is outlined in this report.ôçâ	2011	21667445
effects of land uses on fecal indicator bacteria in the water and soil of a tropical watershed.	effects of different land uses on densities of escherichia coli, enterococci, and clostridium perfringens in the water and soil of a tropical watershed were investigated. densities of fecal indicator bacteria (fibs) in the watershed exhibited a clear land-use dependency in the stream water. significantly higher concentrations were detected in the urban portion of the stream (417, 420, and 44 cfu 100 ml(-1) for e. coli, enterococci, and c. perfringens, respectively) than in the forest portion (54 ...	2011	21666390
clinicopathological and immunological studies on toxoids vaccine as a successful alternative in controlling clostridial infection in broilers.	the present study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy and safety of three vaccination regimes of clostridium perfringens (c.-áperfringens) type a, c and combined a&c toxoids based on their clinical signs and immunological effects. the vaccines were administered two times at two weeks interval (7 & 21 days old), then the birds were challenged (35 days old) with virulent strains of c.-áperfringens type a, c and combined a&c. blood samples were taken one week after the first and second vaccinati ...	2011	21664285
[spontaneous clostridium infection--often a post-mortem diagnosis].	infections with clostridium species occur very seldom but then often as a lethal disease. they are mainly associated with trauma, surgery and malignancies, but can also occur with dermal and intestinal infections, burns and septic abortion. the development of gas gangrene is insidious and progression is very rapid. so it may stay unrealized until death and is often diagnosed only at autopsy.	2011	21661254
claudin-4-targeted therapy using clostridium perfringens enterotoxin for prostate cancer.	background: clostridium perfringens enterotoxin (cpe) triggers lysis of epithelial cells through binding to tight-junction proteins claudin-3 (cldn3) and cldn4, which are over-expressed in prostate cancer. we investigated the potential of cldn-targeted therapy using cpe. methods: we investigated the expression levels and subcellular localization of cldn3 and cldn4 in primary human prostate cancer tissues, human prostate cancer cell lines (22rv1, du145, and pc3) and normal human prostate epitheli ...	2011	21656836
identification of novel clostridium perfringens type e strains that carry an iota toxin plasmid with a functional enterotoxin gene.	clostridium perfringens enterotoxin (cpe) is a major virulence factor for human gastrointestinal diseases, such as food poisoning and antibiotic associated diarrhea. the cpe-encoding gene (cpe) can be chromosomal or plasmid-borne. recent development of conventional pcr cpe-genotyping assays makes it possible to identify cpe location (chromosomal or plasmid) in type a isolates. initial studies for developing cpe genotyping assays indicated that all cpe-positive strains isolated from sickened pati ...	2011	21655254
rapid label-free identification of mixed bacterial infections by surface plasmon resonance.	abstract: background: early detection of mixed aerobic-anaerobic infection has been a challenge in clinical practice due to the phenotypic changes in complex environments. surface plasmon resonance (spr) biosensor is widely used to detect dna-dna interaction and offers a sensitive and label-free approach in dna research. methods: in this study, we developed a single-stranded dna (ssdna) amplification technique and modified the traditional spr detection system for rapid and simultaneous detection ...	2011	21649913
expression of a clostridium perfringens type iv pilin by neisseria gonorrhoeae mediates adherence to muscle cells.	clostridium perfringens is an anaerobic, gram-positive bacterium that causes a range of diseases in humans, including lethal gas gangrene. we have recently shown that strains of c. perfringens move across the surface of agar plates using a unique type iv pili (tfp)-mediated social motility that had not been previously described. based on sequence homology to pilins in gram-negative bacteria, c. perfringens appears to have two pilin subunits, pila1 and pila2. structural prediction analysis indica ...	2011	21646450
potential protective immunogenicity of recombinant clostridium perfringens α-β2-β1 fusion toxin in mice, sows and cows.	clostridial toxins are main pathogenic virulence of clostridium perfringens that have been associated with a wide range of diseases in both humans and domestic animals. genetically engineered toxoids have been shown to function as potential vaccine candidates in the prevention of clostridium derived infectious diseases. in this study, we have developed recombinant α-toxin (cpa), β2/β1-fusion toxin (cpb2b1) and α/β2/β1 trivalent fusion-toxin (cpab2b1) as vaccine candidates that may be used to vac ...	2011	21641956
comparative genomics of four closely related clostridium perfringens bacteriophages reveals variable evolution among core genes with therapeutic potential.	abstract: background: because biotechnological uses of bacteriophage gene products as alternatives to conventional antibiotics will require a thorough understanding of their genomic context, we sequenced and analyzed the genomes of four closely related phages isolated from clostridium perfringens, an important agricultural and human pathogen. results: phage whole-genome tetra-nucleotide signatures and proteomic tree topologies correlated closely with host phylogeny. comparisons of our phage geno ...	2011	21631945
fatal case of clostridium perfringens enteritis and bacteraemia in south africa.	clostridium perfringens is an important anaerobic pathogen causing foodborne and non-foodborne gastrointestinal diseases in humans and animals. this pathogen is also the more common clostridium species associated with bacteraemia. we report on a fatal case of c. perfringens infection in an adult with type 2 diabetes.	2011	21628819
development and application of a mouse intestinal loop model to study the in vivo action of clostridium perfringens enterotoxin.	clostridium perfringens enterotoxin (cpe) is responsible for causing the gastrointestinal symptoms of c. perfringens type a food poisoning, the 2(nd) most commonly-identified bacterial foodborne illness in the usa. cpe is produced by sporulating c. perfringens cells in the small intestinal lumen, where it then causes epithelial damage and villous blunting that leads to diarrhea and cramping. those effects are typically self-limiting; however, severe outbreaks of this food poisoning, particularly ...	2011	21628512
fatal gas gangrene related to self-injection treatment of anaphylaxis.		2011	21624755
occurrence of clostridium perfringens from different cultivated soils.	the occurrence of clostridium perfringens was estimated in 750 samples originated from a variety of soils bearing various bulb crops: brawnica oderacea (vegetable), olea europaea, daucus carota (carote), solanum tuberosum (potato), phaseolus vulgaris (green haricot), beta vulgaris var. rapaceum (beetroot), cucurbita pepo (squash), allium cepa (onion), cucumis sativus (cucumber) and capsicum annum (pepper). all isolated strains were tested for their antimicrobial activities to amoxicillin, penici ...	2011	21621626
isolation of microbial pathogens of subclinical mastitis from raw sheep's milk of epirus (greece) and their role in its hygiene.	the natural raw milk microflora is a factor that expresses its sensorial characteristics. the microbial charge into the mammary gland of healthy animal is low and the application of right and healthy conditions during milking and cheese making procedure, prevents from contaminating as well as maintains the natural microflora in order to lend the particular characteristics of milk. the purpose of the present project was the study of the total viable count (t.v.c.) and the count of total psychrotr ...	2011	21620987
influence of dietary supplementation with bacillus-fermented adlay on lipid metabolism, antioxidant status and intestinal microflora in hamsters.	background: the effects of polished and dehulled bacillus-fermented adlay on lipid metabolism, antioxidant status and intestinal microflora were examined in hyperlipidaemic hamsters fed a high-cholesterol diet. results: hamsters administered bacillus-fermented adlay experienced significantly reduced (p < 0.05) serum and hepatic total cholesterol (by 37-43% and 42-49% respectively) and triglyceride (by 22-27% and 30-35% respectively) levels compared with the high-cholesterol group. lower low-dens ...	2011	21618546
a unique endo-β-galactosidase that cleaves both blood group a and b glycotopes.		2011	21618105
determination of toxinotypes of environmental clostridium perfringens by polymerase chain reaction.	toxinotype of clostridium perfringens (cp) isolates collected from the bernam river, selangor river and tengi canal between april 2007 and january 2008 were determined by polymerase chain reaction (pcr) using published primers. all the 147 isolates were toxinotype type a, harbouring the alpha toxin gene. in addition, 5 of the isolates also had the enterotoxin (cpe) gene.	2011	21602783
the effect of lactobacillus fermentum on beta2 toxin production by clostridium perfringens.	clostridium perfringens although a member of the normal gut flora is also an important cause of intestinal disease in animals and, to a lesser extent, in humans. disease is associated with the production of one or more toxins and little is known about environmental influences on the production of these toxins. one of the health promoting effects of lactic acid bacteria (lab) is the establishment and maintenance of a low ph in the intestine since an acidic environment inhibits the growth of many ...	2011	21602389
ruminococcin c, a new anti-clostridium perfringens bacteriocin produced in the gut by the commensal bacterium ruminococcus gnavus e1.	when colonizing the digestive tract of mono-associated rats, ruminococcus gnavus e1 - a bacterium isolated from human faeces - produced a trypsin-dependent anti-clostridium perfringens substance collectively named ruminococcin c (rumc). rumc was isolated from the caecal contents of e1-monocontaminated rats and found to consist of two antimicrobial fractions: a single peptide (rumcsp) of 4235 da, and a mixture of two other peptides (rumcdp) with distinct molecular masses of 4324 da and 4456 da. b ...	2011	21586310
investigation into drug release from colon-specific azoreductase-activated steroid prodrugs using in-vitro models.	objectives the aim of this study was to investigate drug release from a double steroid prodrug, opn501, which incorporates a phenylpropionate linker, and its phenylacetate analogue. the prodrugs, which were designed to deliver prednisolone to the colon for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease, are based on a novel design that requires sequential azoreductase activity and cyclization of an amino ester to trigger drug release. we sought to explain the divergent effects of the two compounds ...	2011	21585379
effects of clostridium perfringens enterotoxin via claudin-4 on normal human pancreatic duct epithelial cells and cancer cells.	the tight junction protein claudin-4 is frequently overexpressed in pancreatic cancer, and is also a receptor for clostridium perfringens enterotoxin (cpe). the cytotoxic effects of cpe are thought to be useful as a novel therapeutic tool for pancreatic cancer. however, the responses to cpe via claudin-4 remain unknown in normal human pancreatic duct epithelial (hpde) cells. we introduced the human telomerase reverse transcriptase (htert) gene into hpde cells in primary culture as a model of nor ...	2011	21573709
application of broad-range resequencing array rpm-tei for detection of pathogens in desert dust samples from kuwait and iraq.	a significant percentage of the human population is exposed to high levels of naturally occurring airborne dusts. although the link between airborne particulate inhalation and a variety of respiratory diseases has been long established, little is known about the pathogenic role of the microbial component of the dust. in this study, we applied highly multiplexed pcr and a high-density resequencing microarray (rpm-tei 1.0) to screen samples of fine topsoil particles and airborne dust collected in ...	2011	21571877
assessment of levels of bacterial contamination of large wild game meat in europe.	the variations in prevalence and levels of pathogens and fecal contamination indicators in large wild game meat were studied to assess their potential impact on consumers. this analysis was based on hazard analysis, data generation and statistical analysis. a total of 2919 meat samples from three species (red deer, roe deer, wild boar) were collected at french game meat traders' facilities using two sampling protocols. information was gathered on the types of meat cuts (forequarter or haunch; fi ...	2011	21569954
enzyme molecular mechanism as a starting point to design new inhibitors: a theoretical study of o-glcnacase.	o-glycoprotein 2-acetamino-2-deoxy-β-d-glucopyranosidase (o-glcnacase) hydrolyzes o-linked 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-β-d-glucopyranoside (o-glcnac) residues from post-translationally modified serine/threonine residues of nucleocytoplasmic protein. the chemical process involves substrate-assisted catalysis, where two aspartate residues have been identified as the two key catalytic residues of o-glcnacase. in this report, the first step of the catalytic mechanism used by o-glcnacase involving substrate- ...	2011	21542586
analysis of caecal microbiota in rats fed with genetically modified rice by real-time quantitative pcr.	the effect of genetically modified rice (gmr) on bacterial communities in caecal content was analyzed in a 90-d feeding rat model. a total of 12 groups of rats, which included male and female, were fed with the basal diets containing 30%, 50%, 70% gmr (b(1), b(2), b(3)) or 30%, 50%, 70% non-gmr (d(1), d(2), d(3)). the structure of intestinal microflora was estimated by real-time quantitative pcr (rq-pcr) based on genus-specific 16s rdna primers. sybr green was used for accurate detection and qua ...	2011	21535699
epsilon toxin: a fascinating pore-forming toxin.	epsilon toxin (etx) is produced by strains of clostridium perfringens classified as type b or type d. etx belongs to the heptameric β-pore-forming toxins including aerolysin and clostridium septicum alpha toxin, which are characterized by the formation of a pore through the plasma membrane of eukaryotic cells consisting in a β-barrel of 14 amphipatic β strands. by contrast to aerolysin and c. septicum alpha toxin, etx is a much more potent toxin and is responsible for enterotoxemia in animals, m ...	2011	21535407
maternal sepsis due to clostridium perfringens after 2nd-trimester genetic amniocentesis.		2011	21534760
characterization of the plasmidic or chromosomal cpe gene and metabolic activities in clostridium perfringens isolates from food in san luis--argentina.	food poisoning and non-food poisoning illnesses due to c. perfringens (by enterotoxin production) have been associated to chromosomal or plasmidic location of the cpe gene, respectively. clostridial pathogenicity has been correlated to protease and azoreductase production. the aim of this work was: i) to assess the sanitary-hygienic quality of dehydrated soups (100 samples) consumed in san luis - argentina; ii) to verify the presence of c. perfringens in these food products using the "most proba ...	2011	21526657
effects of genetically modified t2a-1 rice on faecal microflora of rats during 90 day supplementation.	background: many animal studies have been performed on products with the bacillus thuringiensis insecticidal toxin-encoding gene (bt products), but less have focused on its effects on intestinal microflora owing to difficulties in culturing. this 90 day study was designed to assess unintended effects of genetically modified t2a-1 rice (gmr) on selected intestinal bacteria (lactobacillus group, bifidobacterium genus, escherichia coli subgroup, enterococcus genus and clostridium perfringens) of ra ...	2011	21520451
real-time pcr analysis of enteric pathogens from fecal samples of irritable bowel syndrome subjects.	abstract: background: growing amount of scientific evidence suggests that microbes are involved in the pathophysiology of irritable bowel syndrome (ibs). the predominant fecal microbiota composition of ibs subjects has been widely studied with dna-based techniques but less research has been focused on the intestinal pathogens in this disorder. here, we optimized a highly sensitive panel of 12 quantitative real-time pcr (qpcr) assays to shed light on the putative presence of intestinal pathogens ...	2011	21518462
molecular basis of toxicity of clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin.	clostridium perfringensε-toxin is produced by toxinotypes b and d strains. the toxin is the aetiological agent of dysentery in newborn lambs but is also associated with enteritis and enterotoxaemia in goats, calves and foals. it is considered to be a potential biowarfare or bioterrorism agent by the us government centers for disease control and prevention. the relatively inactive 32.9 kda prototoxin is converted to active mature toxin by proteolytic cleavage, either by digestive proteases of the ...	2011	21518257
bacterial monocultures, propionate, butyrate and h(2) o(2) modulate the expression, secretion and structure of the fasting-induced adipose factor in gut epithelial cell lines.	previous research showed that an intestinal microbial community represses the fasting-induced adipose factor (fiaf) in the gut epithelium, thereby increasing fat storage in the host. this study was designed to investigate the overall effect of different bacterial species and metabolites on fiaf in intestinal (caco-2, ht-29 and hct-116) and hepatic (hepg2) cancer cell lines. first, we showed that fiaf was present in different isoforms, and secreted as n-glycosylated proteins, exclusively at the b ...	2011	21518214
chicken intestine microbiota following the administration of lupulone, a hop-based antimicrobial.	the use of antibiotic growth promotants in poultry rearing is a public health concern due to antibiotic resistance in bacteria and the harborage of resistance genes. lupulone, a hop β-acid from humulus lupulus, has been considered as a potential feed additive growth promotant. here, the effect of lupulone was evaluated for its effect on the microbiota of the chicken intestine. the intestinal microbiota of broilers was quantified after the addition of 125 mg l(-1) lupulone to water and challenge ...	2011	21517917
impact of beta-glucan on the faecal microbiota of polypectomized patients: a pilot study.	beta-glucans are polysaccharides present in the cell walls of higher plants, in the seeds of some cereals, and certain yeasts and fungi also produce them. it is suggested that they exhibit, among many other health benefits, protective effects against carcinogenesis in the colon, but there is not enough human data to support this. the aim of the study was to determine the effect of barley-derived beta-glucan in the gut microbiota of polypectomized patients. subjects were randomly assigned to cons ...	2011	21515398
design and synthesis of o-glcnacase inhibitors via 'click chemistry' and biological evaluations.	protein o-glcnacylation has been shown to play an important role in a number of biological processes, including regulation of the cell cycle, dna transcription and translation, signal transduction, and protein degradation. o-glcnacase (oga) is responsible for the removal of o-linked β-n-acetylglucosamine (o-glcnac) from serine or threonine residues, and thus plays a key role in o-glcnac metabolism. potent oga inhibitors are useful tools for studying the cellular processes of o-glcnac, and may be ...	2011	21514574
predictive model for growth of clostridium perfringens during cooling of cooked uncured meat and poultry.	comparison of clostridium perfringens spore germination and outgrowth in cooked uncured products during cooling for different meat species is presented. cooked, uncured product was inoculated with c. perfringens spores and vacuum packaged. for the isothermal experiments, all samples were incubated in a water bath stabilized at selected temperatures between 10 and 51°c and sampled periodically. for dynamic experiments, the samples were cooled from 54.4 to 27°c and subsequently from 27 to 4°c for ...	2011	21511140
pathology of clostridium perfringens type c enterotoxemia in horses.	clostridium perfringens type c is an important cause of enteritis and enterocolitis in foals and occasionally in adult horses. the disease is a classic enterotoxemia, and the enteric lesions and systemic effects are caused primarily by beta toxin, 1 of 2 major toxins produced by c. perfringens type c. until now, only sporadic cases of c. perfringens type c equine enterotoxemia have been reported. we present a comprehensive description of the lesions in 8 confirmed cases of type c enterotoxemia i ...	2011	21502373
bacterial pathogens in hawaiian coastal streams-associations with fecal indicators, land cover, and water quality.	this work aimed to understand the distribution of five bacterial pathogens in o'ahu coastal streams and relate their presence to microbial indicator concentrations, land cover of the surrounding watersheds, and physical-chemical measures of stream water quality. twenty-two streams were sampled four times (in december and march, before sunrise and at high noon) to capture seasonal and time of day variation. salmonella, campylobacter, staphylococcus aureus, vibrio vulnificus, and v. parahaemolytic ...	2011	21492899
structure of an archaeal-type phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase sensitive to inhibition by aspartate.	the crystal structure of an archaeal-type phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase from clostridium perfringens has been determined based on x-ray data extending to 3 å. the asymmetric unit of the structure includes two tetramers (each a dimer-of-dimers) of the enzyme. the precipitant, malonate, employed for the crystallization is itself a weak inhibitor of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase and a malonate molecule is seen in the active-site in the crystal structure. the allosteric binding sites for asparta ...	2011	21491491