Publications
| Title | Abstract | Year Filter | PMID(sorted ascending) Filter |
|---|
| tsetse flies are attracted to the invasive plant lantana camara. | in tsetse both sexes feed exclusively on the blood of vertebrates for a few minutes every 2-3 days. tsetse flies seek cover from high temperatures to conserve energy and plants provide shelter for tsetse in all the biotopes they occupy. recently, tsetse have taken cover in plantations and under the invasive bush lantana camara that has invaded large areas of the tsetse fly belt of africa. flies from such refugia are implicated in sleeping sickness epidemics. in a wind tunnel we show that both fo ... | 2004 | 15037092 |
| the trypanosoma brucei cyclin, cyc2, is required for cell cycle progression through g1 phase and for maintenance of procyclic form cell morphology. | cyc2 is an essential pho80-like cyclin that forms a complex with the cdc2-related kinase crk3 in trypanosoma brucei. in both procyclic and bloodstream form t. brucei, knock-down of cyc2 by rna interference (rnai) led to an accumulation of cells in g(1) phase. additionally, in procyclic cells, but not in bloodstream form cells, cyc2 rnai induced a specific cell elongation at the posterior end. the g(1) block, as well as the posterior end elongation in the procyclic form, was irreversible once est ... | 2004 | 15039435 |
| inhibition of the dna amplification of trypanosomes present in tsetse flies midguts: implications for the identification of trypanosome species in wild tsetse flies. | the present study was carried out in order to investigate if there was really a failure of pcr in identifying parasitologically positive tsetse flies in the field. tsetse flies (glossina palpalis gambiensis and glossina morsitans morsitans) were therefore experimentally infected with two different species of trypanosoma (trypanosoma brucei gambiense or trypanosoma congolense). a total of 152 tsetse flies were dissected, and organs of each fly (midgut, proboscis or salivary glands) were examined. ... | 2004 | 15071836 |
| metabolic rate variation in glossina pallidipes (diptera: glossinidae): gender, ageing and repeatability. | despite the importance of metabolic rate in determining flight time of tsetse and in mediating the influence of abiotic variables on life history parameters (and hence abundance and distribution), metabolic rate measurements and their repeatability have not been widely assessed in these flies. we investigate age-related changes in standard metabolic rate (smr) and its repeatability, using flow-through respirometry, for a variety of feeding, gender and pregnancy classes during early adult develop ... | 2004 | 15121455 |
| characterization of a digestive carboxypeptidase from the insect pest corn earworm (helicoverpa armigera) with novel specificity towards c-terminal glutamate residues. | carboxypeptidases were purified from guts of larvae of corn earworm (helicoverpa armigera), a lepidopteran crop pest, by affinity chromatography on immobilized potato carboxypeptidase inhibitor, and characterized by n-terminal sequencing. a larval gut cdna library was screened using probes based on these protein sequences. cdna haca42 encoded a carboxypeptidase with sequence similarity to enzymes of clan mc [barrett, a. j., rawlings, n. d. & woessner, j. f. (1998) handbook of proteolytic enzymes ... | 2004 | 15128309 |
| surface sialic acids taken from the host allow trypanosome survival in tsetse fly vectors. | the african trypanosome trypanosoma brucei, which causes sleeping sickness in humans and nagana disease in livestock, is spread via blood-sucking tsetse flies. in the fly's intestine, the trypanosomes survive digestive and trypanocidal environments, proliferate, and translocate into the salivary gland, where they become infectious to the next mammalian host. here, we show that for successful survival in tsetse flies, the trypanosomes use trans-sialidase to transfer sialic acids that they cannot ... | 2004 | 15136592 |
| history of sleeping sickness (african trypanosomiasis). | infections with subspecies of the protozoan parasite trypanosoma brucei cause important wasting diseases in africa (nagana in cattle and sleeping sickness in humans). these diseases were little known until the end of the nineteenth century when serious epidemics of nagana were reported and raised concern among the colonial powers. the early history of sleeping sickness revolves around the discovery of the causative organism, its mode of transmission,and its life cycle in the tsetse fly. the hist ... | 2004 | 15145378 |
| a cross-sectional epidemiological survey of bovine trypanosomosis and its vectors in the savelugu and west mamprusi districts of northern ghana. | the epidemiology of bovine trypanosomosis was investigated in two districts (savelugu and west mamprusi) of northern ghana with different land use and environmental characteristics. the land use intensity and environmental change was suspected to be higher in the savelugu district. a cross-sectional entomological survey conducted along the white volta river and its tributaries confirmed the presence of only glossina palpalis gambiensis and g. tachinoides. the challenge index as measured by the p ... | 2004 | 15158552 |
| expression of a major surface protein of trypanosoma brucei insect forms is controlled by the activity of mitochondrial enzymes. | in cycling between the mammalian host and the tsetse fly vector, trypanosomes undergo major changes in energy metabolism and surface coat composition. early procyclic (insect) forms in the tsetse fly midgut are coated by glycoproteins known as ep and gpeet procyclins. ep expression continues in late procyclic forms, whereas gpeet is down-regulated. in culture, expression of gpeet is modulated by glycerol or glucose. here, we demonstrate that a glycerol-responsive element of 25 nucleotides within ... | 2004 | 15201340 |
| a study of host preference in tsetse flies using a modified heteroduplex pcr-based method. | a study of host preference in tsetse flies using a modified heteroduplex pcr-based method is described. domestic and wild animal blood samples were collected to extract the corresponding reference dnas. in campo (south cameroon), tsetse flies (mainly glossina palpalis palpalis) were trapped and 41 bloodmeals were collected. all reference dnas and 37 bloodmeal dnas (90.7%) were successfully amplified and hybridised. twelve bloodmeals (32.4%) were of human origin, 13 (35.4%) were from sitatunga (t ... | 2004 | 15234660 |
| partial characterisation of a trypanosome-lysing factor from the midgut of the desert locust, schistocerca gregaria. | screening and biochemical characterisation of trypanosome-lysing factor (trypanolysin) from non-vector insect, schistocerca gregaria. | 2003 | 15248675 |
| catching-out the tsetse fly. | 1985 | 15275593 | |
| mitochondrial diversity analysis of glossina palpalis gambiensis from mali and senegal. | west african riverine tsetse populations of glossina palpalis gambiensis vanderplank (diptera: glossinidae) were investigated for gene flow, inferred from mitochondrial diversity in samples of 69 flies from senegal and 303 flies from three river drainages in mali. four polymorphic mitochondrial loci were scored. mean haplotype diversities were 0.30 in mali, 0 in senegal and 0.18 over both mali and senegal. these diversities estimate the probabilities that two randomly chosen tsetse have differen ... | 2004 | 15347397 |
| observations on the control of kenya coast glossina. | 1949 | 15397313 | |
| the science of tsetse control. | 1949 | 15398091 | |
| [distribution of the tsetse fly in angola; personal contribution to its study]. | 1950 | 15421719 | |
| [tests for the destruction of the tsetse fly by means of d.d.t. fumigating bombs]. | 1950 | 15433051 | |
| surface antigens of african trypanosomes in the tsetse fly. | 1986 | 15462804 | |
| immunological approaches to the control of animal trypanosomiasis. | control of african trypanosomiasis relies heavily on attempts to eliminate the tsetse fly vectors, and the use of trypanocidal drugs which are not entirely satisfactory. but the prospects for immunological control have a long history - since the last century, explorers and settlers in africa have progressively exposed their horses and cattle to tsetse bites (a process known as 'salting') in an attempt to build up some degree of immunity to the disease. more recently, immunologists and biochemist ... | 1986 | 15462812 |
| genetics and trypanotolerance. | genetic resistance to disease and its use in domestic livestock usually ranks last, if at all, amongst preferred disease control measures - usually preceded by measures such as chemotherapy, vector control and vaccination. thus, interest in genetic resistance is often a reflection of dissatisfaction with other control strategies, and the current emphasis on trypanotolerant cattle in africa is just such a case. eighty years of tsetse fly eradication programmes have had little impact on tsetse dis ... | 1987 | 15462937 |
| tsetse immunity and the transmission of trypanosomiasis. | cyclical transmission of african trypanosomes - trypanosoma congolense and subspecies of t. brucei - depends on their uptake by and development within their tsetse fly vectors. tsetse susceptibility to such trypanosome infection seems to be controlled by maternally inherited rickettsia-like organisms (rlos) (fig. 1) and it now seems that the rlos may exert this effect by controlling midgut lectins in the fly. ian maudlin and susan welburn explain the latest findings. | 1988 | 15463060 |
| genetic exchange in trypanosoma brucei. | the discovery of genetic exchange in african trypanosomes belonging to the trypanosoma brucei group is an important development in our understanding of these organisms. genetic exchange is a feature of major importance in relation to population structure and speciation. furthermore, a convenient laboratory-based mating system would be of considerable value as a tool in trypanosomiasis research. it is now known that although cyclical development of trypanosomes within the tsetse fly does not requ ... | 1990 | 15463300 |
| a novel purine nucleoside transporter whose expression is up-regulated in the short stumpy form of the trypanosoma brucei life cycle. | purine nucleoside and nucleobase transporters play a vital role in the metabolism and survival of trypanosoma brucei because this parasitic protozoan is unable to synthesize purines de novo and thus must acquire preformed purines from its hosts. these parasites express a variety of nucleoside and nucleobase permeases with diverse substrate specificities and distinct patterns of expression during the trypanosome life cycle. we report here that expression of the newly characterized t. brucei nucle ... | 2004 | 15478805 |
| admixture and diversity in west african cattle populations. | we present a population genetic analysis of microsatellite variation in 16 west african cattle populations. west africa represents a unique juxtaposition of different climatic and ecological zones in a relatively small geographical area. while more humid coastal regions are inhabited by the tsetse fly, a vector which spreads trypanosomiasis among cattle, the disease is not transmitted in the drier areas outside this zone. this is the most thorough study of genetic diversity in cattle within this ... | 2004 | 15488005 |
| the macrocyclic lactone "spinosad," a promising insecticide for tsetse fly control. | the susceptibility of tsetse flies (diptera: glossinidae), glossina palpalis gambiensis (vanderplank), and g. m. morsitans (westwood) to topically applied spinosad, a mixture of insecticidal molecules from the actinomycete saccharopolyspora spinosa, is almost as high as to deltamethrin. however, susceptibility to spinosad does not differ significantly between teneral and gravid flies, contrary to deltamethrin. spinosad might be a promising candidate for future tsetse control by the sequential ae ... | 2004 | 15535607 |
| cloning and expression of the yolk protein of the tsetse fly glossina morsitans morsitans. | two major families of nutritional proteins exist in insects, namely the vitellogenins and the yolk proteins. while in other insects only vitellogenins are found, cyclorraphan flies only contain yolk proteins. possible sites of yolk protein synthesis are the fat body and the follicle cells surrounding the oocyte. we report the cloning of the yolk protein of the tsetse fly glossina morsitans morsitans, a species with adenotrophic viviparity. the tsetse fly yolk protein could be aligned with other ... | 2004 | 15544941 |
| cold shock and regulation of surface protein trafficking convey sensitization to inducers of stage differentiation in trypanosoma brucei. | transmission of a protozoan parasite from a vertebrate to invertebrate host is accompanied by cellular differentiation. the signals from the environment that trigger the process are poorly understood. the model parasite trypanosoma brucei proliferates in the mammalian bloodstream and in the tsetse fly. on ingestion by the tsetse, the trypanosome undergoes a rapid differentiation that is marked by replacement of the variant surface glycoprotein (vsg) coat with gpi-anchored ep and gpeet procyclins ... | 2004 | 15545633 |
| african trypanosome interactions with an in vitro model of the human blood-brain barrier. | the neurological manifestations of sleeping sickness in man are attributed to the penetration of the blood-brain barrier (bbb) and invasion of the central nervous system by trypanosoma brucei gambiense and trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense. however, how african trypanosomes cross the bbb remains an unresolved issue. we have examined the traversal of african trypanosomes across the human bbb using an in vitro bbb model system constructed of human brain microvascular endothelial cells (bmecs) grown o ... | 2004 | 15562595 |
| african trypanosomiasis: changing epidemiology and consequences. | human african trypanosomiasis has re-emerged as a serious public health threat after near-elimination because of diminished investment in previously successful control programs. the continued, occasional importation of african trypanosomiasis to the united states can be expected as tourists and immigrants travel from high-risk areas. no vaccine or chemoprophylaxis is available for this disease, and travelers to affected areas should be counseled on tsetse fly avoidance. new diagnostic and stagin ... | 2005 | 15610672 |
| mixed infections of trypanosomes in tsetse and pigs and their epidemiological significance in a sleeping sickness focus of côte d'ivoire. | in a sleeping sickness focus of côte d'ivoire, trypanosomes were characterized in humans, pigs and tsetse using various techniques. out of 74 patients, all the 43 stocks isolated by kivi (kit for in vitro isolation) appeared to belong to only one zymodeme of trypanosoma brucei gambiense group 1 (the major zymodeme z3). the only stock isolated on rodents belonged to a different, new, zymodeme (z50), of t. b. gambiense group 1. from 18 pigs sampled in the same locations as the patients, pcr showed ... | 2004 | 15648692 |
| the developmental cell biology of trypanosoma brucei. | trypanosoma brucei provides an excellent system for studies of many aspects of cell biology, including cell structure and morphology, organelle positioning, cell division and protein trafficking. however, the trypanosome has a complex life cycle in which it must adapt either to the mammalian bloodstream or to different compartments within the tsetse fly. these differentiation events require stage-specific changes to basic cell biological processes and reflect responses to environmental stimuli a ... | 2005 | 15654017 |
| tetracycline induction of gene expression in trypanosoma brucei within the tsetse fly vector. | 2005 | 15760664 | |
| human african trypanosomiasis: clinical presentation and immune response. | human african trypanosomiasis or sleeping sickness is caused by infection with two subspecies of the tsetse-fly-vectored haemoflagellate parasite trypanosoma brucei. historically, epidemic sleeping sickness has caused massive loss of life, and related animal diseases have had a crucial impact on development in sub-saharan africa. after a period of moderately successful control during the mid-part of the 20th century, sleeping sickness incidence is currently rising, and control is hampered by a c ... | 2004 | 15771682 |
| increased expression of unusual ep repeat-containing proteins in the midgut of the tsetse fly (glossina) after bacterial challenge. | proteins containing a glutamic acid-proline (ep) repeat epitope were immunologically detected in midguts from eight species of glossina (tsetse flies). the molecular masses of the tsetse ep proteins differed among species groups. the amino acid sequence of one of these proteins, from glossina palpalis palpalis, was determined and compared to the sequence of a homologue, the tsetse midgut ep protein of glossina m. morsitans. the extended ep repeat domains comprised between 36% (g. m. morsitans) a ... | 2005 | 15804575 |
| [human african trypanosomiasis: urban transmission in the focus of bonon (côte d'ivoire)]. | human african trypanosomiasis (hat) is a vector-borne parasitic disease which has often been considered a rural disease. population increases in african countries have entailed the spread of urban centres, creating favourable conditions for the appearance of new epidemiological conditions. in cote d'ivoire, hat transmission has been described in the surroundings of towns such as daloa or sinfra. in the focus of bonon, located in central-western cote d'ivoire, a medical survey detected 96 patient ... | 2005 | 15807798 |
| knowledge and attitudes of cattle owners regarding trypanosomosis control in tsetse-infested areas of uganda. | a pilot survey using a structured questionnaire was conducted in tororo and busia districts of uganda on the knowledge and attitudes of cattle owners regarding tsetse fly and trypanosomosis control, in order to understand factors that hindered their full participation. a total of 81 cattle owners was randomly selected and interviewed, of which 92.5% were aware of tsetse flies and trypanosomosis and 87.6% recognised animal trypanosomosis as a problem in the area. most cattle owners were aware of ... | 2004 | 15830601 |
| the effect of age on the mating competitiveness of male glossina fuscipes fuscipes and g. palpalis palpalis. | the effect of age on male glossina fuscipes fuscipes, newstead, and glossina palpalis palpalis, austin (diptera: glossinidae) competiveness were investigated with a view to estimate optimal age for sterile male release. sterile insect technique involves the mass production, sterilization and sequential release of males of the target species to out compete the wild male population. mating between released sterile males and wild females produce inviable progeny and the population is reduced over s ... | 2003 | 15841229 |
| immunization of rabbits with glossina pallidipes tsetse fly midgut proteins: effects on the fly and trypanosome transmission. | proteins isolated from the midgut of glossina pallidipes were used to immunize rabbits and their efficacy as vaccine candidate(s) against the fly, and their potential to block transmission of trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense assessed. two fractions, detergent (det) and aqueous (aq) fractions were separated using a non-ionic detergent (triton x-114) and a series of bioassay experiments carried out using serum obtained from rabbits immunized with either of the two fractions. the mortality rates of t ... | 2005 | 15893620 |
| interactions among multiple genomes: tsetse, its symbionts and trypanosomes. | insect-borne diseases exact a high public health burden and have a devastating impact on livestock and agriculture. to date, control has proved to be exceedingly difficult. one such disease that has plagued sub-saharan africa is caused by the protozoan african trypanosomes (trypanosoma species) and transmitted by tsetse flies (diptera: glossinidae). this presentation describes the biology of the tsetse fly and its interactions with trypanosomes as well as its symbionts. tsetse can harbor up to t ... | 2005 | 15894186 |
| using bacteria to express and display anti-parasite molecules in mosquitoes: current and future strategies. | vector-borne diseases impose enormous health and economical burdens throughout the world. unfortunately, as insecticide and drug resistance spread, these burdens will increase unless new control measures are developed. genetically modifying vectors to be incapable of transmitting parasites is one possible control strategy and much progress has been made towards this goal. numerous effector molecules have been identified that interfere with parasite development in its insect vectors, and techniqu ... | 2005 | 15894187 |
| sodalis glossinidius (enterobacteriaceae) and vectorial competence of glossina palpalis gambiensis and glossina morsitans morsitans for trypanosoma congolense savannah type. | sodalis glossinidius is an endosymbiont of glossina palpalis gambiensis and glossina morsitans morsitans, the vectors of trypanosoma congolense. the presence of the symbiont was investigated by pcr in trypanosoma congolense savannah type-infected and noninfected midguts of both fly species, and into the probosces of flies displaying either mature or immature infection, to investigate possible correlation with the vectorial competence of tsetse flies. sodalis glossinidius was detected in all midg ... | 2005 | 15942697 |
| sex separation of tsetse fly pupae using near-infrared spectroscopy. | implementation of the sterile insect technique for tsetse (glossina spp.) requires that only sterile male insects be released; thus, at some stage of the fly production process the females have to be removed. a further constraint in the use of the sterile insect technique for tsetse is that the females are needed for colony production and hence, a non-destructive method of sex separation is required. in most tsetse sterile insect technique programmes thus far, females have been eliminated from t ... | 2005 | 15960879 |
| experimental trypanosomiasis in yankasa ewes: the body weight response. | sleeping sickness (african trypanosomasis) is an anthropozoonosis transmitted primarily by the tsetse fly. it is associated with a host of clinical indices ranging from fever, aneamia and anorexia to reproductive failures in man and his domestic animals. the main objective of this study is to appraise the responsiveness of the body weight as a clinical indicator of sleeping sickness in experimentally infected yankasa ewes. twelve mature yankasa sheep (6 infected and 6 control ewes) were used in ... | 2004 | 15977439 |
| extrachromosomal dna of the symbiont sodalis glossinidius. | the extrachromosomal dna of sodalis glossinidius from two tsetse fly species was sequenced and contained four circular elements: three plasmids, psg1 (82 kb), psg2 (27 kb), and psg4 (11 kb), and a bacteriophage-like psg3 (19 kb) element. the information suggests s. glossinidius is evolving towards an obligate association with tsetse flies. | 2005 | 15995217 |
| disruption of the developmental programme of trypanosoma brucei by genetic ablation of tbzfp1, a differentiation-enriched ccch protein. | the regulation of differentiation is particularly important in microbial eukaryotes that inhabit multiple environments. the parasite trypanosoma brucei is an extreme example of this, requiring exquisite gene regulation during transmission from mammals to the tsetse fly vector. unusually, trypanosomes rely almost exclusively on post-transcriptional mechanisms for regulated gene expression. hence, rna binding proteins are potentially of great significance in controlling stage-regulated processes. ... | 2005 | 16045615 |
| spontaneous cure of domestic pigs experimentally infected by trypanosoma brucei gambiense. implications for the control of sleeping sickness. | the existence of a pig reservoir for human african trypanosomosis (hat) due to trypanosoma brucei gambiense complicates the fight against this disease. this study, reports results obtained from pigs, which were inoculated with the blood of a person, suffering from hat in cameroon. the pigs were reared and kept in the shelter from all contact with glossina, and monitored for 188 days. the seroconversion was checked by agglutination assays for trypanosomosis (catt 1.3 and latex/t.b.gambiense). the ... | 2005 | 16076528 |
| antioxidant gene expression in the blood-feeding fly glossina morsitans morsitans. | we report the characterization of 11 antioxidant genes from the tsetse fly glossina m. morsitans. through similarity searches which detected homology we suggest that these genes consist of two superoxide dismutases (one with a putative signal peptide), three thioredoxin peroxidases (one with a putative signal peptide), three peroxiredoxins, one further signal peptide-containing peroxidase with its closest similarity to a glutathione peroxidase, one catalase and one thioredoxin reductase. we desc ... | 2005 | 16164604 |
| solution structures of stomoxyn and spinigerin, two insect antimicrobial peptides with an alpha-helical conformation. | stomoxyn and spinigerin belong to the class of linear cysteine-free insect antimicrobial peptides that kill a range of microorganisms, parasites, and some viruses but without any lytic activity against mammalian erythrocytes. stomoxyn is localized in the gut epithelium of the nonvector stable fly that is sympatric with the trypanosome vector tsetse fly. spinigerin is stored and secreted by hemocytes from the fungus-growing termite. the structure of synthetic stomoxyn and spinigerin in aqueous so ... | 2006 | 16170803 |
| macrogeographic population structure of the tsetse fly, glossina pallidipes (diptera: glossinidae). | tsetse flies are confined to sub-saharan africa where they occupy discontinuous habitats. in anticipation of area-wide control programmes, estimates of gene flow among tsetse populations are necessary. genetic diversities were partitioned at eight microsatellite loci and five mitochondrial loci in 21 glossina pallidipes austin populations. at microsatellite loci, nei's unbiased gene diversity averaged over loci was 0.659 and the total number of alleles was 214, only four of which were shared amo ... | 2005 | 16197564 |
| expression of procyclin mrnas during cyclical transmission of trypanosoma brucei. | trypanosoma brucei, the parasite causing human sleeping sickness, relies on the tsetse fly for its transmission. in the insect, ep and gpeet procyclins are the major surface glycoproteins of procyclic (midgut) forms of the parasite, with gpeet predominating in the early procyclic form and two isoforms of ep in the late procyclic form. ep procyclins were previously detected on salivary gland trypanosomes, presumably epimastigotes, by immunoelectron microscopy. however, no procyclins could be dete ... | 2005 | 16276404 |
| two tsetse fly species, glossina palpalis gambiensis and glossina morsitans morsitans, carry genetically distinct populations of the secondary symbiont sodalis glossinidius. | genetic diversity among sodalis glossinidius populations was investigated using amplified fragment length polymorphism markers. strains collected from glossina palpalis gambiensis and glossina morsitans morsitans flies group into separate clusters, being differentially structured. this differential structuring may reflect different host-related selection pressures and may be related to the different vector competences of glossina spp. | 2005 | 16332895 |
| a phyto-sociological analysis of the distribution of riverine tsetse flies in burkina faso. | in burkina faso, glossina palpalis gambiensis vanderplank and g. tachinoides westwood (diptera: glossinidae) are the main cyclic vectors of trypanosomiasis. the vegetation type along river banks is an important factor determining the distribution and abundance of these tsetse. the following work investigated the relation between the plant species present (including the disturbance level) and tsetse distribution and abundance, using three ecotypes, described by p.c. morel in 1978. these were the ... | 2005 | 16336302 |
| the relative contributions of developmental plasticity and adult acclimation to physiological variation in the tsetse fly, glossina pallidipes (diptera, glossinidae). | recent reviews of the adaptive hypotheses for animal responses to acclimation have highlighted the importance of distinguishing between developmental and adult (non-developmental) phenotypic plasticity. there has been little work, however, on separating the effects of developmental plasticity from adult acclimation on physiological traits. therefore, we investigated the relative contributions of these two distinct forms of plasticity to the environmental physiology of adult tsetse flies by expos ... | 2006 | 16513933 |
| human african trypanosomiasis-neurological aspects. | human african trypanosomiasis (hat),which is also known as sleeping sickness, is a major cause of death and disability in 36 countries in sub-saharan africa. the disease is caused by the protozoan parasite of the trypanosoma genus which is transmitted by the bite of the tsetse fly. the two types of hat, the east african form due to trypanosoma b.rhodesiensei (t. b.rhodesiensi) and the west african form due to t. b.gambiense, differ in their tempo of infection but in both cases the disease is alw ... | 2006 | 16541214 |
| molecular characterization of a tsetse fly midgut proteolytic lectin that mediates differentiation of african trypanosomes. | differentiation of bloodstream-form trypanosomes into procyclic (midgut) forms is an important first step in the establishment of an infection within the tsetse fly. this complex process is mediated by a wide variety of factors, including those associated with the vector itself, the trypanosomes and the bloodmeal. as part of an on-going project in our laboratory, we recently isolated and characterized a bloodmeal-induced molecule with both lectin and trypsin activities from midguts of the tsetse ... | 2006 | 16551548 |
| regulation of surface coat exchange by differentiating african trypanosomes. | african trypanosomes (trypanosoma brucei) have a digenetic lifecycle that alternates between the mammalian bloodstream and the tsetse fly vector. in the bloodstream, replicating long slender parasites transform into non-dividing short stumpy forms. upon transmission into the fly midgut, short stumpy cells differentiate into actively dividing procyclics. a hallmark of this process is the replacement of the bloodstream-stage surface coat composed of variant surface glycoprotein (vsg) with a new co ... | 2006 | 16564583 |
| trypanosomosis prevalence in cattle on mafia island (tanzania). | during two consecutive surveys (february and august/sept 2002), a total of 970 cattle from the cattle population of mafia island (united republic of tanzania) were blood-sampled. all blood samples were microscopically screened for the presence of trypanosomes and a portion of these were checked for antibodies with an ab-elisa and for the presence of trypanosomal dna with pcr. microscopic evidence of trypanosomes of the congolense group (sub-genus nannomonas) was found in 0.8% of the animals (8/9 ... | 2006 | 16574325 |
| microgeographical breeding structure of the tsetse fly, glossina pallidipes in south-western kenya. | the origins of extant glossina pallidipes austen (diptera: glossinidae) populations in the ecologically well-studied lambwe and nguruman valleys in kenya are controversial because populations have recovered after seemingly effective attempts to achieve high levels of control. the microgeographical breeding structure of the tsetse fly, g. pallidipes, was investigated by analysing spatial and temporal variation at eight microsatellite loci to test hypotheses about endemism and immigration. samples ... | 2006 | 16608498 |
| dynamics of multiple symbiont density regulation during host development: tsetse fly and its microbial flora. | symbiotic associations often enhance hosts' physiological capabilities, allowing them to expand into restricted terrains, thus leading to biological diversification. stable maintenance of partners is essential for the overall biological system to succeed. the viviparous tsetse fly (diptera: glossinidae) offers an exceptional system to examine factors that influence the maintenance of multiple symbiotic organisms within a single eukaryotic host. this insect harbours three different symbionts repr ... | 2006 | 16618673 |
| glossina proteolytic lectin does not require a carbohydrate moiety for enzymatic or trypanosome-transforming activities. | the developmental cycle of the cyclically transmitted african trypanosome involves an obligatory passage through the tsetse fly, glossina spp. this intricate relationship requires the presence of molecules within the insect vector, including a midgut lectin, that interact with the trypanosome. recently, a gene encoding for a proteolytic lectin, with trypanosome-transforming activity, was isolated from a midgut cdna library of glossina fuscipes fuscipes austen in our laboratory. using the same ap ... | 2006 | 16619615 |
| innate immune responses regulate trypanosome parasite infection of the tsetse fly glossina morsitans morsitans. | tsetse flies transmit the protozoan parasite african trypanosomes, the agents of human sleeping sickness in sub-saharan africa. parasite transmission in the insect is restricted by a natural resistance phenomenon (refractoriness). understanding the mechanism of parasite resistance is important as strengthening fly's response(s) via transgenic approaches can prevent parasite transmission and lead to the development of novel vector control strategies. here, we investigated the role of one of the t ... | 2006 | 16689795 |
| characterization of microsatellite markers in the tsetse fly, glossina pallidipes (diptera: glossinidae). | glossina pallidipes is a vector of african trypanosomiasis. here we characterize eight new polymorphic microsatellite loci in 288 g. pallidipes sampled from 12 kenya populations. the number of alleles per locus ranged from four to 36 with a mean of 20.5 +/- 10.1. expected single locus heterozygosities varied from 0.044 to 0.829. heterozygosity averaged 0.616 +/- 0.246. no linkage disequilibrium was found. we also report results in eight other tsetse species estimated by using the primers develop ... | 2003 | 16718306 |
| successful and currently ongoing parasite eradication programs. | the eradication of parasitic diseases is not a new concept. the most successful programs of parasite eradication have occurred with species of veterinary importance. the first such program, the eradication of texas cattle fever from the united states, is one of the great success stories of disease eradication. the american screwworm eradication program is ongoing and is serving as a guiding impetus for many of the ongoing or proposed vector eradication schemes around the world. the success of th ... | 2006 | 16730411 |
| effect of isometamidium chloride treatment on susceptibility of tsetse flies (diptera: glossinidae) to trypanosome infections. | experiments were conducted to determine the effect of a single isometamidium chloride treatment of teneral tsetse flies, glossina morsitans morsitans westwood (diptera: glossinidae), on the subsequent susceptibility to an infection with trypanosoma congolense or trypanosoma brucei brucei. flies were offered a first bloodmeal on sterile gamma-irradiated defibrinated bovine blood that contained either 10 or 100 microg ofisometamidium chloride/ml. treated flies were subsequently infected with t. co ... | 2006 | 16739416 |
| tsetse fly saliva biases the immune response to th2 and induces anti-vector antibodies that are a useful tool for exposure assessment. | tsetse flies (glossina sp.) are blood-feeding dipteran insects that transmit african trypanosomes, parasites that are responsible for human sleeping sickness and veterinary infections. increasing attention is being paid to the effects of tsetse fly saliva deposited at the feeding site, which enables the blood-feeding process and putatively promotes parasite transmission. here we demonstrate that saliva induces strong humoral responses against the major 43-45 kda protein fraction (tsetse salivary ... | 2006 | 16777113 |
| response of four indigenous cattle breeds to natural tsetse and trypanosomosis challenge in the ghibe valley of ethiopia. | a comparative study on the response of four indigenous cattle breeds of ethiopia, namely abigar, horro, sheko and gurage, to natural challenge of trypanosomosis in the tolley-gullele area of the ghibe valley has been undertaken from august 2000 until august 2004. fifty female yearlings each of horro, sheko and abigar and 31 of the gurage were purchased from their natural habitats and introduced in to medium to high tsetse-trypanosomosis challenge area of the ghibe valley. while the natural habit ... | 2006 | 16797843 |
| a mitogen-activated protein kinase controls differentiation of bloodstream forms of trypanosoma brucei. | african trypanosomes undergo differentiation in order to adapt to the mammalian host and the tsetse fly vector. to characterize the role of a mitogen-activated protein (map) kinase homologue, tbmapk5, in the differentiation of trypanosoma brucei, we constructed a knockout in procyclic (insect) forms from a differentiation-competent (pleomorphic) stock. two independent knockout clones proliferated normally in culture and were not essential for other life cycle stages in the fly. they were also ab ... | 2006 | 16835456 |
| glossina fuscipes fuscipes in the trypanosomiasis endemic areas of south eastern uganda: apparent density, trypanosome infection rates and host feeding preferences. | a study was undertaken in three districts in south eastern uganda endemic for human and animal trypanosomiasis, to investigate the status of the vector tsetse fly population. apparent density (ad) of tsetse was between 2 and 21 flies/trap/day across the three districts, with glossinia fuscipes fuscipes identified as the predominant species. trypanosomes were observed in g.f. fuscipes with an infection rate, as determined by microscopy, of 1.55% across the three studied areas. however, trypanosom ... | 2006 | 16870129 |
| biting flies and trypanosoma vivax infection in three highland districts bordering lake tana, ethiopia. | an epidemiological study was conducted to determine the prevalence of trypanosomosis in cattle, small ruminants and equidae, and to identify biting flies; potential mechanical vectors of trypanosomes in the three districts of bahir dar zuria, dembia and fogera, bordering lake tana, ethiopia. about 1509 cattle, 798 small ruminants and 749 equidae were bled for the prevalence study using the buffy-coat method and the measurement of the hematocrit value. sixty-six ngu and 20 monoconical traps were ... | 2006 | 16890359 |
| the tsetse fly glossina palpalis palpalis is composed of several genetically differentiated small populations in the sleeping sickness focus of bonon, côte d'ivoire. | glossina palpalis is the main vector of human african trypanosomosis (hat, or sleeping sickness) that dramatically affects human health in sub-saharan africa. because of the implications of genetic structuring of vector populations for the design and efficacy of control campaigns, g. palpalis palpalis in the most active focus of sleeping sickness in côte d'ivoire was studied to determine whether this taxon is genetically structured. high and statistically significant levels of within population ... | 2007 | 16890499 |
| trypanosoma congolense procyclins: unmasking cryptic major surface glycoproteins in procyclic forms. | in the tsetse fly, the protozoan parasite trypanosoma congolense is covered by a dense layer of glycosylphosphatidylinositol (gpi)-anchored molecules. these include a protease-resistant surface molecule (prs), which is expressed by procyclic forms early in infection, and a glutamic acid- and alanine-rich protein (garp), which appears at later stages. since neither of these surface antigens is expressed at intermediate stages, we investigated whether a gpi-anchored protein of 50 to 58 kda, previo ... | 2006 | 16896226 |
| patterns of genetic diversity and differentiation in the tsetse fly glossina morsitans morsitans westwood populations in east and southern africa. | genetic diversity and differentiation within and among nine g. morsitans morsitans populations from east and southern africa was assessed by examining variation at seven microsatellite loci and a mitochondrial locus, cytochrome oxidase (coi). mean coi diversity within populations was 0.63+/-0.33 and 0.81 taken over all populations. diversities averaged over microsatellite loci were high (mean number of alleles/locus>or=7.4; mean he>or=65%) in all populations. diversities averaged across populati ... | 2007 | 16897444 |
| analysis of fat body transcriptome from the adult tsetse fly, glossina morsitans morsitans. | tsetse flies (diptera: glossinidia) are vectors of pathogenic african trypanosomes. to develop a foundation for tsetse physiology, a normalized expressed sequence tag (est) library was constructed from fat body tissue of immune-stimulated glossina morsitans morsitans. analysis of 20,257 high-quality ests yielded 6372 unique genes comprised of 3059 tentative consensus (tc) sequences and 3313 singletons (available at http://aksoylab.yale.edu). we analysed the putative fat body transcriptome based ... | 2006 | 16907828 |
| interspecific transfer of bacterial endosymbionts between tsetse fly species: infection establishment and effect on host fitness. | tsetse flies (glossina spp.) can harbor up to three distinct species of endosymbiotic bacteria that exhibit unique modes of transmission and evolutionary histories with their host. two mutualist enterics, wigglesworthia and sodalis, are transmitted maternally to tsetse flies' intrauterine larvae. the third symbiont, from the genus wolbachia, parasitizes developing oocytes. in this study, we determined that sodalis isolates from several tsetse fly species are virtually identical based on a phylog ... | 2006 | 16950907 |
| tsetse fly saliva accelerates the onset of trypanosoma brucei infection in a mouse model associated with a reduced host inflammatory response. | tsetse flies (glossina sp.) are the vectors that transmit african trypanosomes, protozoan parasites that cause human sleeping sickness and veterinary infections in the african continent. these blood-feeding dipteran insects deposit saliva at the feeding site that enables the blood-feeding process. here we demonstrate that tsetse fly saliva also accelerates the onset of a trypanosoma brucei infection. this effect was associated with a reduced inflammatory reaction at the site of infection initiat ... | 2006 | 16954393 |
| vector competence of glossina palpalis gambiensis for trypanosoma brucei s.l. and genetic diversity of the symbiont sodalis glossinidius. | tsetse flies transmit african trypanosomes, responsible for sleeping sickness in humans and nagana in animals. this disease affects many people with considerable impact on public health and economy in sub-saharan africa, whereas trypanosomes' resistance to drugs is rising. the symbiont sodalis glossinidius is considered to play a role in the ability of the fly to acquire trypanosomes. different species of glossina were shown to harbor genetically distinct populations of s. glossinidius. we there ... | 2007 | 17012373 |
| genetic and morphometric evidence for population isolation of glossina palpalis gambiensis (diptera: glossinidae) on the loos islands, guinea. | allele frequencies at four microsatellite loci, and morphometric features based on 11 wing landmarks, were compared among three populations of glossina palpalis gambiensis (diptera: glossinidae) in guinea. one population originated from the loos islands separated from the capital conakry by 5 km of sea, and the two others originated from the continental mangrove area close to dubreka, these two groups being separated by approximately 30 km. microsatellites and wing geometry data both converged t ... | 2006 | 17017219 |
| gpi-anchored proteins and free gpi glycolipids of procyclic form trypanosoma brucei are nonessential for growth, are required for colonization of the tsetse fly, and are not the only components of the surface coat. | the procyclic form of trypanosoma brucei exists in the midgut of the tsetse fly. the current model of its surface glycocalyx is an array of rod-like procyclin glycoproteins with glycosylphosphatidylinositol (gpi) anchors carrying sialylated poly-n-acetyllactosamine side chains interspersed with smaller sialylated poly-n-acetyllactosamine-containing free gpi glycolipids. mutants for tbgpi12, deficient in the second step of gpi biosynthesis, were devoid of cell surface procyclins and poly-n-acetyl ... | 2006 | 17035628 |
| [return of african sleeping sickness]. | at present there is a steady rise in african sleeping sickness (trypanosomiasis) transmitted by the tsetse fly, and which if left untreated, is fatal. thanks to more than so years of neglect by research, our therapeutic repertoire is limited to medications with a high level of toxicity. both who and international aid organizations are pushing hard for the development of new, more efficient drugs that can be readily applied in the field. | 2006 | 17036906 |
| depletion of the thioredoxin homologue tryparedoxin impairs antioxidative defence in african trypanosomes. | in trypanosomes, the thioredoxin-type protein txn (tryparedoxin) is a multi-purpose oxidoreductase that is involved in the detoxification of hydroperoxides, the synthesis of dna precursors and the replication of the kinetoplastid dna. african trypanosomes possess two isoforms that are localized in the cytosol and in the mitochondrion of the parasites respectively. here we report on the biological significance of the ctxn (cytosolic txn) of trypanosoma brucei for hydroperoxide detoxification. dep ... | 2007 | 17040206 |
| protein tyrosine phosphatase tbptp1: a molecular switch controlling life cycle differentiation in trypanosomes. | differentiation in african trypanosomes (trypanosoma brucei) entails passage between a mammalian host, where parasites exist as a proliferative slender form or a g0-arrested stumpy form, and the tsetse fly. stumpy forms arise at the peak of each parasitaemia and are committed to differentiation to procyclic forms that inhabit the tsetse midgut. we have identified a protein tyrosine phosphatase (tbptp1) that inhibits trypanosome differentiation. consistent with a tyrosine phosphatase, recombinant ... | 2006 | 17043136 |
| molecular aspects of viviparous reproductive biology of the tsetse fly (glossina morsitans morsitans): regulation of yolk and milk gland protein synthesis. | tsetse fly (diptera: glossinidae) viviparous reproductive physiology remains to be explored at the molecular level. adult females carry their young in utero for the duration of embryonic and larval development, all the while supplying their offspring with nutrients in the form of a "milk" substance secreted from a modified accessory gland. flies give birth to fully developed third instar larvae that pupariate shortly after birth. here, we describe the spatial and temporal expression dynamics of ... | 2006 | 17046784 |
| gis and multiple-criteria evaluation for the optimisation of tsetse fly eradication programmes. | tsetse flies are the vectors of trypanosomes, the causal agent of trypanosomiasis, a widespread disease of livestock and people in africa. control of tsetse may open vast areas of land to livestock-keeping, with the associated benefits of developing mixed crop-livestock production systems. however, as well as possible positive impacts there are also risks: bush clearing would accelerate and cattle numbers would rise, leading to a reduction of vegetation cover, and an increase in runoff and erosi ... | 2007 | 17058018 |
| cyclical transmission of trypanosoma brucei gambiense in glossina palpalis gambiensis displays great differences among field isolates. | six sets of teneral glossina palpalis gambiensis (diptera: glossinidae) were fed on mice infected with six different isolates of trypanosoma brucei gambiense (each mouse was infected with one of the isolates), previously isolated from patients in the sleeping sickness focus of bonon, côte d'ivoire and in makoua, congo. all the tsetse flies were dissected 42 days post-infection and midgut and salivary glands were examined for trypanosomes by microscopical examination. no infection was observed wi ... | 2006 | 17069743 |
| molecular characterization of iron binding proteins from glossina morsitans morsitans (diptera: glossinidae). | the regulation of iron is critical for maintaining homeostasis in the tsetse fly (diptera: glossinidae), in which both adult sexes are strict blood feeders. we have characterized the cdnas for two putative iron-binding proteins (ibps) involved in transport and storage; transferrin (gmmtsf1) and ferritin from glossina morsitans morsitans. gmmtsf1 transcripts are detected in the female fat body and in adult reproductive tissues, and only in the adult developmental stage in a bloodmeal independent ... | 2006 | 17098167 |
| new polymorphic microsatellites in glossina pallidipes (diptera: glossinidae) and their cross-amplification in other tsetse fly taxa. | we report the development and characterization of three new microsatellite markers in the tsetse fly, glossina pallidipes (diptera: glossinidae). fifty-eight alleles were scored in 192 individuals representing six natural populations. allelic diversity ranged from 9 to 28 alleles per locus (mean 19.3 +/- 5.5). averaged across loci, observed heterozygosity was 0.581 +/- 0.209, and expected heterozygosity was 0.619 +/- 0.181. cross-species amplifications of the g. pallidipes loci in other tsetse f ... | 2006 | 17103047 |
| dynamics of reductive genome evolution in mitochondria and obligate intracellular microbes. | reductive evolution in mitochondria and obligate intracellular microbes has led to a significant reduction in their genome size and guanine plus cytosine content (gc). we show that genome shrinkage during reductive evolution in prokaryotes follows an exponential decay pattern and provide a method to predict the extent of this decay on an evolutionary timescale. we validated predictions by comparison with estimated extents of genome reduction known to have occurred in mitochondria and buchnera ap ... | 2007 | 17108184 |
| tsetse control in cattle from pyrethroid footbaths. | in burkina faso, we assessed the efficacy of treating cattle with a footbath containing aqueous formulations of pyrethroids to control two tsetse-fly species, glossina tachinoides westwood, 1850 (diptera, glossinidae) and glossina palpalis gambiensis vanderplank 1949. legs were the most targeted parts of the body for tsetse-fly blood meals: 81% (95% ci: 73, 89) for g. tachinoides and 88% (81, 95) for g. palpalis. the in-stable efficacy of footbath treatments was compared with manual full sprayin ... | 2007 | 17126431 |
| bovine transcriptome analysis by sage technology during an experimental trypanosoma congolense infection. | in central and sub-saharan africa, trypanosomosis is a tsetse fly-transmitted disease, which is considered as the most important impediment to livestock production in the region. however, several indigenous west african taurine breeds (bos taurus) present remarkable tolerance to the infection. this genetic capability, named trypanotolerance, results from numerous biological mechanisms most probably under multigenic dependences, among which are control of the trypanosome infection by limitation o ... | 2006 | 17135528 |
| the effect of starvation on the susceptibility of teneral and non-teneral tsetse flies to trypanosome infection. | transmission of vector-borne diseases depends largely on the ability of the insect vector to become infected with the parasite. in tsetse flies, newly emerged or teneral flies are considered the most likely to develop a mature, infective trypanosome infection. this was confirmed during experimental infections where laboratory-reared glossina morsitans morsitans westwood (diptera: glossinidae) were infected with trypanosoma congolense or t. brucei brucei. the ability of mature adult tsetse flies ... | 2006 | 17199750 |
| selective use of odour-baited, insecticide-treated targets to control tsetse flies glossina austeni and g. brevipalpis in south africa. | the effectiveness of odour-baited targets treated with 0.8% deltamethrin in controlling glossina austeni newstead and g. brevipalpis newstead (diptera: glossinidae) was evaluated in zululand, south africa. targets were initially deployed in the three habitat types (grassland, woodland and forest) of two adjacent areas at a density of four targets per km(2). one area functioned as the treatment block (c. 35 km(2)) and included the focus of the target deployment, and the second area functioned as ... | 2006 | 17199759 |
| replication of flock house virus in three genera of medically important insects. | flock house virus (family nodaviridae, genus alphanodavirus, fhv) was originally isolated from grass grubs costelytra zealandica (white) (coleoptera: scarabaeidae) in new zealand and belongs to a family of divided genome, plus-sense rna insect viruses. fhv replicates in insects, a nematode, plants, and yeast. we previously reported replication of fhv in four genera of mosquitoes and expression of green fluorescent protein in aedes aegypti (l.) produced by an fhv-based vector. we report here that ... | 2007 | 17294927 |
| factors affecting trypanosome maturation in tsetse flies. | trypanosoma brucei brucei infections which establish successfully in the tsetse fly midgut may subsequently mature into mammalian infective trypanosomes in the salivary glands. this maturation is not automatic and the control of these events is complex. utilising direct in vivo feeding experiments, we report maturation of t. b. brucei infections in tsetse is regulated by antioxidants as well as environmental stimuli. dissection of the maturation process provides opportunities to develop transmis ... | 2007 | 17318257 |
| characterization of the role of the receptors pex5 and pex7 in the import of proteins into glycosomes of trypanosoma brucei. | peroxins 5 and 7 are receptors for protein import into the peroxisomal matrix. we studied the involvement of these peroxins in the biogenesis of glycosomes in the protozoan parasite trypanosoma brucei. glycosomes are peroxisome-like organelles in which a major part of the glycolytic pathway is sequestered. we here report the characterization of the t. brucei homologue of pex7 and provide several data strongly suggesting that it can bind to pex5. depletion of pex5 or pex7 by rna interference had ... | 2007 | 17320990 |
| livestock farmers' perception and epidemiology of bovine trypanosomosis in kwale district, kenya. | we did cross-sectional surveys in kwale district, kenya to determine the epidemiology of bovine trypanosomosis and livestock owners' perceptions of the disease. the surveys involved relative importance of trypanosomosis, examination of the current disease constraints, current control practices and drug-use patterns. informal meetings were held with farmers and cattle census undertaken. tsetse-fly densities and trypanosomosis prevalences in cattle were determined. a total of 132 farmers were inte ... | 2007 | 17324481 |
| human african trypanosomiasis transmission, kinshasa, democratic republic of congo. | to investigate the epidemiology of human african trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) in kinshasa, democratic republic of congo, 2 entomologic surveys were conducted in 2005. trypanosoma brucei gambiense and human-blood meals were found in tsetse fly midguts, which suggested active disease transmission. vector control should be used to improve human african trypanosomiasis control efforts. | 2006 | 17326955 |
| troglitazone induces differentiation in trypanosoma brucei. | trypanosoma brucei, a protozoan parasite causing sleeping sickness, is transmitted by the tsetse fly and undergoes a complex lifecycle including several defined stages within the insect vector and its mammalian host. in the latter, differentiation from the long slender to the short stumpy form is induced by a yet unknown factor of trypanosomal origin. here we describe that some thiazolidinediones are also able to induce differentiation. in higher eukaryotes, thiazolidinediones are involved in me ... | 2007 | 17428467 |
| sample preparation for chromatography: an african perspective. | africa as a continent has its unique challenges for analytical chemists in sample preparation for chromatographic analyses. the areas of agriculture, environment, food and health provide formidable challenges when it comes to method development, for example, drought can result in inadequate supplies of good quality water. the testing of water quality necessitates the development of assay methods that can be employed to not only determine the quantities of pesticides associated with malaria and t ... | 2007 | 17459398 |
| molecular aspects of transferrin expression in the tsetse fly (glossina morsitans morsitans). | iron is an essential element for metabolic processes intrinsic to life, and yet the properties that make iron a necessity also make it potentially deleterious. to avoid harm, iron homeostasis is achieved via proteins involved in transport and storage of iron, one of which is transferrin. we describe the temporal and spatial aspects of transferrin (gmmtsf) expression and its transcriptional regulation in tsetse where both the male and female are strictly hematophagous. using northern, western and ... | 2007 | 17498733 |
| patterns of co-evolution between trypanosomes and their hosts deduced from ribosomal rna and protein-coding gene phylogenies. | trypanosomes (genus trypanosoma) are widespread blood parasites of vertebrates, usually transmitted by arthropod or leech vectors. most trypanosomes have lifecycles that alternate between a vertebrate host, where they exist in the bloodstream, and an invertebrate host, where they develop in the alimentary tract. this raises the question of whether one type of host has had greater influence on the evolution of the genus. working from the generally accepted view that trypanosomes are monophyletic, ... | 2007 | 17513135 |