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Fitting experimental transcription data with a comprehensive template-dependent modular kinetic model.In the companion article, we developed a modular scheme for representing the kinetics of transcription elongation by RNA polymerase. As an example of how to use these approaches, in this article we use a comprehensive modular model of this sort to fit experimental transcript elongation results obtained on the canonical tR2 template of phage ? by means of complementary bulk gel electrophoresis and surface plasmon resonance assays. The gel electrophoresis results, obtained in experiments quenched ...201121889454
Structural and functional insight into the mechanism of an alkaline exonuclease from Laribacter hongkongensis.Alkaline exonuclease and single-strand DNA (ssDNA) annealing proteins (SSAPs) are key components of DNA recombination and repair systems within many prokaryotes, bacteriophages and virus-like genetic elements. The recently sequenced ß-proteobacterium Laribacter hongkongensis (strain HLHK9) encodes putative homologs of alkaline exonuclease (LHK-Exo) and SSAP (LHK-Bet) proteins on its 3.17 Mb genome. Here, we report the biophysical, biochemical and structural characterization of recombinant LHK-Ex ...201121893587
fractal dimension of an intrinsically disordered protein: small-angle x-ray scattering and computational study of the bacteriophage λ n protein.small-angle x-ray scattering (saxs) was used to characterize the bacteriophage λ n protein, a 107 residue intrinsically disordered protein (idp) that functions as a transcriptional antitermination factor. the saxs data were used to estimate both the average radius of gyration and the fractal dimension, a measure of the protein's internal scaling properties, under a variety of solution conditions. in the absence of denaturants, the radius of gyration was 38 ± 3.5 å and the fractal dimension was 1 ...201121936008
the protein interaction map of bacteriophage lambda.bacteriophage lambda is a model phage for most other dsdna phages and has been studied for over 60 years. although it is probably the best-characterized phage there are still about 20 poorly understood open reading frames in its 48-kb genome. for a complete understanding we need to know all interactions among its proteins. we have manually curated the lambda literature and compiled a total of 33 interactions that have been found among lambda proteins. we set out to find out how many protein-prot ...201121943085
reengineering cro protein functional specificity with an evolutionary code.cro proteins from different lambdoid bacteriophages are extremely variable in their target consensus dna sequences and constitute an excellent model for evolution of transcription factor specificity. we experimentally tested a bioinformatically derived evolutionary code relating switches between pairs of amino acids at three recognition helix sites in cro proteins to switches between pairs of nucleotide bases in the cognate consensus dna half-sites. we generated all eight possible code variants ...201121945527
[verification of a decrease in the rigidity of the phage lambda dna polymeric chain in low ionic strength aqueous solutions by testing the polymer-polymer interlink interactions].changes in the rigidity of the polymetric chain of phage lambda double-strand dna have been studied by laser correlation spectroscopy. it was shown that, as the ionic strength increases, the effect of the screening of the hydrodynamic interaction of the links of the polymeric chain specific for polymeric coils arises in a dna solution. it is assumed that the screening occurs when the threshold of the overlapping of dna coils is achieved. the overlapping of coils is the result of a previously obs ...201121950067
[anaerobic synthesis of succinic acid by escherichia coli strains with activated nad+ reducing pyruvate dehydrogenase complex].effect of constitutive expression of the aceef-lpda operon genes coding for the enzymes of nad+ reducing pyruvate dehydrogenase complex on the anaerobic production of succinic acids from glucose by recombinant escherichia coli strains was studied. basic producer strains were obtained by inactivation of the main pathways for synthesis of acetic and lactic acids by deletion of the genes acka, pta, poxb, and ldha (sgmo.1) in e. coli strain mg 1655 cells and additional introduction of the bacillus s ...201121950115
Deletion of one nucleotide within the homonucleotide tract present in the hsdS gene alters the DNA sequence specificity of type I restriction-modification system NgoAV.As a result of a frameshift mutation, the hsdS locus of the NgoAV type IC restriction and modification (RM) system comprises two genes, hsdS(NgoAV1) and hsdS(NgoAV2). The specificity subunit, HsdS(NgoAV), the product of the hsdS(NgoAV1) gene, is a naturally truncated form of an archetypal specificity subunit (208 N-terminal amino acids instead of 410). The presence of a homonucleotide tract of seven guanines (poly[G]) at the 3' end of the hsdS(NgoAV1) gene makes the NgoAV system a strong candida ...201121984785
robert a. weisberg (1937-2011).robert weisberg died suddenly and unexpectedly on 1 september 2011. bob was a major contributor to the study of bacteriophage lambda, and he made seminal contributions to our understanding of site-specific recombination and transcription termination. he was also an exceptional citizen of the microbial community, serving as an editor for both the journal of virology (1983 to 1988) and the journal of bacteriology (1985 to 1995). he will certainly be missed. max gottesman wrote the following tribut ...201121984787
Chemical coupling as a potent strategy for preparation of targeted bacteriophage-derived gene nanocarriers into eukaryotic cells.The ability to direct efficiently and specifically carriers toward target cells and express the transgene of interest is a critical step in gene therapy trails. The display of targeting molecules on the surface of phage particles might represent a potent solution. In the present study, we evaluated a chemical coupling strategy for displaying human holotransferrin as a targeting molecule on the surface of phage lambda particles for specifically delivering green fluorescent protein (GFP) encoding ...201122002551
Active Bax and Bak are functional holins.The mechanism of Bax/Bak-dependent mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP), a central apoptotic event primarily controlled by the Bcl-2 family proteins, remains not well understood. Here, we express active Bax/Bak in bacteria, the putative origin of mitochondria, and examine their functional similarities to the ? bacteriophage (?) holin. As critical effectors for bacterial lysis, holin oligomers form membrane lesions, through which endolysin, a muralytic enzyme, escapes the cytoplas ...201122006182
Following cell-fate in E. coli after infection by phage lambda.The system comprising bacteriophage (phage) lambda and the bacterium E. coli has long served as a paradigm for cell-fate determination. Following the simultaneous infection of the cell by a number of phages, one of two pathways is chosen: lytic (virulent) or lysogenic (dormant). We recently developed a method for fluorescently labeling individual phages, and were able to examine the post-infection decision in real-time under the microscope, at the level of individual phages and cells. Here, we d ...201122025187
bacteria-based in vivo peptide library screening using biopanning approach.traditionally, library screening has been performed to identify biologically active agents including small molecules or peptides that inhibit target proteins or molecules with therapeutic interests. due to its chemical nature, library screening is usually performed under in vitro environments using purified proteins and molecules. however, active agents identified from in vitro screenings often fail to exhibit biological activities in cells. to overcome this inherent limitation, we have develope ...201122068505
gold micro-flowers: one-step fabrication of efficient, highly reproducible surface-enhanced raman spectroscopy platform.we present a new method enabling simultaneous synthesis and deposition of gold micro-flowers (aumfs) on solid substrates in a one-pot process that uses two reagents, auric acid and hydroxylamine hydrochloride, in aqueous reaction mixture. the aumfs deposited onto the substrate form mechanically stable gold layer of expanded nanostructured surface. the morphology of the aumfs depends on and can be controlled by the composition of the reaction solution as well as by the reaction time. the nanostru ...201122081763
revisiting the nmr structure of the ultrafast downhill folding protein gpw from bacteriophage λ.gpw is a 68-residue protein from bacteriophage λ that participates in virus head morphogenesis. previous nmr studies revealed a novel α+β fold for this protein. recent experiments have shown that gpw folds in microseconds by crossing a marginal free energy barrier (i.e., downhill folding). these features make gpw a highly desirable target for further experimental and computational folding studies. as a step in that direction, we have re-determined the high-resolution structure of gpw by multidim ...201122087227
challenging packaging limits and infectivity of phage λthe terminase motors of bacteriophages have been shown to be among the strongest active machines in the biomolecular world, being able to package several tens of kilobase pairs of viral genome into a capsid within minutes. yet, these motors are hindered at the end of the packaging process by the progressive buildup of a force-resisting packaging associated with already packaged dna. in this experimental work, we raise the issue of what sets the upper limit on the length of the genome that can be ...201122108169
Logical Modelling of Gene Regulatory Networks with GINsim.Discrete mathematical formalisms are well adapted to model large biological networks, for which detailed kinetic data are scarce. This chapter introduces the reader to a well-established qualitative (logical) framework for the modelling of regulatory networks. Relying on GINsim, a software implementing this logical formalism, we guide the reader step by step towards the definition and the analysis of a simple model of the lysis-lysogeny decision in the bacteriophage ?.201222144167
a novel gateway®-compatible binary vector allows direct selection of recombinant clones in agrobacterium tumefaciens.abstract:201122145613
Quantification of trace-level DNA by real-time whole genome amplification.Quantification of trace amounts of DNA is a challenge in analytical applications where the concentration of a target DNA is very low or only limited amounts of samples are available for analysis. PCR-based methods including real-time PCR are highly sensitive and widely used for quantification of low-level DNA samples. However, ordinary PCR methods require at least one copy of a specific gene sequence for amplification and may not work for a sub-genomic amount of DNA. We suggest a real-time whole ...201122174862
energy-independent helicase activity of a viral genome packaging motor.the assembly of complex double-stranded dna viruses includes a genome packaging step where viral dna is translocated into the confines of a preformed procapsid shell. in most cases, the preferred packaging substrate is a linear concatemer of viral genomes linked head-to-tail. viral terminase enzymes are responsible for both excision of an individual genome from the concatemer (dna maturation) and translocation of the duplex into the capsid (dna packaging). bacteriophage λ terminase site-specific ...201122191393
The ß-conglycinin deficiency in wild soybean is associated with the tail-to-tail inverted repeat of the a-subunit genes.ß-Conglycinin, a major seed protein in soybean, is composed of a, a', and ß subunits sharing a high homology among them. Despite its many health benefits, ß-conglycinin has a lower amino acid score and lower functional gelling properties compared to glycinin, another major soybean seed protein. In addition, the a, a', and ß subunits also contain major allergens. A wild soybean (Glycine soja Sieb et Zucc.) line, 'QT2', lacks all of the ß-conglycinin subunits, and the deficien ...201122193750
effects of macromolecular crowding on genetic networks.the intracellular environment is crowded with proteins, dna, and other macromolecules. under physiological conditions, macromolecular crowding can alter both molecular diffusion and the equilibria of bimolecular reactions and therefore is likely to have a significant effect on the function of biochemical networks. we propose a simple way to model the effects of macromolecular crowding on biochemical networks via an appropriate scaling of bimolecular association and dissociation rates. we use thi ...201122208186
Peptide vaccination is superior to genetic vaccination using a recombineered bacteriophage ? subunit vaccine.Genetic immunization holds promise as a vaccination method, but has so far proven ineffective in large primate and human trials. Herein, we examined the relative merits of genetic immunization and peptide immunization using bacteriophage ?. Bacteriophage ? has proven effective in immune challenge models using both immunization methods, but there has never been a direct comparison of efficacy and of the quality of immune response. In the current study, this vector was produced using a combination ...201122210400
plug-and-play, infrared, laser-mediated pcr in a microfluidic chip.microfluidic polymerase chain reaction (pcr) systems have set milestones for small volume (100 nl-5 μl), amplification speed (100-400 s), and on-chip integration of upstream and downstream sample handling including purification and electrophoretic separation functionality. in practice, the microfluidic chips in these systems require either insertion of thermocouples or calibration prior to every amplification. these factors can offset the speed advantages of microfluidic pcr and have likely hind ...201222218821
logical stochastic resonance with correlated internal and external noises in a synthetic biological logic block.following the advent of synthetic biology, several gene networks have been engineered to emulate digital devices, with the ability to program cells for different applications. in this work, we adapt the concept of logical stochastic resonance to a synthetic gene network derived from a bacteriophage λ. the intriguing results of this study show that it is possible to build a biological logic block that can emulate or switch from the and to the or gate functionalities through externally tuning the ...201122225395
repeatability and contingency in the evolution of a key innovation in phage lambda.the processes responsible for the evolution of key innovations, whereby lineages acquire qualitatively new functions that expand their ecological opportunities, remain poorly understood. we examined how a virus, bacteriophage λ, evolved to infect its host, escherichia coli, through a novel pathway. natural selection promoted the fixation of mutations in the virus's host-recognition protein, j, that improved fitness on the original receptor, lamb, and set the stage for other mutations that allowe ...201222282803
competing pathways control host resistance to virus via trna modification and programmed ribosomal frameshifting.viral infection depends on a complex interplay between host and viral factors. here, we link host susceptibility to viral infection to a network encompassing sulfur metabolism, trna modification, competitive binding, and programmed ribosomal frameshifting (prf). we first demonstrate that the iron-sulfur cluster biosynthesis pathway in escherichia coli exerts a protective effect during lambda phage infection, while a trna thiolation pathway enhances viral infection. we show that trna(lys) uridine ...201222294093
thermodynamic characterization of viral procapsid expansion into a functional capsid shell.the assembly of "complex" dna viruses such as the herpesviruses and many tailed bacteriophages includes a dna packaging step where the viral genome is inserted into a preformed procapsid shell. packaging triggers a remarkable capsid expansion transition that results in thinning of the shell and an increase in capsid volume to accept the full-length genome. this transition is considered irreversible; however, here we demonstrate that the phage λ procapsid can be expanded with urea in vitro and th ...201222365932
site-specific binding of short peptides with dna modulated eukaryotic endonuclease activity.short peptides (2-4 amino acid residues) inhibit or stimulate hydrolysis of λ phage dna by eukaryotic endonucleases wen1 and wen2 depending on dna methylation status. peptide modulation of endonucleases activity most likely appears as a result of their binding to dna. peptides discriminate (recognize) not only certain dna sequences, but also their methylation status. apart from intact dna, the test peptides bind to single-stranded dna structures (oligonucleotides) containing ng- and cg-sites met ...201122442805
improved quantitative pcr protocols for adenovirus and cmv with an internal inhibition control system and automated nucleic acid isolation.with the establishment of routine virus load (dnaemia) screening for human adenovirus (hadv) and cytomegalovirus (cmv) in post-transplant care quality standards for quantitative pcr-assays are increasing. established real-time pcr assays were improved with a fully automated dna-extraction and with a competitive internal control dna packaged into a lambda phage which serves as an extraction and amplification control in each sample. hadv and cmv dna were detected and quantified simultaneously in v ...201222499011
canine hepacivirus ns3 serine protease can cleave the human adaptor proteins mavs and trif.canine hepacivirus (chv) was recently identified in domestic dogs and horses. the finding that chv is genetically the virus most closely related to hepatitis c virus (hcv) has raised the question of whether hcv might have evolved as the result of close contact between dogs and/or horses and humans. the aim of this study was to investigate whether the ns3/4a serine protease of chv specifically cleaves human mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein (mavs) and toll-il-1 receptor domain-containing ...201222870331
graphical analysis of flow cytometer data for characterizing controlled fluorescent protein display on λ phage.as native virus particles typically cannot be resolved using a flow cytometer, the general practice is to use fluorescent dyes to label the particles. in this work, an attempt was made to use a common commercial flow cytometer to characterize a phage display strategy that allows for controlled levels of protein display, in this case, egfp. to achieve this characterization, a number of data processing steps were needed to ensure that the observed phenomena were indeed capturing differences in the ...201223027705
recombinant λ bacteriophage displaying nanobody towards third domain of her-2 epitope inhibits proliferation of breast carcinoma skbr-3 cell line.phage display of many nanobodies via filamentous phage in combination with helper phage has been reported by many scientists. the aim of this study was to produce lambda (λ) bacteriophage displaying high-affinity nanobody against her-2 expressing breast carcinoma cells. bacteriophage λ is a temperate phage with inherent biological safety in mammalian cells. here we report the construction of a recombinant λ phage that efficiently expresses specific nanobody towards third domain of her-2 target o ...201323224340
hsm - a hybrid system based approach for modelling intracellular networks.the paper proposes a hybrid system based approach for modelling of intracellular networks and introduces a restricted subclass of hybrid systems - hsm - with an objective of still being able to provide sufficient power for the modelling of biological systems, while imposing some restrictions that facilitate analysis of systems described by such models. the use of hybrid system based models has become increasingly popular, likely due to the facts that: 1) they provide sufficiently powerful mathem ...201223266641
recovery of small dna fragments from serum using compaction precipitation.while most nucleic acids are intracellular, trace amounts of deoxyribonucleic acid (dna) and ribonucleic acid (rna), including micro rnas, can also be found in peripheral blood. many studies have suggested the potential utility of these circulating nucleic acids in prenatal diagnosis, early cancer detection, and the diagnosis of infectious diseases. however, dna circulating in blood is usually present at very low concentrations (ng/ml), and is in the form of relatively small fragments (<1,000 bp ...201223284792
capstan friction model for dna ejection from bacteriophages.bacteriophages infect cells by attaching to the outer membrane and injecting their dna into the cell. the phage dna is then transcribed by the cell's transcription machinery. a number of physical mechanisms by which dna can be translocated from the phage capsid into the cell have been identified. a fast ejection driven by the elastic and electrostatic potential energy of the compacted dna within the viral capsid appears to be used by most phages, at least to initiate infection. in recent in vitr ...201223368388
chemical mapping of dna and counter-ion content inside phage by energy-filtered tem.double-stranded dna in many bacterial viruses (phage) is strongly confined, which results in internal genome pressures of tens of atmospheres. this pressure is strongly dependent on local ion concentration and distribution within the viral capsid. here, we have used electron energy loss spectroscopy (eels), energy-filtered tem (eftem) and x-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy to provide such chemical information from the capsid and the phage tail through which dna is injected into the cell. to ac ...201123449697
expression, purification, and characterization of authentic mouse prolactin obtained in escherichia coli periplasmic space.prolactin (prl) is a pleiotropic hormone produced by lactotroph cells of the anterior pituitary gland and is mainly related to lactation control and reproduction. recombinant mouse prolactin (r-mprl), never obtained in its authentic form, can be very useful for research and tests in animal models, in which human prolactin (hprl) is usually employed in a heterologous mode. synthesis of r-mprl was carried out here via secretion in escherichia coli periplasmic space using a plasmid containing mprl ...201223586827
λ phage nanobioparticle expressing apoptin efficiently suppress human breast carcinoma tumor growth in vivo.using phages is a novel field of cancer therapy and phage nanobioparticles (nbps) such as λ phage could be modified to deliver and express genetic cassettes into eukaryotic cells safely in contrast with animal viruses. apoptin, a protein from chicken anemia virus (cav) has the ability to specifically induce apoptosis only in carcinoma cells. we presented a safe method of breast tumor therapy via the apoptin expressing λ nbps. here, we constructed a λ zap-cmv-apoptin recombinant nbp and investiga ...201324278212
a touch of glue to complete bacteriophage assembly: the tail-to-head joining protein (thjp) family.bacteriophage spp1 is a nanomachine built to infect the bacterium bacillus subtilis. the phage particle is composed of an icosahedric capsid, which contains the viral dna, and a long non-contractile tail. capsids and tails are produced in infected cells by two distinct morphogenetic pathways. characterization of the suppressor-sensitive mutant spp1sus82 showed that it produces dna-filled capsids and tails but is unable to assemble complete virions. its purified tails have a normal length but lac ...201424443902
stochastic holin expression can account for lysis time variation in the bacteriophage λ.the inherent stochastic nature of biochemical processes can drive differences in gene expression between otherwise identical cells. while cell-to-cell variability in gene expression has received much attention, randomness in timing of events has been less studied. we investigate event timing at the single-cell level in a simple system, the lytic pathway of the bacterial virus phage λ. in individual cells, lysis occurs on average at 65 min, with an s.d. of 3.5 min. interestingly, mutations in the ...201424718449
enhanced cell immune responses to hepatitis c virus core by novel heterologous dna prime/lambda nanoparticles boost in mice.hepatitis c virus (hcv) is a worldwide problem which does not have an effective vaccine and more than 170 million people worldwide are chronically infected by hcv. t cell responses are associated with spontaneous clearance of hcv infection. we report here the development of recombinant lambda bacteriophage nanoparticles encoding hcv core antigen. the aim of this study was to investigate the antigen-specific immune responses triggered in mice by different prime-boost combinations of dna and lambd ...201424752903
recombination promoted by dna viruses: phage λ to herpes simplex virus.the purpose of this review is to explore recombination strategies in dna viruses. homologous recombination is a universal genetic process that plays multiple roles in the biology of all organisms, including viruses. recombination and dna replication are interconnected, with recombination being essential for repairing dna damage and supporting replication of the viral genome. recombination also creates genetic diversity, and viral recombination mechanisms have important implications for understan ...201425002096
bacteriophage spp1 tail tube protein self-assembles into β-structure-rich tubes.the majority of known bacteriophages have long tails that serve for bacterial target recognition and viral dna delivery into the host. these structures form a tube from the viral capsid to the bacterial cell. the tube is formed primarily by a helical array of tail tube protein (ttp) subunits. in phages with a contractile tail, the ttp tube is surrounded by a sheath structure. here, we report the first evidence that a phage ttp, gp17.1 of siphophage spp1, self-assembles into long tubes in the abs ...201525525268
bacteriophage lambda: early pioneer and still relevant.molecular genetic research on bacteriophage lambda carried out during its golden age from the mid-1950s to mid-1980s was critically important in the attainment of our current understanding of the sophisticated and complex mechanisms by which the expression of genes is controlled, of dna virus assembly and of the molecular nature of lysogeny. the development of molecular cloning techniques, ironically instigated largely by phage lambda researchers, allowed many phage workers to switch their effor ...201525742714
exploring the balance between dna pressure and capsid stability in herpesviruses and phages.we have recently shown in both herpesviruses and phages that packaged viral dna creates a pressure of tens of atmospheres pushing against the interior capsid wall. for the first time, using differential scanning microcalorimetry, we directly measured the energy powering the release of pressurized dna from the capsid. furthermore, using a new calorimetric assay to accurately determine the temperature inducing dna release, we found a direct influence of internal dna pressure on the stability of th ...201526136570
influence of internal dna pressure on stability and infectivity of phage λ.viruses must remain infectious while in harsh extracellular environments. an important aspect of viral particle stability for double-stranded dna viruses is the energetically unfavorable state of the tightly confined dna chain within the virus capsid creating pressures of tens of atmospheres. here, we study the influence of internal genome pressure on the thermal stability of viral particles. using differential scanning calorimetry to monitor genome loss upon heating, we find that internal press ...201526254570
carriage of λ latent virus is costly for its bacterial host due to frequent reactivation in monoxenic mouse intestine.temperate phages, the bacterial viruses able to enter in a dormant prophage state in bacterial genomes, are present in the majority of bacterial strains for which the genome sequence is available. although these prophages are generally considered to increase their hosts' fitness by bringing beneficial genes, studies demonstrating such effects in ecologically relevant environments are relatively limited to few bacterial species. here, we investigated the impact of prophage carriage in the gastroi ...201626871586
why be temperate: lessons from bacteriophage λ.many pathogens have evolved the ability to induce latent infections of their hosts. the bacteriophage λ is a classical model for exploring the regulation and the evolution of latency. here, i review recent experimental studies on phage λ that identify specific conditions promoting the evolution of lysogenic life cycles. in addition, i present specific adaptations of phage λ that allow this virus to react plastically to variations in the environment and to reactivate its lytic life cycle. all of ...201626946976
dna topology and the initiation of virus dna packaging.during progeny assembly, viruses selectively package virion genomes from a nucleic acid pool that includes host nucleic acids. for large dsdna viruses, including tailed bacteriophages and herpesviruses, immature viral dna is recognized and translocated into a preformed icosahedral shell, the prohead. recognition involves specific interactions between the viral packaging enzyme, terminase, and viral dna recognition sites. generally, viral dna is recognized by terminase's small subunit (ters). the ...201627144448
ecological speciation of bacteriophage lambda in allopatry and sympatry.understanding the conditions that allow speciation to occur is difficult because most research has focused on either long-lived organisms or asexual microorganisms. we propagated bacteriophage λ, a virus with rapid generations and frequent recombination, on two escherichia coli host genotypes that expressed either the lamb or ompf receptor. when supplied with either single host (allopatry), phage λ improved its binding to the available receptor while losing its ability to use the alternative. wh ...201627884940
fragmentation of the crispr-cas type i-b signature protein cas8b.crispr arrays are transcribed into long precursor rna species, which are further processed into mature crispr rnas (crrnas). cas proteins utilize these crrnas, which contain spacer sequences that can be derived from mobile genetic elements, to mediate immunity during a reoccurring virus infection. type i crispr-cas systems are defined by the presence of different cascade interference complexes containing large and small subunits that play major roles during target dna selection.201728238733
display of hiv-1 envelope protein on lambda phage scaffold as a vaccine platform.the generation of a strong antibody response to target antigens is a major goal for vaccine development. here we describe the display of the human immunodeficiency virus (hiv) envelope spike protein (env) on a virus-like scaffold provided by the lambda phage capsid. phage vectors, in general, have advantages over mammalian virus vectors due to their genetic tractability, inexpensive production, suitability for scale-up, as well as their physical stability, making them an attractive vaccine platf ...201728374253
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